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CHAPTER-II

Theoretical Framework and Literature Review

2.1 Introduction:

The theoretical framework for the study is discussed and the literature is reviewed

to have clear understanding about the problem the researcher has taken up. This

chapter outlines various literature read on disasters, its origin, changing concepts

of disaster over a period of time, its types and impact. The concept of

effectiveness of an organization, a plan or a program is discussed in this chapter.

The literature on the parameters of effectiveness selected by the researcher has

been reviewed in the chapter and the chapter concludes by summarizing the

justification of this study.

Disasters are not new to man. He has been facing various natural disasters since

time immemorial and has learnt to live with it. It is quite interesting to note the

traces of such disasters in our mythology.

2.2 Mythological traces of disasters:

a. Indian Mythological Description of Disaster: The human race has been facing

the disasters since its evolution. They are as old as mankind. The ancient

description of disasters and its management comes from Indian Puranas ( Indian

Mythological Stories). According to Hindu scriptures, Satyavrata known as

Manu, a king and a devotee of Lord Vishnu, is washing his hands in a river when

a little fish swims into his hands and pleads with him to save its life. He puts it in

a jar, which it soon outgrows. He then moves it to a bigger jar, then a tank, a

lake, a river and finally the ocean, but the fish keeps growing bigger. The fish

finally reveals itself to be Lord Vishnu and tells the king that a deluge will occur

within seven days that would destroy entire life. Lord Vishnu has had a boat built

by the gods and when the earth was flooded, the king is to place all living beings

in the boat and thus save them. Lord Vishnu himself arrives in his form of the

fish and saves the living beings.

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Figure No.2.1 Matsya Avatar

Source: Vishnu Avatar- Matsya Puran

b. Traces of the disaster in Bible: The same story with different version of a

Great Flood and its Management comes from the Bible in the name of Nova and

his Ark. The story of Noah‘s Ark from the Bible‘s Old Testament is often cited

as an early lesson in the importance of warning, preparedness, and mitigation.

In this ancient story, which is believed to be based (at least partly) upon actual

events, Noah receives warning of an impending flood. Noah and his family

subsequently make significant preparations for the coming events by

constructing a floating ark. The central figures in this story – Noah and his

family – survive the flood as a result of their actions. Those who did not perform

preparations or mitigation perish.

Figure No. 2.2 Noah's Ark from a Biblical description

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c. Greek Mythology, Mesopotamian Mythology and many other cultures have

similar flood tales the number of which is around 260.

(Flood Stories from Around the World by Mark Isaak 1996. )

Though there are few hundred stories about flood disasters in mythology, one has

to understand the term in its totality, that is- its meaning, concepts, definitions,

scope, impact and other related issues.

In the following paragraphs researcher has reviewed the literature on the

theoretical framework of Disaster.

2.3 Disaster-Features and Impact

Disaster natural or man-made is the impact of hazards that affects society or

environment. It is a sudden, calamitous event which brings great damage, loss,

destruction and devastation of life and property. The damage caused by disasters

is many a time immeasurable and varies with the geographical location, climate

and the type of earth surface and degree of vulnerability. This influences the

socio-economic, political, cultural and mental state of the affected area.

Despite technological advancements and many new means which were not

available before, now available to prevent loss of life and control material

damage, the number of disaster victims is steadily increasing all over the world.

(World Disaster Report, 2010)

Generally, disaster has the following effects in the affected areas:

1. It completely ruins normal day to day life.

2. It adversely affects the basic infrastructural facilities like communication,

transportation, power supply etc.

3. People are dependent completely on external assistance even for the

necessities like food, shelter, health etc. which they cannot fulfill on their

own.

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Disaster may also be described as ‗a serious disruption of the functioning of the

society, causing widespread human, material or environmental loses which exceed

the ability of the affected people to cope using their own resources‘.

Thus, one can identify following features of the term Disaster:

Unpredictability

Unfamiliarity

Speed

Uncertainty

Urgency

Threat

(Chawla P. S., 2008)

The following table reveals the extent and magnitude of losses – life, property,

economic etc. due to disasters.

Table- 2.1. People killed, affected and economic loss in various disasters during past

two decades

Continent

Number of

people

reported killed

1990-1999

Number of people

reported affected

1990-1999

Estimated

Damage

In millions

of U. S. $

(1999

prices)

Number of

people

reported killed

2000-2009

Number of people

reported affected

2000-2009

Estimated

Damage In

millions of

U. S. $

(2009

prices)

Africa 27,913 18,00,81,852 2,540 46,806 30,65,94,733 12,947

America 77,918 5,24,74,486 1,78,230 32,577 7,31,60749 4,28,616

Asia 7,56,124 1,89,44,09,821 4,01,079 9,33,250 2,15,97,14,852 3,86,102

Europe 35,503 5,23,51,392 1,48,189 91,054 1,01,44,275 1,46,414

Oceania 3,562 3,90,73,198 10,994 1,655 6,57,658 12,612

(Source: World Disaster Report, 2000 and 2010)

The above table clearly shows that the reported death toll in the decade of 2000-

2009 is much larger than in 1990-99 particularly in the less developed continents.

The same is the observation in case of people affected due to disasters and the

economic damage of developing countries also increasing in the decade of 2000-

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2009.It means the incidences of disasters are increasing steadily, despite the

progress in science and technology in the last two decades.

Report of Munich Re 2013:

The same observation has been registered by the renowned international insurance

company Munich Re from Germany in its report of 2013 that the death toll in

developing and emerging countries, due to natural disasters, is continuously

increasing. The report further notes that worldwide, more than two million people

were killed in natural disasters between 1980and 2012. Out of these 60% deaths

are due to weather and climatological events and remaining 40% due to

geophysical disasters.

Another observation noted by the company is that, though the natural disasters are

taking place all over the world, the number of victims of these events is largest

from the developing countries. For example, a storm surge in Bangladesh claimed

300,000 lives in 1970, while an earthquake in China killed 242,000 people in

1976. Other examples of major humanitarian tragedies caused by natural disasters

include the 2004 tsunami in East Asia (220,000 fatalities), the tropical cyclone in

Myanmar in 2008 (140,000) and the earthquake in Haiti in 2010 (222,000).

The geographical distribution for the period 1980–2012 shows that natural

catastrophe fatalities were highest in Asia and Africa:

Figure No. 2.3

Source: Munich Re, Report- 2013

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India, being a developing country, is already facing the challenges of resource-

crunch. In such a situation, if disaster strikes, our hard-earned gains of

development are lost and economy receives a serious setback.

Therefore, it is the need of the hour that we, at national, regional and local level

have to prepare ourselves to mitigate these hazards – natural or technological and

build our capacity to be resilient to any adverse condition.

To develop a very effective and flawless mechanism to deal with any type of

disaster, it is imperative to undertake an in-depth study of various disasters likely

to occur in various parts of the country, identify the root cause of them and

develop a plan to deal with them effectively.

In order to deal with different types of disasters effectively one has to understand

the origin of the concept and its evolution over a period of time. It is of common

knowledge that the term Disaster and its occurrence is as old as mankind. The

disasters take place anywhere in the world, be it East or West. The people world

over have their own interpretation of disaster and have developed their own

methods to deal with it. Some of them believe that it is the wrath of God or

Destiny, some view at it as the effect of bad stars. The reason (though with

different purpose) for a very severe earthquake in Bihar in 1934 was given by

Mahatma Gandhi was ‘It is a God‘s punishment to India‘s failure in eradicating

untouchability in the society. (Robert Payne, 1969).

The literature review indicates that there are mainly two types of approaches in

understanding and dealing with disasters- Western and Oriental.

