COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA

*CHAPTER 7

By :

Hamid DarmadiRiris MarlenteraNursiati

POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH EDUCATION FACULTY

TANJUNGPURA UNIVERSITY

KALIMANTAN BARAT

THE FIVE PROCESS STEPS IN QUALITATIVE DATA

COLLECTIONThe five process steps in collecting qualitative data are:

*Identify the participants and sites to be studied and to be engage in a sampling strategy which you choose.

*Gain access to the individuals and sites by obtaining permissions.

*Consider what type of information will best answer your research questions.

*Design protocols or instruments for collecting and recording the information.

*Administer the data collection with special attention to potential ethical issues tthat may arise.

COMPARING BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH*RANDOM SAMPLING VS PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING

*BOTH NEED PERMISSIONS TO BEGIN STUDY THE PARTICIPANTS AND SITES

*BOTH USING INTERVIEWS, OBSERVATIONS AND DOCUMENTS TO COLLECT THE DATA

*BOTH NEED TO RECORD THE INFORMATION SUPPLIED BY THE PARTICIPANTS

*GATHERING INFORMATION FACE TO FACE VS USING ANONYMOUS QUESTIONNAIRES

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RANDOM SAMPLING AND PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING

TYPES OF PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING

When does Sampling occur?

Before Data Collection

What is the Intent?

Maximal Variation Sampling

Extreme Case Sampling

Typical Sampling

Critical Sampling

Homogeneous Sampling

Theory/Concept Sampling

After Data Collection Has

Started

What is the Intent?

Opportunistic Sampling

Confirming/Disconfirming Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Maximal Variation Sampling (a purposeful sampling strategy in which the researcher samples cases or individuals that differ on some characteristic or trait)

Extreme Case Sampling (a form of purposeful sampling in which you study an outlier case or one that displays extreme characteristics)

Typical Sampling (a form of purposeful sampling in which the researcher studies a person or site that is ‘typical’ to those unfamiliar with the situation)

Theory or Concept Sampling (a purposeful sampling strategy in which the researcher samples individuals or sites because they can help the researcher generate or discover a theory or specific concepts within the theory)

Homogeneous Sampling (the researcher purposefully samples individuals or sites based on membership in a subgroup that has defining characteristics)

Critical Sampling (to study a critical sample because it is an exceptional case and the researcher can learn much about the phenomenon)

Opportunistic Sampling (a purposeful sampling undertaken after the research begins, to take advantage of unfolding events that will help answer research questions)

Snowball Sampling (a form of purposeful sampling that typically proceeds after a study begins and occurs when the researcher asks participants to recommend other individuals to be sampled)

Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling (a purposeful strategy used during a study to follow up on specific cases to test or explore further specific findings.

Sample size or number of research sites

*It is typical in qualitative research to study a few individuals or a few cases.

*In some cases, you might study a single individual or a single site. In other cases, the number may be several, ranging from 1 or 2 to 30 or 40.

TYPES OF PERMISSION TO GAIN ACCESS TO PARTICIPANTS AND

SITESSeek Institutional Review Board Approval

Several strategies when negotiating qualitative research through the institutional review board process:

*Determine if individuals reviewing proposals on the review board are familiar with qualitative inquiry.

*Develop detailed descriptions of the procedures so that reviewers have a full disclosure of the potential risks to people and sites in the study.

*Detail ways you will protect the anonymity of participants.

*Discuss the need to respect the research site and to disturb or disrupt it as little as possible.

*Detail how the study will provide opportunities to “give back” or reciprocate in some way to those individuals you study.

*Acknowledge that during your prolonged interaction with participants, you may adopt their beliefs and even become an advocate for their ideas.

*Specify potential power imbalances that may occur between yourself and the participants, and how your study will address these imbalances.

*Detail how much time you will spend at the research site.

*Include in the project description a list of the interview questions so reviewers on the institutional board can determine how sensitive the questions may be.

GatekeepersA gatekeeper is an individual who has an official or unofficial role at the site, provides entrance to a site, helps researchers locate people, and assist in the identification fof places to study (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995).

Some requirement to submit written information about the project/research to proceed are needed for the gatekeepers. The information might include:

*Why their site was chosen for study

*What will be accomplished at the site during the research study (i.e., time and resources required by participants and yourself)

*How much time you will spend at the site

*What potential there is for your presence to be disruptive

*How you will use and report the results

*What the individuals at the site will gain from the study (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998)

TYPES OF COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA

Observations

Interviews and Questionnaires

Documents

Audiovisual Materials

Observation

*Observations represent a frequently used form of data collection, with the researcher able to assume different roles in the process (Spradley, 1980)

*The advantages of using observation are the opportunity to record information as it occurs in a setting, to study actual behavior, and to study individuals who have difficulty verbalizing their ideas.

