chapter 8, nancy langton and stephen p. robbins, fundamentals of organizational behaviour, third...

Chapter 8, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 8-1Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Chapter 8

Leadership


Chapter Outline

• Are Managers and Leaders the Same?

• Leadership as Supervision

• Inspirational Leadership

• Dispersed Leadership: Spreading Leadership Throughout the Organization

• Leading One’s Self

• Contemporary Issues in Leadership


Leadership

1. What is the difference between a manager and a leader?

2. Are there specific traits, behaviours, and situations that affect how one leads?

3. How does a leader lead with vision?4. Can a person be an informal leader?5. What is self-leadership? 6. What are some of the contemporary issues in

leadership?


Leadership

• The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.


Exhibit 8-1 Distinguishing Leadership from Management

Management1. Engages in day-to-day caretaker activities:

Maintains and allocates resources

2. Exhibits supervisory behaviour: Acts to make others maintain standard job behaviour

3. Administers subsystems within organizations

4. Asks how and when to engage in standard practice

5. Acts within established culture of the organization

6. Uses transactional influence: Induces compliance in manifest behaviour using rewards, sanctions, and formal authority

7. Relies on control strategies to get things done by subordinates

8. Status quo supporter and stabilizer

Leadership1. Formulates long-term objectives for reforming the

system: Plans strategy and tactics

2. Exhibits leading behaviour: Acts to bring about change in others congruent with long-term objectives

3. Innovates for the entire organization

4. Asks what and why to change standard practice

5. Creates vision and meaning for the organization

6. Uses transformational influence: Induces change in values, attitudes, and behaviour using personal examples and expertise

7. Uses empowering strategies to make followers internalize values

8. Status quo challenger and change creator Source: R. N. Kanungo, “Leadership in Organizations: Looking Ahead to the 21 st Century,” Canadian Psychology 39, no. 1-2 (1998), p. 77.


Leadership as Supervision

• Three general questions:– Is there a particular set of traits that all leaders

have, making them different from nonleaders?

– Are there particular behaviours that make for better leaders?

– How much impact does the situation have on leaders?


Trait Theories• Traits are characteristics of the person:

– Physical characteristics– Abilities– Personality traits

• Traits consistently associated with leadership:– Ambition and energy– The desire to lead– Honesty and integrity– Self-confidence– Intelligence– Job-relevant knowledge


Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

• EI is the best predictor of who will emerge as a leader.

• IQ and technical skills are “threshold capabilities.” – They’re necessary but not sufficient requirements for

leadership.

• Leaders need self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills to become a star performer. – These are the components of EI.


Exhibit 8-2 What CEOs Identify as Key Leadership Traits

Quality

Communication skills

Ability to motivate people

Honesty

Ability to listen

Team-building expertise

Analytical skills

Aggressiveness in business

CEOs Rating It Most Important (%)

52

47

34

25

24

19

10

Source: Survey conducted by American Express for the National Quality Institute. Reported in R. Nutt, “Survey Finds Leadership Key,” Vancouver Sun, June 1, 2000, p. D6.


Exhibit 8-3 Leadership Attributes: A Cross-Cultural View

Leader Attributes UniversallyLiked

Trustworthy

Dynamic

Motive arouser

Decisive

Intelligent

Dependable

Plans ahead

Excellence oriented

Team builder

Encouraging

Leader Attributes UniversallyDisliked

Noncooperative

Irritable

Egocentric

Ruthless

Dictatorial

Loner/self-centred

Leader Attributes Over WhichThere Was Most Disagreement

Subdued

Intragroup conflict avoider

Cunning

Sensitive

Provocateur

Self-effacing

Willful

Source: D. N. Den Hartog, R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, S. A. Ruiz-Quintanilla, and P. W. Dorfman, “Culture Specific and Cross-culturally Generalizable Implicit Leadership Theories: Are Attributes of Charismatic/Transformational Leadership Universally Endorsed?” Leadership Quarterly 10 no. 2 (Summer 1999), pp. 219-256.


Behavioural Theories of Leadership

• Propose that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from nonleaders– Initiating structure

• E.g., task orientation, work orientation, production orientation

– Consideration • Employee needs and concerns

– Examples• Ohio Studies, Michigan Studies, Managerial Grid


Exhibit 8-4 The Managerial Grid

Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership.

Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree.

9

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Low High

Concern for production

Low

High

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

1

Country club management1,9

Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.

Team management9,9

Work accomplishment is from committed people who have a “common stake” in the organization’s purpose. This leads to relationships of trust and respect.

Impoverished management1,1

Authority-obedience9,1

Middle-of-the-road management5,5

Adequate organizational performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.

Con

cern

for

people

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. Based on an exhibit from “Breakthrough in Organization Development,” by R. R. Blake, J. S. Mouton, L. B. Barnes, and L. E. Greiner (November-December 1964). Copyright © 1964 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved.


Research Findings for Behavioural Theories

• When subordinates experience a lot of pressure because of deadlines or unclear tasks, leaders who are people oriented will increase employee satisfaction and performance.

• When the task is interesting or satisfying, there is less need for leaders to be people oriented.

• When it’s clear how to perform the task and what the goals are, leaders who are people oriented will increase employee satisfaction, while those who are task oriented will increase dissatisfaction.

• When people don’t know what to do, or individuals don’t have the knowledge or skills to do the job, it’s more important for leaders to be production oriented than people oriented.


Contingency or Situational Leadership Theories

• Stress the importance of considering the context when examining leadership.– Fiedler Contingency Model

– Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

– Path-Goal Theory

– Substitutes for Leadership


Fiedler Contingency Model• Effective group performance depends upon the proper

match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader.

• Least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire determined whether individuals were primarily interested in:– good personal relations with co-workers, and thus

relationship oriented, or

– productivity, and thus task oriented.


Fiedler Contingency Model

• Fiedler’s contingency situations:– Leader-member relations

• Degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have for leader.

– Task structure• Degree to which jobs are structured.

– Position power• Degree to which leader has control over “power”: hiring,

firing, discipline, promotions, salary.

• Fiedler assumed that an individual’s leadership style is fixed.


Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

• Follower: unable and unwilling– Leader: needs to give clear and specific

directions.

• Follower: unable but willing– Leader: needs to display high task orientation and

high relationship orientation.


Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

• Follower: able but unwilling– Leader: needs to use a supportive and

participative style.

• Follower: both able and willing– Leader: a laissez-faire approach will work.


Exhibit 8-5 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Able andwilling

Able andunwilling/

apprehensive

R3R4

Unable andwilling

Unable andwilling

Unable andunwilling/insecure

Unable andunwilling/insecure

ModerateHigh Low

Task behaviour

Leader Behaviours

Selling

TellingDelegatin

g

Participatin

g

(Low) (High)

S4

S3 S2

S1

(High)

Follower Readiness

R2 R1

Rel

atio

nshi

p B

ehav

iour


Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

• A theory that says it’s the leader’s job to assist followers in reaching their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their individual goals are compatible with the overall goals.


Path-Goal Guidelines to Be An Effective Leader

• Determine the outcomes subordinates want. – e.g., good pay, job security, interesting work, and autonomy to

do one’s job, etc.• Reward individuals with their desired outcomes when they

perform well.• Be clear with expectations.

– Let individuals know what they need to do to receive rewards (the path to the goal).

– Remove barriers that prevent high performance.– Express confidence that individuals have the ability to perform

well.


Path-Goal Leadership Styles

• Directive– Informs subordinates of expectations, gives

guidance, shows how to do tasks.

• Supportive– Friendly and approachable, shows concern for

status, well-being, and needs of subordinates.


Path-Goal Leadership Styles

• Participative– Consults with subordinates, solicits suggestions, takes

suggestions into consideration.

• Achievement-oriented– Sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to perform at

highest level, continuously seeks improvement in performance, has confidence in highest motivations of employees.