2.4 The Evolution of the Concept of Disaster

The changing interpretation and evolution of Disasters – Western Approach: -

There are, broadly, four phases of the evolution of the word Disaster in the

west:-

a) Astrological / Fatalistic View (Act of God): - In the prehistoric period,

till two centuries ago, disasters were primarily viewed as the Act of God or

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a result of unfavorable astrological forces. The word ‗disaster‘ originally

entered the English language from a word in French ‗desastre‘ which in

turn is a derivation from two Latin words ‗dis‘ and ‗astro‘ which combined

roughly meant, formed on a star. So, in its early usage, the word has

reference to unfavorable star, and therefore the negative effect, usually of a

personal nature, resulting from a star or planet.

The well-known playwright of the seventeenth Century, William

Shakespeare a renowned playwright in seventeenth century writes in his

play ‗King Lear‘ that ‗we make guilty of disasters the sun, the moon and

stars‘ (Act 1, Scene2). Sir Slingby, an English aristocrat writing in his

diary in 1684 says that ‗I am very ill of a disaster upon my stomach‘.

During this time, the word disaster means mainly physical disturbances

such as earthquake and floods which came to be traditionally known as

actions attributable to supernatural power. Gradually, disasters were

formally labeled in the legal system of many countries as Acts of God. It

implied that nothing could be done about their occurrence. Such a fatalistic

attitude prevailed in the society for a long time. (E. L. Quarentelli, 1987)

b) Acts of Nature: With the arrival of 18th

century, more and more scientific

explanations started coming up about the occurrence of disasters on the

one hand and secularism was emerging on the other hand, especially in

Western Europe. The secularists of that time refused the existence of God

and His role in disaster happening. They started interpreting disasters as an

Act of Nature. As Quarantelli says (1987,8) ‗over a time ‗nature‘ has been

increasingly substituted for the supernatural, and the term ‗natural disaster‘

has come to fore.‖

Dynes argues that this transformation began after Lisbon earthquake of

1755 in Portugal- as he calls it ―the first modern urban disaster. (Dynes,

1997, 24).

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According to Dynes

―Prior to that, earthquakes traditionally had been interpreted as a dramatic

means of communication between gods and humans. In particular, such

events previously had been explained as indicating some disturbance

between earthly and heavenly spheres. The Lisbon earthquake can be

identified as a turning point in human history which moved the

consideration of such physical events as supernatural signals toward a

more neutral or even a secular, proto-scientific causation.‖

The remark of Voltaire, a great European philosopher, about the large

casualties and losses in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake that it is not the Act of

God responsible for such huge losses but the construction of buildings

without paying proper attention in a highly seismic zone in Portugal

(Dynes,1999). It indicates that if no construction is made in a vulnerable

locality, one can reduce the risk of ensuing earthquakes.

This situation changed the perception of the source of disaster. Now the

responsibility was shifted from God toward a scientific and secular view of

the disaster. For example:- earthquake takes place due to changes in plate

tectonics and not due to the Act of God. Gradually it was accepted that

there is no role of God in destruction due to earthquake or flood type of

disasters, but these are the natural phenomena. Such events, though cannot

be eliminated or prevented completely, but the greater understanding of

the root causes, appropriate action can be taken which would weaken the

impact of many disasters. For example, proper engineering measures such

as strengthening building, construction of dams and levees and other

proper structural measures if are taken, the basic source of disasters could

itself not be directly controlled but the negative effects of such occasions

can certainly be minimized.

(E.L. Quarantelli, 2000).

c) Acts of Society or Acts of Men and Women: The concept of Disaster

received altogether a new and different orientation by social scientists after

the World War II. The new interpretation of its origin was evolved. The

studies and research by social researchers started describing the source of

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the origin of the term disaster was the Acts of Men and Women instead of

Acts of Nature. The earlier view of disaster as Acts of God was replaced

by Acts of Nature and now the stage was set for the displacement of the

latter by another view, which was that disasters resulted from the Acts of

Men and Women or from Acts of Society. Particularly in Pelanda‘s (1981)

words ‗disasters are the result of the social vulnerabilities of the society.

Another social scientist Dombrowsky (1998) gives credit of this new

theory to Carr (1932). He says ―Carr was the first in the field to try to

understand disasters in terms of social action.‖

Carr wrote in 1932: ―Not every windstorm, earth-tremor, or rush of water is

a catastrophe. A catastrophe is known by its works; that is to say, by the

occurrence of disaster. So long as the ship rides out the storm, so long as

the city resists the earth-shocks, so long as the levees hold, there is no

disaster. It is the collapse of the cultural protections that constitutes the

disaster proper.‖

Dombrowsky (1998) interpretes Carr saying that his (Carr) conclusions

that disasters are the result of human activities and not of natural or

supernatural forces. Disasters are due to collapse of cultural protection

therefore they are mainly man-made. Human being is responsible for the

consequence of his actions and his omissions

At the same time there was a slow appearance of disasters resulting from

technological accidents and mishaps, for which inappropriate actions of

human beings were responsible. Therefore, it was rightly assumed that as

these mishaps are due to wrong actions of man, they can be prevented or at

least their negative effects can be reduced. This view among the scholars

and researchers indicates that disasters result directly or indirectly from the

actions, intended or otherwise, of human beings. If people are living in

unprotected flood plains, in non-earthquake proof buildings in known

seismic zones or near to chemical plant complexes, they are creating

necessary conditions for a hazard to generate a disaster.

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After few years, a well-known disaster researcher and sociologist

Prof. E. L. Qurantelli strengthened this social view of disaster in his

scholarly writings.

While commenting on his contribution, Gibert (1998) states:

―At the conceptual level, Quarantelli triggered the emergence of new

modes of approaching disasters, based on an analysis of communities, and

not only of destructive external agents…

―As a partial result of this shift in the conceptual approach to disaster,

destructive agents are no longer seen as a cause, but as a precipitant for

crisis and disaster behavior directly related to the social context.‖

In this way many researchers argue that disasters are inherently social

phenomena: e.g. an earthquake, a natural hazard, if strikes in a desert, it

cannot be described as disaster unless that area is inhabited.

d) Disaster as Avoidable Human Creation and Prism that Highlights

Societal Injustices and Growing Vulnerability. The latest stage of

evolution of the term Disaster.

This theory is premised on social creation and societal injustice theoretical

framework propounded by (Cannon 1994). Some recent social scientists

have argued that disasters are seen as manifestations of the vulnerabilities

of social systems.

This theory states that disasters are avoidable human creation and prism

highlighting societal injustice and growing vulnerability. Cannon asserts

that the explanation of disaster causality is only possible by understanding

the ways in which social systems themselves generate unequal exposure to

risk by making some groups of people, some individuals, and some

societies more prone to hazards than others. Thus behavioural aspects of

disasters can only be understood by looking at them subjectively,

particularly from the viewpoint of victims. This theory focuses on the

vulnerability of people to hazards. Looking at disaster subjectively through

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the eyes of victims. Viewing the people who face disaster as the victims of

powerful interests who have created the conditions leading to their hazard

vulnerability.

In this regard once again Quarantelli(1998) refers to this as the

postmodernist framework wherein behavioral aspects of disasters can only

be understood by looking at them subjectively, particularly from the

viewpoint of victims

Tobin and Montz(1997) affirm the same view in the following words:

―It is no longer merely a matter of building to specific standards or of

disallowing development in hazardous areas… They are not likely to have

much impact until such problems as poverty, land and income distribution

and equity issues are resolved.‖

―Thus, when we see newspaper headlines like ‗Hurricane Kills 39‘ or

‗Earthquake Leaves Thousands Homeless,‘ we cannot lay the blame on the

physical event, which is only the agent. It is within the socioeconomic

environment that we can usually find the causes of disastrous effects.‖

(Tobin and Montz 1997, 45.)