*The disadvantages of using observation that we will be limited to those sites and situations where we can gain access and in the sites, we may have difficulty developing rapport with individuals.

A Compendium of Data Collection Approaches in Qualitative Research using Observations are:

*Conducting an observation as a participant

*Conducting an observation as an observer

*Spending more time as a participant than observer

*Spending more time as an observer than a participant

*First observing as an “outsider”, then participating in the setting and observing as an “insider”

The form to collect the data in observation is by using fieldnotes and drawings.

Observation Roles

1. As a participant observer

A participant observer is an observational role adopted by researchers when they take part in activities in the setting they observe.

2. As a nonparticipant observer

A nonparticipant observer is an observer who visits a site and records notes without becoming involved in the activities of the participants

3. As a changing observer

a changing observational role is one where researchers adapt their role to the situation.

The Process of Observing1. Select a site to be observed that can help you best understand

the central phenomenon.

2. Ease into the site slowly by looking around; getting a general sense of the site; and taking limited notes, at least initially.

3. At the site, identify who or what to observe, when to observe, and how long to observe.

4. Determine, initially, your role as an observer.

5. Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the best understanding of the site and the individuals.

6. Design some means for recording notes during an observation.

7. Consider what information you will record during an observation.

8. Record descriptive and reflective fieldnotes.

9. Make yourself known, but remain unobtrusive.

10.After observing, slowly withdraw from the site.

*interviews

Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants in a study.

*Type of interviews

*One-on-one interviews

*Focus groups interviews

*Telephone interviews

*E-Mail interviews

*Conducting interviews*Identify the interviewers

*Determine the type of interview you will use

*Audiotape the questions and responses

*Take brief notes during the interview

*Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting the interview

*Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study

*Have a plan, but be flexible

*Use probes to obtain additional information

*Be courteous and professional when the interview is over

*Open-Ended Questions on Questionnaires

Open ended questions require a response with more depth and a lengthier response. Open ended questions are also helpful in finding out more about a person or a situation, whether it’s during an interview or on questionnaires. So, close-ended questions are those which can be answered by a simple “yes” or “no,” while open ended questions are those which require more though and more than a simple one-word answer.

*Documents

Documents consist of public and private records that qualitative researchers obtain about a site or participants in a study.

Documents can include newspapers, minutes of meeting, personal journals, and letters.

Documents are sometimes difficult to locate and obtain.

*Collecting Documents

*Identify the types of documents that you want to provide

*Consider that your documents as sources of information for your research

*Provide the specific instructions if you ask participants to keep a journal/diaries

*Examine them for accuracy and useful

*Record information from the documents

*Audiovisual Materials

Audiovisual materials consist of images or sounds that researcher collect to help them understand the central phenomenon under study.

*Collecting Audiovisual Materials

*Determine what visual material can provide information to answer research questions

*Identify the visual available and obtain permission to use it

*Check the accuracy and authenticity of the visual material if you do not record it yourself

*Collect the data and organize it

*WHAT PROCEDURES WILL BE USED TO RECORD DATA?

*Using protocols

- An interview protocol

take a notes during the interview and have the questions ready to be asked.

- Development and Design of an Interview Protocol

a. it contains a header to record essential information about the interview (statement or purpose of the study)

b. following this header are five brief open-ended questions that allow articipants maximum flexibility for responding to the questions.

c. the core questions , Questions 2 through 4, address major research questions in the study.

d. in addition to the five questions,you might use probes to encourage participants to clarify or elaborate their idea.

*An observational protocol

ANTICIPATING FIELD AND

ETHICAL ISSUES

ETHICAL ISSUES Informing the participants about the

purpose of our study Refraining from deceptive practices Sharing information with participants Being respectful of the research site Reciprocity Using ethical interview practices Maintaining confidetiality Collaborating with participants

Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general issues to consider, such as reciprocity, assessment of risk, confidentiality, informed consent, and data access and ownership.

OBJECTIVES Identify the five process steps in

collecting qualitative data. Identify different sampling approaches

to selecting participants and sites. Recognize the various types of

qualitative data you can collect. Identify the procedures for recording

qualitative data. Recognize the field issues and ethical

considerations that need to be anticipated in administering the data collection.

REFERENCES Cresswell, J.W. (2012). Educational

research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. New York. Pearson

*THANK YOU….