Exhibit 8-6 Path-Goal Theory

CONTINGENCY FACTORS

Environmental

• Task Structure• Formal Authority System• Work Group

Subordinate

• Locus of control• Experience• Perceived ability

Leader Behaviour

• Directive• Achievement-oriented• Participative• Supportive

Outcomes

• Performance• Satisfaction


Exhibit 8-7 Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership

Characteristics of Individual

Experience/training

Professionalism

Indifference to rewards

Characteristics of Job

Highly structured task

Provides its own feedback

Intrinsically satisfying

Characteristics of organization

Explicit formalized goals

Rigid rules and procedures

Cohesive work groups

Effect on Leadership

Substitutes for task-oriented leadership

Substitutes for relationship-oriented and task-oriented leadership

Neutralizes relationship-oriented and task-oriented leadership



Substitutes for relationship-oriented leadership



Substitutes for relationship-oriented and task-oriented leadership

Source: Based on S. Kerr and J. M. Jermier, “Substitutes for Leadership: Their Meaning and Measurement,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, December 1978, p. 378.


Can You Be a Better Follower?

• Ineffective followers may be more of a handicap to an organization than ineffective leaders.

• What qualities do effective followers have?– They manage themselves well.

– They are committed to a purpose outside themselves.

– They build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum impact.

– They are courageous, honest, and credible.


Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership

• Transactional leaders – Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in

the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.

• Transformational leaders– Leaders who inspire followers to go beyond their

own self-interests for the good of the organization, and have a profound and extraordinary effect on their followers.


Exhibit 8-9 Characteristics of Transactional Leaders

• Contingent reward – Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for

good performance, recognizes accomplishments.• Management by exception (active)

– Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action.

• Management by exception (passive)– Intervenes only if standards are not met.

• Laissez-Faire leader– Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions.

Source: B. M. Bass, “From Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision,” Organizational Dynamics, Winter 1990, p. 22. Reprinted with permission of the publisher. American Management Association, New York. All rights reserved.


Exhibit 8-9 Characteristics of Transformational Leaders• Charisma

– Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust.

• Inspiration – Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts,

expresses important purposes in simple ways.

• Intellectual stimulation – Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem-solving.

• Individualized consideration – Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually,

coaches, advises.Source: B. M. Bass, “From Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision,” Organizational Dynamics, Winter 1990, p. 22. Reprinted with permission of the publisher. American Management Association, New York. All rights reserved.


Charismatic Leadership

• Leadership that critically examines the status quo with a view to developing and articulating future strategic goals or vision for the organization, and then leading organizational members to achieve these goals through empowerment strategies.


Dispersed Leadership

• Mentoring

• Providing Team Leadership


Mentoring

• Many leaders create mentoring relationships.

• A mentor is often a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee (a protégé).

• The mentoring role includes: – Coaching

– Counselling

– Sponsorship


Providing Team Leadership

• Leading teams requires new skills.– e.g., patience to share information, trust others, give up

authority, and knowing when to intervene.

• Leading teams requires new roles.– Liaisons with external constituencies

– Troubleshooters

– Conflict managers

– Coaches


Team Leaders• Team leaders need to focus on two priorities:

– Managing the team’s external boundary– Facilitating the team process

• Four specific roles:– Liaisons with external constituencies.– Troubleshooters– Conflict managers – Coaches


Factors Calling for Self-Leadership

• Reduced levels of supervision

• Offices in the home

• Teamwork

• Growth in service and professional employment where individuals are often required to make decisions on the spot


How Do Leaders Create Self-Leaders?

• Model self-leadership.

• Encourage employees to create self-set goals.

• Encourage the use of self-rewards to strengthen and increase desirable behaviours.

• Create positive thought patterns.

• Create a climate of self-leadership.

• Encourage self-criticism.


Benefits of Leading Without Authority

• Latitude for creative deviance– Easier to raise questions.

• Issue focus– Freedom to focus on single issue, rather than

many issues.

• Frontline information– Often closer to the people who have the

information.


Contemporary Issues in Leadership

• Moral Leadership

• Gender and Leadership

• Online Leadership


The Moral Foundation of Leadership

• Truth telling– Telling the truth as you see it, because it allows for a mutual, fair

exchange to occur.• Promise keeping

– Leaders need to be careful of the commitments they make, and then careful of keeping those promises.

• Fairness– This ensures that followers get their fair share for their

contributions to the organization.• Respect for the individual

– Telling the truth, keeping promises, and being fair all show respect for the individual. Respect means treating people with dignity.


How Many Women Make It to the Top?