From the above discussion one can infer that disasters are viewed not only

as a social phenomena but human culpability is the root cause of disasters.

The most common explanation given in the recent literature under review

is social forces which include powerful people or system with vested

interest forces poor and powerless people to live in a dangerous situations.

Therefore, it is said that disasters are brought upon some humans by other

humans.

2.5 Ancient Indian Perspective on Disasters:

Disaster and its management in Ancient India

Ancient Indian history gives many examples of disasters and measures to cope

with natural and man-made disasters such as invasions, wars, droughts, floods,

earthquakes and cyclones. Due to her unique geo-climatic condition, together with

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a dense population, makes the country most vulnerable. Through the ages, people

have adopted different measures to deal with recurring hazards through suitable

settlement plans, livelihood preferences, socio-cultural practices and traditions.

Along with the religious literature encouraging the harmonious relationship

between human and their environment, scholarly and scientific literature in

ancient India dealt with various types of disasters as well as different aspects of

disaster preparedness and mitigation. For example Varahamihira –a philosopher-

astronomer-mathematician (505-587 AD) wrote about earthquakes, their causes

and predictability in the ‗Brihat Samhita‘. In it, he describes the signs of

earthquakes and correlates them with cosmic and planetary influences,

underground water and undersea activities, unusual cloud formation and abnormal

behavior of animals. These became part of folklore and formed the basis of coping

mechanism exists at community level today.

The Atharva Veda discusses drought mitigation strategies (Biswas,2000).

The Kautiliya Arthashastra, a treatise on public administration by Arya Chanakya

(4th Century B.C.) is a text which deals with the science of polity. Kautiliya has

identified eight types of calamites and he also suggests measures to deal with

them. Surprisingly, he has fixed the responsibility of the concerned persons about

it. These 8 natural hazards are:

Fire, Floods, Drought, Pestilences (epidemics), Rats, Snakes, Tigers (wild

animals) and Demons (evil spirits). He has discussed each of the calamity in

detail.

1. Fire :

It was a very important and common disaster during that period. Chanakya

suggested following measures to prevent the fire, particularly during the

summer:

In summer, cooking should be done outside of the houses or under the monitor

ship of ten families collectively or being protected by ten fire fighting

implements

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The roofs which are made up of grass or mats are to be removed

Those who make use of fire in their profession should stay at one

place.

House owners should live near the front doors of their own houses,

without gathering at one place

Collection of water-jars should be placed in thousands on roads and at

cross-roads and in royal offices

For the owner, if not trying to save the house on fire, the fine is twelve

panas and six panas for the tenant.

In case fire is caused by negligence, the fine is fifty-four panas and the

person causing the fire, should be put to death by fire.

In case of fire, if aid in the form of five jars or one big jar of water, a

trough (drona), a ladder, an axe, a winnowing- basket, a hook, a hair-

seizer and a skin bag (pakhal) these things are not provided then the

punishment is one quarter of a pana(it‘s a silver coin with ¼ part

copper in it).

2. Flood

Protecting people from flood hazard following measures were suggested:

Villages situated near water should move away from the level of the

floods.

They should keep a collection of wooden planks, bamboos and boats.

They should rescue a person being carried away by the flood by means

of gourds, skin-bags, canoes, tree-stems and rope braids.

For those who do not go to the rescue, the fine is twelve panas, except

in case of those without canoes.

3. Drought:

In case of drought, the king should make a store of seeds and food-

stuffs and show favour to the people, or institute the building of forts

or water-works with the grant of food or share his provisions with them

or entrust the country to another king. Or should seek shelter with

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allies or cause migration of people in that region where crops have

grown, or settle along the sea, lakes or tanks.

4. Pestilences( Epidemics):

Magicians and others should counteract with secret means, physicians

with medicines and holy ascetics with pacificatory and expiatory rites.

5. Rats:

Cats and mongoose should be let loose.

For catching or killing them fine is twelve panas, also for not

restraining dogs, except in case of foresters.

Grains should be strewed coated with the mild of snuhi-plants or

mixed with secret mixture.

Tax should be instituted on rats.

6. Tigers (Wild animals):

To kill tigers, carcasses of cattle mixed with a stupefying liquid or intestines of

cattle filled with madan kodrava (stupefying medicine) may be thrown in

suitable places.

Fowlers or hunters should dug pits and place cages.

Armoured men should kill wild animals.

For one not going forth to help, the fine shall be twelve panas. The

same shall be the reward for one slaying a wild animal

7. Snakes:

Experts in poison-cure should act with charms and medicines.

Persons coming together should kill snakes.

8. Demons (Evil spirits):

Experts in Atharvavedah or in the practices of sacred magic should

perform rites for destroying evil spirits.

One wonders that almost 2500 years back, the disasters (natural) were given such

an in depth thought and remedial measures were also suggested to contain them.

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Of course, the researcher has not tried these measures, therefore, one cannot be

sure about their result.

(R. Samasastry,1915).

Though the disasters can be traced back to thousands of years through history and

available literature, their systematic and scientific analysis is of recent origin, that

is from 18th

century. The literature shows, as the researcher has taken a review in

earlier pages, that research in disaster as a concept, its origin, how to deal with it

and various aspects of disaster is continuously going on at government level,

University level as well as private level in the western countries.

Whereas in India, hardly there was any systematic effort in the research of disaster

and its management till the starting of the 21st century. Even after independence

our thinking in this regard was reactionary. It was only relief and recovery centric.

Now, of late we have also become sensitive towards the disaster and its impact on

our economy. Still we have to go a long way

2.6 Classical Definitions of Disaster:

Here are some of the definitions given by various scholars in the field:

In the classical tradition Charles Fritz (1961) defined disaster as ―an event

concentrated in time and space, in which a society or a relatively self- sufficient

sub–division of a society, undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its

member and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the

fulfillment of all or some of the essential functions of the society or its sub-

division is prevented.‖

This definition acknowledges the substantial impairment of the basic service

infrastructure of society, resulting in significant widespread citizen impact and

notes the commonly held belief that the disasters are social problems.

(Fritz cited in Tierney, Lindell and Perry 2001).

Kreps and Drabek (1996):- slightly modified Fritz‘s definition to further relate

the impact of disasters to existing social definitions of disaster. They state that

‗disasters are non routine events in societies or their larger subsystems (e.g.

27

regions, communities) that involve conjunction of historical conditions and social

definitions of physical harm and social disruption. Among the key defining

properties of such events are length of fore warning, magnitude of impact, scope

of impact and duration of impact(pg.133).

Whereas L.J. Carr-(1932) defines Disaster as‘ the collapse of cultural

protections.‘ In which he says that the act of human is responsible for it.

The UNISDR (2009) defines a disaster as: ―A serious disruption of the

functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, or

environmental losses and impacts which exceeds the ability of the affected

community to cope using only its own resources.‖

German Insurance Co. defines disaster from the financial loss point of view. It

defines disaster ‗as a situation involving damage/loss of lives beyond one million

German marks and/or 1000 persons killed‘.

Disaster According to the Disaster Management Act of India, 2005:

Disaster‘ means a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area,

arising from natural or man-made causes, or by accident or negligence which

results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction

of property or damage to or degradation of environment and is of such a nature or

magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected

area.

Disasters are a complete mix of natural hazards and human action .e.g .in many

regions wars are inextricably linked with famine and disease, including the spread

of HIV-AIDS .wars (and post -war disruption have sometimes coincided with

drought and this has made it more difficult for people to cope(e.g.in Afghanistan,

Sudan, Ethiopia).

