chapter 7: human memory. human memory: basic questions how does information get into memory? how...
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Chapter 7: Human Memory
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Human Memory: Basic Questions
How does information get into memory?
How is information maintained in memory?
How is information pulled back out of memory?
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Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory
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Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory
The role of attention
Focusing awareness
Selective attention = selection of input
Filtering: early or late?
Multitasking
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Figure 7.3 Models of selective attention
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Levels of Processing:Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Incoming information processed at different levels
Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes
Encoding levels: Structural = shallow Phonemic = intermediate Semantic = deep
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Figure 7.4 Levels-of-processing theory
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Figure 7.5 Retention at three levels of processing
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Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory
Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding Thinking of examples
Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding
theory
Self-Referent Encoding Making information personally meaningful
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Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory
Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory
Information-processing theories
Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
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Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage
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Sensory Memory
Brief preservation of information in original sensory form
Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second
George Sperling (1960)
Classic experiment on visual sensory store
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Figure 7.8 Sperling’s (1960) study of sensory memory
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Short Term Memory (STM)
Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2
Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit
Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal
Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information
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Figure 7.9 Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study of short-term memory
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Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory”
STM not limited to phonemic encoding
Loss of information not only due to decay
Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of working memory Phonological rehearsal loop Visuospatial sketchpad Executive control system
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Working Memory Capacity
Influences ability to control focus of attention
Capacity correlates positively with measures of high-level cognitive abilities
Critical to complex cognitive processes and intelligence
Declines gradually during late adulthood
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Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity
Permanent storage?
Flashbulb memories
Recall through hypnosis
Debate: are STM and LTM really different?
Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding
Decay vs. Interference based forgetting
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How is Knowledge Representedand Organized in Memory?
Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies
Schemas and Scripts
Semantic Networks
Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
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Figure 7.13 Conceptual hierarchies and long-term memory.
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Figure 7.14 A semantic network..
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Retrieval: Getting InformationOut of Memory
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval Retrieval cues
Recalling an event Context cues
Reconstructing memories Misinformation effect
Source monitoring, reality monitoring
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Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
Retention – the proportion of material retained
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
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Figure 7.17 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables
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Figure 7.18. Recognition versus recall in the measurement of retention.
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Why Do We Forget?
Ineffective Encoding
Decay theory
Interference theory
Proactive
Retroactive
Forgetting as adaptation
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Figure 7.19 Retroactive and proactive interference
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Retrieval Failure
Encoding Specificity Transfer-Appropriate Processing Repression
Authenticity of repressed memories Memory illusions Controversy
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Figure 7.21 Estimates of the prevalence of childhood physical and sexual abuse
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Figure 7.22 The prevalence of false memories observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)
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The Physiology of Memory
Biochemistry Alteration in synaptic transmission
Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems
Protein synthesis
Neural circuitry Localized neural circuits
Reusable pathways in the brain Long-term potentiation Neurogenesis
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The Physiology of Memory
Anatomy
Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus,
Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
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Figure 7.23 The anatomy of memory
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Figure 7.24 Retrograde versus anterograde amnesia
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Are There Multiple Memory Systems?
Declarative vs. Procedural
Semantic vs. Episodic
Prospective vs. Retrospective
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Figure 7.25 Theories of independent memory systems
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Improving Everyday Memory
Engage in adequate rehearsal
Distribute practice and minimize interference
Emphasize deep processing and transfer-appropriate processing
Organize information
Use verbal mnemonics
Use visual mnemonics