• Women in general comprise:– 46.2 percent of the labour force

– 32 percent of managers and administrators

– 14 percent of senior managers

– 57 percent of graduate degree holders

– 51 percent of Canadian population

• Half of Canada’s companies have no women in top ranks.


Men’s and Women’s Leadership Styles

• In general, women fall back on a democratic leadership style:– Encourage participation

– Share power and information

– Attempt to enhance followers’ self-worth

– Prefer to lead through inclusion

• Men feel more comfortable with a directive command-and-control style:– Rely on formal authority


Exhibit 8-11 Where Female Managers Do Better: A Scorecard

Noneof the five studies set out to find gender differences. They stumbled on them whilecompiling and analyzing performance evaluations.

Skill(Each check mark denotes which groupscored higher on the respective studies)

* In one study, women’s and men’s scores in these categories were statistically even.

MEN WOMEN

Motivating Others

Fostering Communication

Producing High-Quality Work

Strategic Planning

Listening to Others

Analyzing Issues

*

*

*

Data: Hagberg Consulting Group, Management Research Group, Lawrence A. Pfaff, PersonnelDecisions International Inc., Advanced Teamware Inc.

Source: R. Sharpe, “As Leaders, Women Rule,” BusinessWeek, November 20, 2000, p. 75. Reprinted by permission of Business Week.


Summary and Implications

1. What is the difference between a manager and a leader?

– One theorist suggests that managers promote stability while leaders press for change.

2. Are there specific traits, behaviours, and situations that affect how one leads?

– The research on this topic has been mixed. Contingency theories suggest that leaders need to adjust their behaviours, depending on the situation and employee needs.



3. How does a leader lead with vision?– Leaders that lead with vision are known as

transformational or charismatic leaders. They inspire followers to go beyond their own self-interests for the good of the organization.

4. Can a person be an informal leader?– A person can be an informal leader. Such leadership can

take the form of mentoring. People can also be informal leaders of teams.



5. What is self-leadership?– With self-leadership, individuals and teams set goals,

plan and implement tasks, evaluate performance, solve their own problems, and motivate themselves.

6. What are some of the contemporary issues in leadership?

– Three major issues of leadership today are moral leadership, gender differences, and online leadership.


OB at Work


For Review

1. Trace the development of leadership research.2. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of trait

theories of leadership.3. What is the Managerial Grid? Contrast its approach

to leadership with the approaches of the Ohio State and Michigan studies.

4. What are the contingency variables in the path-goal theory?

5. When might leaders be irrelevant?


For Review

6. What characteristics define an effective follower?7. What are the differences among transactional and

transformational leadership?8. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of a

charismatic leader.9. What is moral leadership?10. Why do you think effective female and male

managers often exhibit similar traits and behaviours?


For Critical Thinking

1. Reconcile path-goal theory and substitutes for leadership.

2. What kind of activities could a full-time college or university student pursue that might lead to the perception that he or she is a charismatic leader? In pursuing those activities, what might the student do to enhance this perception of being charismatic?

3. Based on the low representation of women in upper management, to what extent do you think that organizations should actively promote women into the senior ranks of management?


For Critical Thinking

4. Is there an ethical problem if leaders focus more on looking like a leader than actually being one? Discuss.

5. “Leaders make a real difference in an organization’s performance.” Build an argument in support of this statement. Then build an argument against this statement.


Breakout Group Exercises• Form small groups to discuss the following:

1. Identify an example of someone you think of as a good leader. What traits did they have? How did these traits differ from someone you identify as a bad leader?

2. Identify a situation when you were in a leadership position (in a group, in the workplace, within your family, etc.). To what extent were you able to use a contingency approach to leadership? What made that easier or more difficult for you?

3. When you have worked in student groups, how frequently have leaders emerged in the groups? What difficulties occur when leaders are leading peers? Are there ways to overcome these difficulties?


Concepts to Skills: Practising to Be Charismatic

• Project a powerful, confident, and dynamic presence.

• Articulate an overarching goal.

• Communicate high-performance expectations and confidence in others’ ability to meet these expectations.

• Be sensitive to the needs of followers.

chapter 8, nancy langton and stephen p. robbins, fundamentals of organizational behaviour, third...

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