Disaster are a brake on economic and human development at the household level

(when livestock, crops, homes and tools are repeatedly destroyed )and at a

national level when roads, bridges, hospital, schools and other facilities damaged.

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The pattern of such frequent stresses, brought on by a wide variety of ‗natural‘

trigger mechanisms, has often been complicated by human action.

(By Ben Wisner ,Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon and Ian Davis, 2003).

2.7. Difference in Disasters and other Problems

a. Difference between Disasters and other Social problems:

Almost all the social scientists now accept that the disasters are essentially a social

phenomena, still they make a difference between disasters and chronic and

everyday social problems. Disastrous incidences have a sense of urgency. They

need a prompt reaction and immediate action to prevent a further and often

instant, deterioration of the situation. The suffers are not in a position to cope with

such situation on their own. They require external assistance.

The social problems, on the other hand, are totally different from disasters. They

are spread in a large portion of the population and geographically almost entire

region or country. They are continuous in nature. They cannot be overcome in a

short period of time such as poverty, unemployment, crime, untouchability, drug

use and other similar negatively viewed social problems. ( E. L. Quarentelli,2000).

b. Difference between Disasters and other Conflicting Events like wars, civil

disturbances etc.

Again, the researchers and social scientists are not unanimous on whether the

disasters and other conflicting incidences like wars, terrorist activities, hostage

taking ethnic cleansings, civil disturbances are to be treated as one and the same.

Majority of the researchers and social scientists are of the view that these two

things are basically different. In the abovementioned incidences the parties

involved in the conflict, with predetermined and specific purpose in mind try to

prolong and continue the crises. It is their deliberate policy to make the situation

worse for another party. Whereas in disasters occasions, all the parties, sufferers

or no sufferers, try to bring the crisis to an end as early as possible unlike of the

conflict situation.

( E. L. Quarantelli, 2000).

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With these changing perceptions about disasters in the Western countries, it is

necessary to look into the Indian perception of the term ‗Disaster‘ in our ancient

scriptures and literature.

In the light of the literature reviewed, it is clear that there is no unanimity about

the term Disaster. Every researcher gives a different version or interpretation of

the term. Some link the existence of a disaster to a specific amount of losses

sustained (e.g. number of people killed and injured), others judge an event to be a

disaster if a certain predefined threshold is breached (e.g. a trigger to a certain

contingency measure is reached), some judge disasters on their geographical

extent and significance with regard to ―normal‖ conditions, while some express a

disaster in terms of its monetary value in losses.

c. The difference between Hazard and Disaster:

"Hazards are dangerous conditions or events with potential for injury, loss of life,

and /or damage to property, agriculture or environment" (Modh, 2006)

They are categorized into two -

1. Natural (hazards with meteorological, geological, biological or extraterrestrial

origins).

2. Unnatural (hazards with human-caused or technological origins).

Disaster- Prima facie, disaster is something which is personal. Say, for example,

the death of an earning member of a family is considered as 'disaster' for the

family. Disasters of different types occur when hazards affect population at large.

Very few scholars have classified disaster as above, but generally, both the words

are considered synonymous.

d. Difference between Disaster and Crisis

In common parlance, the terms, disaster and crisis, are used interchangeably, or

synonymously. But strictly speaking, they have different meanings. According to

the New International Webster‘s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English

Language, the term, disaster, means ― crushing misfortune, a calamity, a terrible

30

accident‖, and the term, crisis, means ― a turning point in the progress of an affair,

or a series of events, critical moment‖.

The result of disaster is huge loss of lives or property or live stock or environment.

The crisis may be prevented. Every time crisis may not cause damage. It can be

averted. e.g. The relations between a couple are so stretched the they are going for

divorce, which is a crisis, but due to children it was averted. Problem in the

functioning of a Pantograph of a suburban railway is a crisis but it is solved.

Disaster is different. The situation is so worse that the suffers need external

assistance without which they cannot come out of the situation

2.8 Relationship between Vulnerability and Disaster

What is Vulnerability?

Vulnerability is defined as: ―The conditions determined by physical, social,

economic, and environmental factors or processes, which increase the

susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards‖. UNISDR. Geneva 2004.

Therefore Disaster Risk = Vulnerability+Hazards

Following figure explains the cause of disaster.

Disasters Occur HOW and WHEN?

Figure No.2.4

Source: The Pressure Model (Wisner et al., 2004)

31

The Pressure Model indicates that there are certain underlying causes, dynamic

pressures and unsafe conditions which contribute to vulnerability. Linking the

above to a hazardous situation triggers event, increases the risk in communities.

Vulnerability is depicted in the model as the progression of three stages:

Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factors within a society that together

form and maintain vulnerability.

Dynamic pressures: a translating process that channels the effects of a

negative cause into unsafe conditions; this process may be due to a lack of

basic services or provision or it may result from a series of macro-forces.

Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context where women and men and

property are exposed to the risk of disaster; the fragile physical environment

is one element; other factors include an unstable economy and low-income

levels.

Figure No.2.5

Source: The Pressure Release Model (Wisner et al., 2004)

32

The above shown Pressure Release Model explains reversing the risk pressure

created by the aspects mentioned above in order to create safe communities. In

order to reduce the risk of communities in accordance with the Pressure Model

one needs to engage in certain risk reduction activities.

Theoretically, the ―pressure‖ between hazards and vulnerabilities should be

released to reduce disaster risk. Hazards should be mitigated to reduce their

intensity, thus affect vulnerable population less. Vulnerability should also be

reduced at different levels: activities need to be undertaken to turn ―unsafe

conditions‖ into ―safer conditions‖, ―dynamic pressures‖ will be reduced and

―root causes‖ will be addressed. These DRR activities aim to achieve a controlled

situation and a resilient community, where there is no loss of life, few casualties,

restricted damage, food security and capacity to recover quickly from any impact of a

hazard.

For the purpose of understanding and recording the CRED has categorized various

disasters as follows:

2.9 Classification of Disasters by CRED:

Table No.2.2 Classification of Disasters

Disaster Subgroup Definition Disaster Main Types

Geophysical Events originating from

solid earth

Earthquake, Volcano,

Mass Movement (dry)

Meteorological Events caused by short-

lived/small to meso scale

atmospheric processes (in

the range from minutes to

days)

Storm

Hydrological Events caused by

deviations in the normal

water cycle/or overflow of

bodies of water caused by

wind set-up

Flood, Movement (Wet)

33

Climatological Events caused by long-

lived/meso to macro scale

processes ( in the

spectrum from Intra-

seasonal to multi-decadal

climate variability

Extreme Temperature,

Drought, Wildfire

Biological Disaster caused by the

exposure of living

organism to germs and

toxic substances

Epidemic, Insect

Infestation, Animal

stampede.

Source – CRED In 1980

Note: CRED became part of WHO in 1980 The Centre for Research on the

Epidemiology of Disasters) established in 1973 in Brussels as a non-profit

institution with International Status under Belgian Law.

2.10 Natural Disaster and Human Intervention

A Natural disaster is a natural phenomenon of unusual magnitude which is

unexpected to people with whom it occurs and they cannot control it. Natural

hazards threaten people's lives and their activities and can forever change their

ways of living. A natural hazard event can become a Natural Disaster when causes

huge loss of lives, destruction of people's property or degradation of environment.

It is observed that the number and severity of natural disasters may sometimes be

increased due to human interference in nature. (Shield, 2004).

Natural Hazards and Human Intervention

Although humans can do little or nothing to change the incidence or intensity of

most natural phenomena, they have an important role to play in ensuring that

natural events are not converted into disasters by their own actions. It is important

to understand that Human Intervention can increase the frequency and severity of

natural hazards.

