chapter 7 social process theories. socialization and crime social process theories suggest...

Chapter 7

Social Process Theories

Socialization and Crime

Social process theories suggest criminality is a function of socialization

Any person regardless of race, class or gender can become criminal

Elements of family, peer group, school, and church contribute to socialization processes


• Family Relations Family plays a critical role in the determinant of behavior Parental efficacy refers to supportive parents who effectively

control their children Links between inconsistent discipline and delinquency


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• Child Abuse and Crime Linkage between child abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, and crime Children subjected to abuse are more likely to use violence in

personal interactions In nonviolent societies, parents rarely punish children physically


• Educational Experience Children who fail in school offend more frequently than those who

succeed Schools contribute to delinquency by labeling students School dropouts have a significant chance of entering a criminal

career 2003 national survey estimates about 1.5 million violent incidents

occur in public schools each year


• Peer Relations Children seek out peer groups between the ages of 8 and 14 Peer Rejection: Children rejected by peers are more likely to

display aggressive behavior Pro-social friends may inhibit criminality Peers and Criminality: Antisocial peer groups increase the

likelihood of delinquency Mark Warr suggests delinquent friends tend to be “sticky”

meaning they are not easily lost once they are acquired


• Institutional Involvement and Belief Religion binds people together Travis Hirschi and Rodney Stark found the association between

religion attendance, belief, and delinquency is insignificant Recent research contends that attending religious services is a

significant inhibitor of crime


• The Effects of Socialization on Crime Social learning theory suggests people learn techniques of

crimes from criminal peers Social control theory contends people are controlled by their

bonds to society Social reaction theory argues that society contributes to

criminality through the use of labels

Figure 7.1 The Social Processes that Control Human Behavior

Social Learning Theory

• Crime is a product of learning norms, values, and behaviors associated with criminal activity Differential Association: Edwin H. Sutherland’s view that

criminality is a function of the socialization process


• Differential Association Theory Differential Association: Edwin H. Sutherland’s view that

criminality is a function of the socialization process• Criminal behavior is learned• Learning is a by-product of interacting with others• Learning criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal

groups• Learning criminal behavior involves assimilating the

techniques of committing crime, including motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes

• The specific direction is learned from perceptions of various aspects of the legal code as favorable or unfavorable


A person becomes criminal when perceiving the consequences of violating the law as favorable

Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity

The process of learning criminal behavior involves the same mechanisms as any other learning process

Criminal behavior and noncriminal behavior express the same needs and values

Figure 7.2 Differential Associations


• Testing Differential Association Theory Difficult to conceptualize and test empirically Research does support the core principles such as links to family,

and peers with criminality


• Analysis of Differential Association Theory Fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions Assumes criminal and delinquent acts to be rational and

systematic Some suggest the theory is tautological


• Differential Reinforcement Theory Ronald Akers suggests “direct conditioning” occurs when

behavior is reinforced by rewards or punishment People evaluate their own behavior through their interactions with

significant others and groups in their lives Once people are indoctrinated into crime, their behavior can be

reinforced through peers and the lack of negative sanctions


• Testing Differential Reinforcement Studies have suggested a strong association between drug and

alcohol abuse and social learning variables Deviant behavior is reinforced over time (I.E. smoking) Parents may supply negative reinforcements to children’s deviant

behavior


• Neutralization Theory David Matza and Gresham Sykes view criminality as a process

learning neutralizing techniques Subterranean values are morally tinged influences Drift occurs from conventional behavior to criminal behavior if one

can neutralize their sense of responsibility for antisocial behavior


• Techniques of Neutralization Denial of responsibility: unlawful acts are beyond an offenders

control Denial of injury: offender’s perception is changed (i.e. stealing is

borrowing) Denial of the victim: the victim had it coming (i.e. vandalism) Condemnation of the condemners: shifting the blame to others

(i.e. society) Appeal to higher loyalties: loyalty to a higher cause (i.e. Oliver

North and Iran Contra)

Figure 7.3 Techniques of Neutralization


• Testing Neutralization Theory Empirical test results are inconclusive Not all criminal offenders approve of social values such as

honesty and fairness As Matza predicted, people do seem to drift in and out of

antisocial behavior


• Are Learning Theories Valid? Learning theories fail to explain how the first criminal learned the

necessary techniques and definitions of crime Fails to account for spontaneous crime or expressive crimes Learning of some criminality frequently occurs after one has

committed the first criminal act

Social Control Theory

• All people have potential to violate the law Self-control refers to a strong moral sense that renders a person

incapable of hurting others or violating social norms Walter Reckless argued a strong self-image insulates a person

from the criminogenic influences of the environment Howard Kaplan suggests youths with poor self-concepts are

more likely to engage in delinquent behavior (normative groups)


• Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory (social control theory) Travis Hirschi links the onset of criminality to the weakening of

the ties than bind people to society ( social bonds)• Attachment (sensitivity to and interest in others)• Commitment (time, energy, and effort into conventional

activities)• Involvement (insulates people from the lure of crime)• Belief (moral respect for law and social values)

Figure 7.4 Elements of Social Bond Theory


• Testing Social Control Theory Empirical studies revealed a strong support for Hirschi’s control

theory• Youths strongly attached to parents were less likely to commit

criminal acts• Youths involved in conventional activities were less likely to

engage in criminal behavior• Youths involved in unconventional behaviors such as drinking

and smoking were more prone to delinquency• Youths who maintained weak relationships with others moved

toward delinquency• Those who shunned unconventional acts were attached to

peers• Delinquents and nondelinquents shar similar beliefs about

society Recent research shows attachments to peers, school and family

may be interrelated


• Opposing Views Friendship: A criticism of Hirschi’s theory is the notion that

delinquents are detached loners Not all elements of the bond are equal: Some people are very

involved and not attached Deviant peers and parents: Some people are very attached to

deviant peers Restricted in scope: May not explain all modes of criminality Change bonds: Bonds seem to change over time Crime and social bonds: Direction of association might be

miscalculated in the wrong direction

Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)

• Explains criminal careers in terms of destructive social interactions and stigma-producing encounters (symbolic interaction theory) People are given a variety of symbolic labels that define the

whole person Negative labels stigmatize and reduce one’s self-image Social groups create definitions of positive and negative labels Labels may actually maintain and amplify criminal behavior


• Crime and Labeling Theory Crime and deviance are defined by the social audience Howard Becker described those making the rules as moral

entrepreneurs Social groups create deviance by labeling particular people as

“outsiders”

Figure 7.5 The Labeling Process


• Differential Enforcement Those with social power penalize the powerless Content of law reflects power relationships Street crimes punished more severely than white-collar crimes


• Consequences of Labeling Labels produce stigma Condemnation is carried out in “ceremonies” such as trials and

media attention (degradation ceremonies) Differential social control: Self-labeling involves one taking on the

attitudes and roles reflected in how a person views the way others see them

Joining deviant cliques: Some labeled people may join cliques and other outcast peers

Retrospective reading: refers to the reassessment of a person’s past to fit a current generalized label or status

Dramatization of evil: Labels become a personal identity


• Primary and Secondary Deviance Edwin Lemert defined a norm violation with little or no long-term

influence as primary deviance Secondary deviance refers to a norm violation that results in

application of a negative label with long-term consequences The process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out

of the mainstream of society is referred to as deviance amplification

Figure 7.6 Primary and Secondary Deviance


• Research on Social Reaction Theory Evidence supports the targets of labeling (poor and powerless)

are victimized by the law and justice system Contextual discrimination: refers to judges imposing harsher

sentences on minorities Empirical evidence supports that negative labels influence self-

image Cumulative disadvantage: Provokes repeat behaviors


• Is Labeling Theory Valid? Inability to specify the conditions the must exist before an act or

individual is labeled Failure to explain differences in crime rates Ignores the onset of deviant behavior Charles Tittle suggests criminal careers occur without labeling


• Evaluating Social Process Theories The branches of social process theory-social learning-social

control and social reaction are compatible Interactions of social institutions, family, schools, peers, and the

justice system are important in creating and inhibiting criminal behavior

Social process theories are not persuasive in explaining fluctuations in crime patterns

Public Policy Implications of Social Process Theory

• Learning theories have greatly influenced the way criminal offenders are treated Residential treatment programs utilize group interaction to

promote conventional behavior Head Start is a well-known program designed to help lower-class

youths achieve proper socialization Diversion programs are concerned with avoiding the stigma of a

criminal label Restitution programs permit an offender to repay the victim rather

than face the stigma of a formal trial and court-ordered sentence

chapter 7 social process theories. socialization and crime social process theories suggest...

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