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Apr 22­6:56 PM

Chapter 6 (Lithosphere & Hydrosphere), Chapter 7 (Atmosphere & Space), and

Chapter 8 (The Biosphere) Review

Apr 22­6:57 PM

The lithosphere consists of the Earth's crust and the topmost part of the upper mantle, two layers forming the external structure of our planet.

The lithosphere contains minerals and rocks that have been essential to the development of human civilization. It is the source of building materials, metals of all kinds and even precious stones for jewellery. 

The Lithosphere 

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Apr 22­6:58 PM

Minerals are solid substances with clearly defined properties. 

Properties of Minerals: ­ Hardness (resistance to scratching, given a value from 1 to 10  which is  Mohs scale)­ Colour (what is the colour of the mineral) ­ Transparency (does is allow light to pass through?)­ Streak (powder trace obtained by rubbing the mineral on a surface of porcelain) 

Queson: How could you tell between different minerals?

Apr 22­6:59 PM

Rocks are solids composed of many minerals. Types of rocks: • Igneous Rocks: created through cooling of magma. 

Extrusive Igneous Rocks: formed above the surface (with contact with air) Intrusive Igneous Rocks: formed below the surface 

• Sedimentary Rocks: created by sediments (pieces) of other rocks forming together. 

• Metamorphic Rocks: created by former igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been transformed by heat or pressure. 

Ore is a naturally occurring mineral containing a valuable constuent (as metal) for which it is mined and worked.

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Apr 22­7:01 PM

Soil

For soil to be ferle  it must have: 

‐ An adequate pH level ‐ A certain amount of moisture‐ A sufficient amount of minerals

Apr 22­7:09 PM

Permafrost: soil with a temperature of 0oC or below for two or more years

In some areas, the top layer of soil thaws during the summer and freezes again during the autumn. This top layer is called the active layer.

As permafrost melts, it can cause damage to construction and roads. It also releases greenhouse gases (methane) that contribute to global warming.

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Apr 22­7:09 PM

Energy from the Lithosphere

Geothermal

Energy

Advantages Disadvantages

‐ Generates few greenhouses gases

‐ Renewable energy source

‐ Installaon is very expensive

Fossil Fuels (Coal, Natural Gas and Oil)

‐ Readily available ‐ Emits greenhouse gases 

‐ Nonrenewable energy source

Nuclear Energy

‐Requires few resources for a large amount of energy

‐ Risk of nuclear accidents

‐ Produces dangerous radioacve waste

‐ Nonrenewable energy source (comes from Uranium)

Apr 22­7:09 PM

The Hydrosphere

This layer of water that envelops the Earth (on, in and above it) is called the Hydrosphere.

Remember that over two thirds of the Earth's surface is covered in water. The water fills oceans, seas, lakes and rivers. And water is also found underground, as well as in the atmosphere (in the form of vapour) and in glaciers (in the form of snow and ice).

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Apr 22­7:11 PM

Inland Waters

Inland waters consist in water found on the continents, as opposed to water found in the oceans. This water fall to earth as rain or snow, runs into streams, infiltrates the ground, seeps into natural cracks in rocks and minerals, flows into lakes and river and more.

Apr 22­7:11 PM

A watershed is an area of land whose lakes and rivers all empty into the same larger body of water. The limits of a watershed are determined by natural boundaries, formed by virtual lines along the crest of nearby mountains, hills or other high ground.

Many aspects of the surrounding land and climate can affect how water flows within a watershed, either slowing down the flow by placing obstacles in the water's path or accelerating the course.

The following are a few examples of these factors:

­ topography: the shape, slope and terrain of the area­ geology: the type, depth and structure of the rock. ­ climate: rain or snowfall, winds and temperature. ­ vegetation: its density and diversity­ agriculural, industrial and urban development

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Apr 22­7:12 PM

Important Parameters in the study of Oceans: 

• Water Temperature > The water temperature of oceans is 

influenced by the following parameters:– Depth – Seasons – Latitude 

• Salinity> The salinity (concentration of salt in 

the water) of oceans is influenced by the following parameters:– Heat and Drought– Melting Pack Ice and Glaciers

Apr 22­7:16 PM

Surface CurrentsSurface currents are mostly wind driven. These currents move horizontally, usually in the first 400 m of water below the surface.

Subsurface CurrentsAt depths of more than 800 m, winds no longer affect ocean circulation. Deep currents prevail here.

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Apr 22­7:17 PM

Thermohaline CirculationSurface and subsurface currents are closely interconnected and form a huge conveyor belt that moves water all around the world. This movement is called thermohaline circulation.

It is responsible for major transfers of heat around the world. Without it, the differences in temperature between the equator and the poles would be much more dramatic.

Apr 22­7:17 PM

The Cryosphere is the portion of the Earth's surface where water is found in solid form. It consists of pack ice, glaciers, frozen lakes and rivers, vast expanses of snow and the ice in permafrost.

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Apr 22­7:18 PM

Pack Ice: ice floating on the oceans near the North and South Poles

Glaciers: a mass of ice on land formed by compressed snow

Apr 22­7:19 PM

Hydraulic Energy: known to us as hydroelectricity 

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Apr 22­7:19 PM

The atmosphere is a layer of air that envelops the Earth. It is made up of gases that are essential to life on our planet.

The atmosphere

The gases of the atmosphere are essential for the following reasons:

1) They act as a screen, blocking out dangerous rays from the sun, such as ultraviolet rays.

2) They ensure a relatively stable climate on Earth by retaining heat.

3) They include oxygen (which is necessary for cellular respiration) and carbon dioxide (which is necessary for photosynthesis in plants).

Apr 22­7:22 PM

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Apr 22­7:23 PM

Atmospheric Circulation

Atmospheric circulation is the large­scale movement of air by which heat is distributed on the surface of the Earth.

Apr 22­7:24 PM

Air masses

Four types: Continental or Maritime                    Tropical or Polar

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Apr 22­7:28 PM

What happens when a cold air mass meets a warm one?

Cold Front 

Warm air rises rapidly and cools, which produces puffy 

clouds, wind, and heavy rain

What happens when a warm air mass meets a cold one?

Warm Front 

Warm air rises gently which brings cloudy weather and 

moderate, steady showers

Apr 22­7:29 PM

A cyclone is a tropical storm characterized by violent winds revolving around an area of low pressure. These cyclones are also called hurricanes or typhoons. 

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Apr 22­7:45 PM

Greenhouse Gases: 

CO2 

CH4 

N2O

Apr 22­7:45 PM

Greenhouse effect is needed, it's a good thing. 

However, with more green house gases in the atmosphere we are seeing an intensification of the green house effect which is causing climate change. 

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Apr 22­7:47 PM

Energy from the Atmosphere

Wind Turbines

Advantages Disadvantages‐Renewable Resource

‐ No producon of greenhouse gases

‐Visual polluon (ugly)

‐ Cannot predict how or when wind will blow. 

‐Wind energy cannot be stored. 

Solar Energy

‐Renewable Resource

‐ No producon of greenhouse gases

‐ Supplies electricity to isolated areas

‐Costly system (it's expensive)

‐ Amount of energy produced varies with the Sun's posion and cloudy condions. 

Tidal Power Plants

‐Renewable Resource

‐ Reliable source of energy

‐ Does not emit greenhouse gases

‐ Complex plants

‐ Costly system (it's expensive)

‐ Suitable sites are rare (dal range but be at least 5 m)

Apr 24­9:44 AM