34

For example, when the toe of a landslide is removed to make room for a

settlement, the earth can move again and bury the settlement.

Natural disasters are often classified according to their sources. Disasters from

geological factors are earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, landslides and tsunamis.

Disasters from atmospheric factors are fires, storms, snowfall and fogs. Natural

disasters are interconnected. One disaster may induce the other. For example, an

earthquake may cause other disasters such as fire, flooding or tsunami. Scientists

try to decipher these interactions and find ways to mitigate the effect of combined

hazards (Shield, 2004). Natural hazards rarely happen alone. It is very common

that certain hazards cause or activate other hazards to occur. For example, when

an earthquake took place in Japan in March 2011, it caused the tsunami which

incurred huge loss than earthquake.

Strictly speaking disaster researchers differentiate between natural phenomenon,

natural hazard and natural disaster.

For Example- an earthquake taking place in the Saharan desert or in the Raan of

Kutch having no human habitat is just a natural phenomenon.

Whereas people living in a highly earthquake prone areas in the houses which are

not constructed with earthquake- resistant material. So those people are facing a

natural hazard. And when this natural hazard comes into reality it is natural

disaster. Therefore, few scholars argue that there are no natural disasters as such.

There are natural hazards and people‘s vulnerability decides the intensity of the

damage.

(In the earlier pages distinction between hazard and disaster is already explained

but generally researchers use both the terms- hazard and disaster interchangeably).

2.11. What is Disaster Management?

DISASTER MANAGEMENT is the sum total of all measures taken to reduce the

possibility of damage that will take place during the event of disaster and after it

occurred. The effectiveness of disaster management determines the final result of

the impact of the disaster event on the environment and on society affected.

35

Traditionally disaster management as defined by the UNDP (1992:21) is ―the

body of policy and administrative decisions and operational activities which

pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels‖.

Figure No.2.6 The traditional disaster management

Source: Introduction to Disaster Risk Reduction, USAID Aug., 2011

Figure No.2.7

Paradigm shifts in disaster management approach worldwide

Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought about a

paradigm shift in the approach to disaster management. The new approach

36

proceeds from the conviction that development cannot be sustainable unless

disaster mitigation is built into the development process. Another corner stone of

the approach is that mitigation has to be multi‐disciplinary spanning across all

sectors of development. Further a new era of 2nd paradigm shift is underway in

the awakening brought in by climate‐change awareness, livelihood and

sustainability concerns and growing focus on the importance of ecosystem

services in addressing hazards and peoples socio‐economic vulnerability (Figure ).

(Source: NIDM, Maharashtra Booklet).

According to the Disaster Management Act of India, 2005,

‗Disaster Management‘ means a continuous and integrated process of planning,

organizing, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary or

expedient for:

i) Prevention of danger or threats of any disaster;

ii) Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or

consequences:

iii) Capacity – building;

iv) Preparedness to deal with any disaster;

v) Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster;

vi) Evacuation, rescue and relief;

vii) Rehabilitation and reconstruction;

Disaster management as an activity involves measures to:

Reduce the risks associated with disasters through timely measures, Short

term and long-term policies,

Provide required assistance to communities during and after the disasters;

and ensure rapid and sustained recovery and rehabilitation after the

occurrence of disasters

The new vision adopted for disaster management focuses on:

Preparedness rather than post-crisis management

Coordinated participatory approach

Technology up gradation and deployment

37

Information as a tool of disaster management

Recognition of linkages between disasters and development

Connecting specific programmes for management of natural disasters

Forecasting and warning using latest technology; and

Disaster management as a continuous and integrated part of development

process

The Disaster Management can be viewed or understood with three different

approaches which are summed up this way:

Approaches to Disaster Management

Table No.2.3 Approaches to Disaster Management

APPROACH EMPHASIS

Conventional Approach It is a traditional approach of disaster

management. It emphasizes on managing

disasters after they have taken place. In

this approach it is taken for granted that

disasters are going to take place. They are

inevitable. What we can do? Just provide

food, shelter, clothing, medicine etc.

Therefore, this approach is known as

relief or recovery centric approach.

Initially there were Relief Codes to take

care of people.

Progressive Approach This approach focuses on Development

Paradigm with emphasis on the causal

factors and processes of vulnerability,

community capacity building, land

property ownership; access to credit;

diversification of livelihoods; and

technological innovation. The Risk

Reduction is also a special component of

38

this approach. It is a blending of scientific

approach with traditional knowledge. The

objective is to:

Assess hazards, vulnerabilities and

capacities as well as people‘s

understanding of disaster risks.

Optimize existing coping strategies in

the face of losses.

Provide local solutions to global

problems; and

Treat communities as subjects and

not objects.

Contract-Expand Approach This Approach assumes that the phases of

disaster management like disaster

prevention, mitigation, response and

recovery can all be carried out at the

same time in a hazard-prone community.

However, the relative weighing of each

component ―contract‖ or ―expand‖,

depending on the relationship between

the hazard and the vulnerability of the

community. It believes that disasters

occur when a hazard exceeds the

community capacity to manage it (i.e.,

when vulnerability of the community to a

hazard increases).

Source: NDMA and IGNOU, April, 2012.

These approaches are followed with emphases in varied disaster situations at

different disaster phases of a disaster management cycle.

For this one has to understand various phases of Disaster Management Cycle:

39

Figure No.2.8 Disaster Management Cycle

Let us look at the nature of disaster management activity at these stages in detail:

Table No.2.4 Phases of Disaster Cycle

PHASES OF DISASTER CYCLE NATURE OF ACTIVITY

Prevention Prevention activities aim at totally

avoiding the adverse impact of hazards

and providing means to minimize

environmental, technological and

biological disasters. Depending on social

and technical feasibility and cost/benefit

considerations, investing in preventive

measures is justified in areas frequently

affected by disasters.

Mitigation Mitigation means any action taken to

40

minimize the extent of a disaster or

potential disaster. Mitigation can take

place before, during or after a disaster,

but the term is most often used pro-

actively to refer to actions against

potential disasters. Mitigation measures

are structural and also non-structural.

Structural measures are measures that can

be easily seen or perceived such as

strengthening of buildings, disaster-

resistant construction, and erection of

infrastructure. The non-structural

measures are intangible in nature. These

cannot be easily quantified, but are very

important such as generation of

awareness, education and training,

insurance and adherence to the rules and

byelaws.

Preparedness Preparedness entails activities and

measures taken in advance to ensure

effective response to the impact of

hazards, including the issuance of timely

and effective early warnings, preparation

of emergency plans, maintenance of

inventories, at-risk planning and

temporary evacuation of people and

property from threatened locations. It

involves measures that enable

governments, community and individuals

to respond rapidly to disaster situations

and effectively cope with them.

Response/Relief Relief can be of an immediate, short-

term, or protracted duration. For

41

example, search and rescue of the

affected people and provision of food,

temporary shelter and medical care to the

persons affected by the disaster are some

common areas of intervention after a

disaster. Relief involves strategies and

ways that can help to reduce the level of

suffering and mitigate the distress, so as

to bring the affected people out from the

shock and trauma of suddenly losing their

loved ones and their means of livelihood.

Further, the main objective of relief is to

assist the affected persons to start their

normal activities again.

Rehabilitation Rehabilitation process includes all

operations and decisions taken after a

disaster with a view to restoring an

affected community to its former living

conditions, by encouraging and

facilitating the necessary adjustments to

the changes caused by the disaster.

