Labrador, KatherineIranta, Unica AltheaVillanueva, SharmaineConcepcion, Edlyn Margarette

CHAPTER 8 Complex Cognitive Process

Learning and Teaching about ConceptsConcept A general category of ideas, objects, people, or experiences whose members share certain properties.

Defining attributes distinctive features shared by members of a category.

Prototypes and ExemplarsPrototype best representative of a category.

Exemplar a specific example of a given category that is used to classify an item.

Four Basic Components in Concept TeachingExamples and nonexamples

Relevant and irrelevant Attributes

Name of the concept

Definition

Lesson StructureUndergeneralization exclusion of some true members from a category.

Overgeneralization inclusion of nonmembers in a category.

Discovery LearningBruners approach, in which students work on their own to discover basic principles.

Applying Bruners IdeasPresent both examples and nonexamples of the concepts you are teaching.Help students see connections among concepts.Pose a question and let students try to find the answer.Encourage students to make intuitive guesses.

Inductive ReasoningFormulating general principles based on knowledge of examples and details.

Example: Suzy is a Doctor. Doctors are smart. Suzy is assumed to be smart.

Intuitive ThinkingMaking imaginative leaps to correct perceptions or workable solutions.

Guided DiscoveryAn adaptation of discovery learning, in which the teacher provides some direction.

Teaching Concepts through ExpositionExpository Teaching Ausubels method teachers present material in complete, organized form, moving from broadest to more specific concepts.Meaningful Verbal Learning focused and organized relationships among ideas and verbal information.

Deductive Reasoning - drawing conclusions by applying rules or principles; logically moving from a general rule or principle to a specific solution.Example: The Earth is a planet, and all planets orbit a sun, therefore the Earth orbits a sun.

Advance OrganizersPurposes:They direct your attention to what is important in the coming material;They highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented;And they remind you relevant information you already have.

Categories of Advance OrganizersComparative Organizers activate (bring into working memory) already existing schemas.Expository Organizers provide new knowledge that students will need to understand the upcoming information.

Analogical InstructionTeaching new concepts by making connections (analogies) with information that the student already understands.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a means to do so.

Initial State the current situationGoal the desired outcomePath for Reaching the Goal including operations or activities that move you toward the goal

Problems can range from well-structed to ill-structed.

Problem Solving formulating new answers, going beyond the simple application of previously learned rules to achieve goals.

Problem Solving: General or Domain-Specific?Domain-Specific effective problem strategies are specific to the problem area.

General problem-solving strategies can be useful in many areas.

General Problem-Solving StrategyI Identify problems and opportunities.D Define goals and represent the problem.Focusing AttentionUnderstanding the WordsUnderstanding the Whole ProblemTranslation and Schema TrainingThe Results of Problem Representation

Schema-Driven Problem Solving recognizing as a disguised version of an old problem for which one already for which one already has a solution.

Problem-Solving Strategies by M.L. Gick

E - Explore possible solution strategies. Algorithms Step-by-step prescription for achieving a goal. Heuristics General strategy used in attempting to solve problems. Means-ends Analysis Heuristic in which a goal is divided into subgoals. Working-backward Strategy Heuristic in which one starts with the goal and moves backward to solve the problem.Analogical Thinking Heuristic in which one limits the search for solutions that are similar to the one at hand. Verbalization Putting your problem-solving and its logic into words.A Anticipate outcomes and Act.L Look back and Learn.

Factors That Hinder Problem SolvingFunctional Fixedness Inability to use objects or tools in a new way.

Response Set Rigidity; tendency to respond in the most familiar way.

Insight sudden realization of a solution.

Guidelines for Encouraging Problem Solving in Children:Provide problems, not just solutions.Encourage viewing problems from different angles.Make sure students have necessary background information.Make sure students understand the problem. Make accurate and useful representation. Math: ensure linguistic comprehension, use problem schemas.

Understand through associations and analogies.

Help students tackle the problem systematically. Verbalize Describe and compare. Practice with worked-out examples. Watch for bugs in math.