Reconstruction Process of Reconstruction includes the

actions taken to re-establish a

community, following rehabilitation after

a disaster. These actions generally

include construction of permanent

housing, complete restoration of all

services and physical infrastructure to

that of the pre-disaster state.

42

Recovery Recovery refers to decisions and actions

related to rehabilitation and

reconstruction taken after a disaster with

a view to restoring or improving the pre-

disaster living conditions of the affected

community. At the same time,

encouraging and facilitating necessary

adjustments to reduce disaster risk.

Recovery activities make use of disaster

risk reduction measures to improve the

situation in affected areas. The aim is to

also develop the areas in a way that

vulnerability and risk to disasters are

minimized. All development programmes

in the area need to be mainstreamed with

recovery programmes in order to treat

disasters as development opportunities.

Effective disaster management requires a multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary, and

holistic approach, encompassing pre-disaster preparedness initiatives, disaster

response, and post-disaster rehabilitation, all with active participation of local

people living in hazard-prone regions. As the incidences and severity of disasters

have increased over time, disaster management deserves highest priority at both

the national and sub-national levels and the traditional approach of post disaster

response and relief need to be replaced by an all-in-compassing holistic approach.

(Katar Singh and Vishwa Ballabh)

2.12 Effectiveness of Disaster Management

a. What is Effectiveness?

Effectiveness is the level of results from the actions of employees and managers.

Employees and managers who demonstrate effectiveness in the workplace help

produce high-quality results. For Example, an employee who works as the sales

man. If he‘s effective, he‘ll make sales consistently. If he‘s ineffective, he‘ll

43

struggle to persuade customers to make a purchase. Companies measure

effectiveness often by conducting performance reviews. The effectiveness of a

workforce has an enormous impact on the quality of a company‘s product or

service, which often dictates a company‘s reputation and customer satisfaction.

Therefore, the effectiveness means the degree to which objectives are achieved

and the extent to which targeted problems are solved.

b. Organisational Effectiveness and how it is Evaluated?

Organizational effectiveness is a very wide concept in the field of organization

theories. Though the concept is very significant but the scholars are not able to

define it in an universally acceptable manner.(Chelladurai, 1987). Therefore,

assessing the effectiveness of an organization is a very difficult task.

As it is rightly pointed out by ( Coutler, Philip B., 1979) that though the literature

on organizational effectiveness is large and growing , there seems to be little

consensus on how to conceptualize, measure and explain effectiveness.

According to Cameron and Whetten (1983) Understanding organizational

effectiveness requires an understanding of multiple models. Because none of the

models are universally applicable, understanding the relative contributions of

several different models and how these models relate to one another, is the only

way to appreciate the meaning of this construct.

The early approach to organizational effectiveness which probably lasted through

the 1950s, was very simple. Effectiveness was defined as the degree to which an

organization realised its goals. But in this definition there were many ambiguities

that severely curtailed both research on the subject and ability of practicing

manager‘s grasp and use of concept .e. g. Whose goals? Short-term or long term

goals? The organisation‘s official goals or actual goals?

The 1960s and early 1970s saw an unprecedented increase in the studies of

organizational effectiveness. A review of these studies identified 30 different

criteria trying to measure ‗Organisational Effectiveness‘.

44

They are listed in table few studies used multiple criteria to measure

effectiveness which ranged from general measures such as quality and morale to

accident rates and absenteeism .This indicates that organizational effectiveness

means different things to different people:-

Table No.2.5 Organisational Effectiveness Criteria:-

1 Overall effectiveness 16 Planning & Goal Settings

2 Productivity 17 Goal consensus

3 Efficiency 18 Internationalizations of

organisational goal

4 Profit 19 Role & norm congruence

5 Quality 20 Managerial Interpersonal skills

6 Accidents 21 Managerial task skills

7 Growth 22 Information Mgmt &

communication

8 Absenteeism 23 Readiness

9 Turnover 24 Utilization of Environment

10 Job satisfaction 25 Evaluation by external entities

11 .Motivation 26 Stability

12 .Morale 27 Value of human resources

13 Control 28 Participation & shared

influence

14 Conflict 29 Training and Development

emphasis

15 Flexibility/Adaptation 30 Achievement emphasis.

(source : John P.Campbell ,1977)

c. Organisational Effectiveness Approaches:-

A number of authors have attempted to reduce the complexity inherent in the

effectiveness theory by narrowing the perspective from which effectiveness is

viewed, and measured .(e.g. Cameron 1978,Campbell ,1977,Connolly, Corlon &

45

Deutsch 1980; Perrow, 1977, Price 1968; streers1977; Yuchtman & Seashore,

1967; Quinn & Rohrbaugh ,1981, 1983; Chelladurai ,1987).

Although there is no clear, definitive meaning of the concept organizational

effectiveness, majority of the scholars agree that organizational effectiveness

requires measuring multiple criteria and use of different characteristics to evaluate

different organizational functions. That model should also consider both means

(process) and ends (outcomes).

Herman and Renz (1997) stated that there are as many effectiveness models as

there are models of organizations.

These various approaches ( models) to measure effectiveness can be included in

five different types as follows:

1. Goal Attainment Approach :-

This is the earliest approach to measure objectiveness of any organisation (Price,

1968). According to Price and Scott the goals model defines effectiveness as the

degree to which an organisation has achieved its goals. (Price, 1972; Scott,1977).

The author Weese W. J.(1977) opines that this model is the most widely used

model.

Prat and Eitzen (1989) state that Goal attainment model assesses the

effectiveness of an organisation in terms of its success in realizing its goals.

Whereas Chelladurai & Haggesty , 1991 regarded this model as the most logical

approach to study organisational effectiveness.

Of course, the goal approach is not free from its weaknesses. Most obvious is the

reality that an organisartion may have numerous goals that may conflict with one

another (Weese,1997;Pratt.& Eitzen ,1989). In addition, an organisation‘s goals

may shift over a period of time.

This may happen from an organization‘s interaction with its environment, from

internal changes or from outside pressures. In this situation if organisation‘s goal

46

are ‗unclear , unstable and conflicting each other (Chelladurai & Haggerty, 1991)

then it is very difficult to measure organizational effectiveness by using goals

approach.

2. Systems Resource Approach:

Yuchtman & Seashore, 1967 proposed the second framework, the Systems

Resource Approach. They defined Effectiveness as ―the ability of the

organization in either absolute & in relative terms, to exploit its environment in

the acquisition of scarce and valued resources‖. This view of effectiveness

focused on the organization‘s ability to secure resources to ensure viability.

Attracting necessary resources and maintaining a harmonious relationship with

the environment is the central idea to the application of the systems model.

Thus a municipal corporation and its disaster management plan would be

considered effective if it can obtain all necessary resources and funds from the

administration.

Therefore, Chelladurai (1987) rightly says that if resources are required to

achieve the organization‘s goals, the greater the resources, greater would be the

organizational effectiveness.

3. Internal Process Approach:-

The third framework is the Internal Process Approach introduced by Steers,

1977. According to this model, organizations that can offer a congenial and

efficient internal environment are viewed as effective organizations. However,

ignoring important aspects of the organization such as resources, outputs and

satisfaction of participants makes this model having lopsided view. but also in

identifying the valued internal processes approach.

The process model emphasizes the internal logic and consistency among the

through processes of the organization as they convert an organisation inputs into

desired outputs (Pfeffer ,1977; Steers,1977).this approach assumes that there is a

direct and clear linkage between the desired outputs.

47

Connolly and others-(1980) argued that the previous models, the goal approach

and different systems approaches are inadequate because they use only a single

set of evaluative criteria. The multiple constituency models conceive

effectiveness not as a single statement but it recognizes that organizations have

multiple constituencies who evaluate effectiveness in different ways.

4. Strategic Constituency Approach :-

The emphasis on human resources leads to the fourth framework, known as

Strategic Constituency Approach.

According to Connolly, Colon and Dentsch (1980), the identification of the key

stakeholders‘ view of effectiveness is considered paramount. In other words the

multiple –consistency model is based on a view of organisational effectiveness

in which several effectiveness statements can be made about the focal

organization, reflecting the criterion sets of different individuals & groups who

can be referred to as constituencies (Connolly et al; 1980).

A few researchers recommend the multiple constituency approach as a viable

approach alternative for deciding effectiveness in both a profit and a non-profit

organizational context (Connolly et.al; 1980; Zammuto,1982,1984; Kanter and

Brinkerchoff, 1981; Kanter and Summers ,1987,Goodman et. al; 1983

Mendelow,1983).

5. The ―Competing Values Framework‖ was developed by Quinn and

Rohrbaugh (1983). It is a theory derived from research conducted on major

indicators of effectiveness of organizations. The strategic constituency

approach has been the precursor to the Competing Value Approach and it is

therefore, logical to the extent the measurement of effectiveness incorporating

constituent groups within the two dimensions composing the Competing

Value Approach. After an analysis of a comprehensive list of effectiveness

indicators, they discovered two major dimensions underlying the conceptions

of effectiveness.

48

First dimension is related to organizational focus. Internal emphasis is on the

well being and development of the people in the organization. External

emphasis is on the well being and development of the organization itself with

respect to its environment.

Second dimension is related to preference for structure and represents the

contrast between ―stability and control‖ and ―change and flexibility‖. The

following figure explains these two dimensions:

Competing Values Framework of Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983)

Figure No.2.9

Human Resources model emphasizes flexibility and internal focus and stresses

cohesion, morale, and human resources development as criteria for

effectiveness

1. Open Systems model emphasizes flexibility and external focus and stresses

readiness, growth, resource acquisition and external support

2. Rational goal model emphasizes control and external focus and stresses

planning, goal setting, productivity, efficiency as the criteria for effectiveness

49

3. Internal process model emphasizes control and internal focus and stresses

role of information management, communication, stability and control

4. In Australia to evaluate effectiveness of Disaster Management Legislation

and Policy various parameters are used by a consultancy firm. They are as

follows:

d. A Report on Parameters used to assess effectiveness of ‘Disaster

Management Legislation and Policy’ prepared by Jim O'Sullivan, AC, APM

and The Consultancy Bureau Pty Ltd., Queensland, Australia. Aug. 2009.are

as follows:

Comprehensive: Policies and plans should consider all hazards, all phases of

disaster, all stakeholders and all effects relating to disasters.

Progressive: Plans and policies should anticipate all future disasters and

chalk out preventive and preparatory measures to build disaster resilient

community.

Risk-driven: The disaster management plan should identify hazards, analyse

risks and impact of it and accordingly assign priorities and resources.

Integrated Approach: Unity of effort among all the agencies involved in

disaster management and the community should be ensured

Collaborative: creating a broad, sincere and sustainable relationship among

the team members through trust and mutual understanding.

Coordinated: synchronizing all activities of relevant stakeholders to achieve

common purpose.

Flexible: The plan should be capable of expansion or contraction according

to the situation.

Professional: emergency managers value a science and knowledge-based

approach based on education, training, experience, ethical practice, public

stewardship and continuous improvement.

Utilize existing resources- to the greatest extent practical.

Disaster Management roles- complement core business competence of the

personnel and organisations involved.

Local Disaster Management capability– the fundamental building block

50

The above criteria used in assessing legislative and strategic policy aspects of

Queensland's current Disaster Management arrangements to assess their

current level of sufficiency and effectiveness, and to formulate

recommendations for improvement.

e. In Israel Mr. Kirschenbaum, Alan. 1994, in his article on ‘Measuring the

Effectiveness of Disaster Management Organization’ in public sector

suggests a client-stakeholder relationship in measuring disaster managers‘

effectiveness for Israel‘s Home Front Command which is a public sector

organization for Disaster Management in Israel. The author compares the

stated goals of the organization and the ―perception of their provision‖ as seen

by the stakeholders in the system. Analysis was done on the factors

influencing the delivery of provisions as well as the factors influencing the

perception of service provided. This article lends more evidence for the

validity of a goal attainment model for measuring organizational effectiveness

in the realm of disaster response.

f. Veteran researcher in disaster management Prof. E. L. Quarentelli, USA

suggests ten criteria for good disaster planning in developing countries and he

differentiates between good disaster planning and good disaster managing.

According to Prof. E. L. Quarentelli good community disaster planning must:

1. Focus on the planning process rather than the production of a written

document.

2. Recognize that disasters are both quantitatively and qualitatively different

from minor emergencies and everyday crises.

3. Be generic rather than agent specific.

4. Be based upon an emergent resource coordination and not a command and

control model.

5. Focus on general principles and not specific details

6. Be based on what is likely to happen.

7. Be vertically and horizontally integrated

8. Strive to evoke appropriate actions by anticipating likely problems and

possible solution.

51

9. Use the best social science knowledge possible and not myths and

misconceptions.

10. Recognize that crisis time disaster planning and disaster managing are

separate processes.

He also suggests that only good planning is not a guarantee of its effective

implementation during disaster. Therefore he suggests ten criteria as a pre

condition for effective disaster managing which must:

1. .Recognize correctly the difference between agent and response generated

needs and demands.

2. Carry out generic functions in an adequate way

3. Mobilize personnel and resources in an effective manner.

4. Involve proper task delegation and division of labor.

5. Allow the adequate processing of information.

6. Permit the proper exercise of decision making.

7. Focus on the development of overall coordination.

8. Blend emergent aspects with established ones.

9. Provide the mass communication system with appropriate information.

10. Have a well functioning Emergency Operations Center (EOC)

(Quarantelly, E. L., 1998).

From the foregoing discussion it is clear that different scholars use different

attributes or criteria or parameters to evaluate effectiveness of an organization or

a plan or a program.

In the present study, the researcher has selected four criteria, namely Promptness

level ( whether the Disaster Management Plan of MCGM is prompt in responding

to the needs of stakeholders), in this study flood affected households, Awareness

level among the flood affected households created by MCGM‘ plan,

Communication ( whether the MCGM authorities were able to communicate with

the flood affected households in proper time) and Coordination ( whether the

MCGM plan provides for proper coordination among various agencies involved in

the management of disasters in Mumbai).

52

While choosing these criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of Disaster

Management Plan prepared by the MCGM, the researcher has taken a policy

speech delivered by the Municipal Commissioner of MCGM as a base. In his

address, he announced that these four parameters will be the base to judge the

outcomes / effectiveness /performance of the future disaster management plan of

MCGM. He further announced that these four factors will be the thrust areas for

Disaster Management Plan in future.

(Speech of Mr. J. M. Phatak, Municipal Commissioner of MCGM on Budgetary

Provisions in 2008-09).

The researcher discussed these attributes and their relevance in evaluating the

performance of MCGM‘ Disaster Management Plan with experts in the field.

While conducting the pilot survey, the researcher tested some of the questions

covering these attributes with the flood affected households and they also

responded in such a way that the researcher decided to use these criteria as a tool

to evaluate the effectiveness the Disaster Management Plan of MCGM and

accordingly finalized the questionnaire.

The researcher found that this is the first kind of study conducted by any

researcher.

Therefore, the researcher is confident that the suggestions and recommendations

from this study will be useful to the administration.