Becoming an Expert Student: Learning Strategies and Study Skills

Learning Strategies and Tactics

Learning strategies a kind of overall plans for approaching learning tasks.

Learning Tactics are the specific techniques for learning, such as using mnemonics or outlining a passage.

Important Principles:Students must be exposed to a number of different strategies.Students should be taught conditional knowledge about when, where, and why to use various strategies.Students may know when and how to use a strategy, but unless they also develop the desire to employ these skills, general learning will not be improved.Students should receive direct instruction in schematic knowledge.

Tactics for LearningExamplesUse when?Verbal InformationAttention FocusingMaking outlines, underlining.

Looking for headings and topic sentences.With easy, structured materials; for good readers

For poorer readers; with more difficult materialsSchema BuildingStory grammars

Theory schemasNetworking and mappingWith poor text structure, goal is to encourage active comprehensionIdea ElaborationSelf-questioning

ImageryTo understand and remember specific ideas

Procedural InformationPattern LearningHypothesizing

Identifying reasons for actionsTo learn attributes of concept

To match procedures to situationsSelf-instructionComparing own performance to expert modelTo tune, improve complex skillsPracticePart practice

Whole practiceWhen few specific aspects of a performance need attention

To maintain and improve skills

Underlining and Highlightingmain subjectsexamples of these main ideas that help you understand themunfamiliar vocabulary and/or definitions

Taking NotesTaking notes focuses attention during class and helps encode information so it has a chance of making it to long-term memory. There is some evidence that creating graphic organizers such as map or charts is more effective than outlining.

Visual Tools for Organizing

Reading Strategies

C Who are the character?A What is the aim of the story?P What problem happens?S How is problem solved?

K What do I already know about this subjects?W What do I want to know?L At the end of the reading or inquiry, what have I learned?

Applying Learning StrategiesFirst, The learning task must be appropriate.Second, Valuing Learning a condition for using sophisticated strategies is that students must care about learning and understanding. They must have goals that can reached using effective strategies(Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).Third, Effort & Efficacy is that students must believe the effort and investment require to apply the strategies are reasonable, given the likely return(Winne, 2001).

Finally, Epistemological Beliefs its about what students believe about knowledge and learning will influence the kinds of strategies that they uses.

Dimensions of Epistemological Beliefs (Chan & Sachs,2001 ;Schommer, 1997 ; Schommer-Aikins, 2002; Schaw & Olafson)Structure of Knowledge Is knowledge in a field a simple set of facts or a complex structure of concepts and relationships?Stability/Certainty of KnowledgeIs knowledge fixed or evolving over time?Ability to LearnIs the ability to learn fixed(based on innate ability) or changeable

Speed of LearningCan we gain knowledge quickly or does it take time to develop Knowledge?Nature of LearningDoes learning mean memorizing facts passed down from authorities and keeping the facts isolated, or developing your own integrated understandings?

TransferInfluence of previously learned material on new material.

Gavriel Salomon and David PerkinsDescribe two kinds of transfer, termed low-road transfer and high-road transfer.

Kinds of TransferLOW ROAD TRANSFER Automatic Transfer of highly practiced skill.

KEY : Extensive Practice

HIGH ROAD TRANSFER Conscious application of abstract knowledge to a new situation.

KEY : Mindful Abstraction

Two Ways of High - Road Transfer Forward Reaching TransferIntending to use it in the future.Backward - Reaching TransferYou look back on what you have learned in other situations to help you in new one.

OVERLEARNINGPracticing a skill past the point of mastery.

Gary Phye He describes three stages in developing strategic transfer.

STAGES OF TRANSFER FOR STRATEGIESAcquisition Phase - Students should not only receive instruction about a strategy and how to use it, but they should also rehearse the strategy and practice being aware of when and how they are using it. Retention Phase More practice with feedback helps students hone their strategy use.Transfer Phase The teacher should provide new problems that can be solved with the same strategy, even though the problems appear different on the surface.