2.13 Four parameters to assess effectiveness

The researcher has adopted following four parameters to assess the effectiveness

of MCGM‘s disaster management plan are explained as follows :

1. Awareness

The UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) states that public

awareness is a primary element of risk reduction, and defines a set of basic

principles that should underline public awareness campaigns: they should be

designed and implemented with a clear understanding of local perspectives and

53

requirements; they should target all sections of society including decision makers,

educators, professionals, members of the public and individuals living in exposed

areas; messages should be designed in a way that can reach the different target

audiences; and special disaster awareness campaigns and events should be used to

sustain any efforts (UNISDR, 2004)

.It is observed that due to lack of awareness and information people get trapped in

danger. Especially those people who are vulnerable and who do not know how to

get out of the harm or what protective measures to take. There may be a lack of

awareness about what measures can be taken to build safe structures on safe

locations.

Some people may not know about safe evacuation routes and procedures whereas

others may not know where to turn for assistance in times of acute distress. In

most disaster-prone societies, however, there is useful traditional knowledge about

disaster threats and responses. This understanding should be taken in to

consideration while launching awareness campaign.

(Source: A Booklet on Disaster Preparedness Training Programme Prepared by

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2000)

It is experienced that people have apathy towards the problems to arise in future

and they are reluctant to adopt changes in their lives. It is found in the cases like

floods, landslides, gatherings at religious places etc. Even educated community

neglects such hazards and becomes victims of these incidences

2. Promptness (Quick Response):

The need for an effective disaster management strategy is to reduce disaster

impact. This is possible only through strong organizational and administrative

structure at local, district and state level. The Emergency Response Plan is a

prerequisite for a multi-hazard approach and to develop the ‗culture of quick

response‘. In this plan, common factors responsible for quick response have been

identified and a set of responsible activities are to be determined.

An effective and early response requires mobilization of manpower, equipments

and materials belonging to different originations which may not be working

54

together during normal times. Therefore a framework needs to be prescribed as a

part of emergency planning for operational directions and coordination during

response phase.

(Delhi Disaster Management Plan: Emergency response function concepts - Delh,

2010)

As it is rightly said that the ‗Golden Hour ‘ i. e. time period immediately after the

disaster, is the most important period. If a prompt response is given to the

affected community, within the first hour after the calamity takes place, we can

save loss of many lives and other damages. It was experienced at the time of train

blasts took place in Mumbai in 2006, bomb blast in Mumbai in 2010 etc. The first

responders offered immediate help to the victims in above cases, saved their lives.

Disaster affected community needs help of different types of help like medicine,

food, shelter, psychological support, financial help etc. In fact, at every stage of

disaster, quick response –prompt action is required. That decides the effectiveness

of the plans or policies.

3. Communication

Communication is one of the most important factors in the event of disasters. A

critical prerequisite to effective disaster management is the minimization of

related impact through communication of risk information in a timely manner and

in a format that all stakeholders can understand. (Virginia Clerveaux, Toshitaka

Katada and Kyohei Hosoi, 2008)

Auf der Heide (1989) observes that ―one of the most consistent observations about

disasters is that communication is inadequate‖

Recent disasters have further highlighted the role of communication within

disasters.

As Liebenau (2003) points out, ―The destruction of the World Trade Center

brought to public attention the many different critical roles that communications

play when disaster strikes‖ (p. 45).

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Right from the phase ‗preparedness‘ one has to communicate to impart knowledge

and information in the form of mass education and public awareness, giving early

warning of incoming disaster i. e. siren and other intimation, mobilizing various

resources and alerting the authorities.

A number of scholars (Auf der Heide 1989; Drabek and McEntire 2002; Toulmin,

Givans, and Steel 1989) have acknowledged the vital role of effective and timely

communication between organizations during various phases of disaster.

Significance of communication is evident for the success of all above-mentioned

phases of Disaster Management Cycle, whether it is a phase of preventive

measures, phase of disaster preparedness or during disaster or immediately after

the disaster occurs.

In Mumbai we have experienced that during any calamity, the communication

network gets jammed as the first casualty. Disaster communication includes wide

range of actions, techniques, ways and models of communication.

Therefore, the researcher has selected Communication as one of the four criteria

to evaluate the effectiveness of MCGM‘s Disaster Management Plan. With the

help of a questionnaire, researcher has tried to know respondents‘ views on

whether they were informed about the deluge on time, i. e. before disaster, during

disaster and after the disaster hit them and what was their experience during the

disasters took place after 26th

July, 2005 deluge.

4. Coordination

One organization, independently, without the help of other organization, cannot

handle the complex needs of a disaster or its preparedness or even disaster

response. It is a job of many organizations working simultaneously. In disaster,

there are number of agencies involved in mitigating the impact of disaster. Each

organization generally has a framework for direction of its operation and

coordination between its different units. Disaster Management generally requires

partnership between organizations and stakeholders.

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So the synchronization of each agency with other agencies is of utmost important

for getting the result, otherwise there will be only chaos. The situation of the

survivors will become worst.

In addition to Red Cross and Red Crescent (RC), there are government agencies,

public service institutions like police, firemen, health workers, community groups

civic and religious organisations, NGOs, businesses, local leaders and local

groups with roles and responsibilities in disaster preparedness and response.

Effective coordination among these various responders is critical to successful

preparation and response to disasters. Proper coordination can eliminate gaps and

duplication in service, division of work and responsibility can be determined in an

appropriate manner. It also helps in establishing a framework for information

sharing, consensus on policy formulation and participation in joint planning and

implementing programs in collaboration.

In a disaster situation coordination between all the institutions/ agencies

(governmental and non-governmental) is very crucial. At the same time

coordination has to be established between the central, state and local levels, as

the majority of disaster information for the purpose of coordination is processed at

the state level, depending on the intensity and scale of disaster event.

Disaster management requires a multi-disciplinary and multi-sector approach.

There are several stakeholders in Greater Mumbai such as MCGM, Fire Brigade,

BEST, MMRDA, Mumbai Police, Traffic Police, Home Guards and Civil

Defense, District Collectors (City & Suburban), India Meteorological Department

(Regional Office), Railways (Central & Western), M.T.N.L, Electric Supply

Agencies and several other stakeholders including the Armed Forces, NDRF,

Civil Society, etc. Multi-sectoral institutional arrangements linking these agencies

based on their sectoral functions is a precondition for prompt and efficient

discharge of the responsibilities assigned to each agency, while avoiding

duplication of efforts. An inter-agency coordination committee for should be put

in place. This will ensure synchronized action in pre-disaster as well as disaster

situations. For this purpose, each organization needs to designate a Nodal Officer

as well as an alternate Nodal Officer to participate in the sector-wise meetings,

assist in organizing mock drills and report on pro-active actions taken by each

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organization. This would work as an effective institutional arrangement for each

sector.

(Legal and Institutional Arrangements For Disaster Risk Management In Greater

Mumbai-2010).

2.14 Disasters Management and Related Issues

a. Disasters Management and Non Government Organizations ( NGOs):

For successful disaster reduction it is utmost important to combine efforts of state

machinery and civil society. In the human history NGOs have played a very

crucial role in mitigating, preventing, responding to disaster affected people,

recovery and rehabilitation of the sufferers. Making people aware about the

hazards, psychological help are the fields in which NGOs are experts. Therefore,

government takes help from them in every calamity. NGOs can be innovative,

rooted to the ground and they can involve local community in their efforts towards

disaster and disaster risk reduction. The growing importance of NGOs is because

many times neither the State nor the market can fully address the problems faced

by people today, NGOs can be useful in this regard.

Over the last few decades, NGOs have become important players in the

development process across the globe. They are engaged in wide ranging activities

like community development, training, policy research etc. Their organizational

flexibility, informal work style, and close engagement with grassroots

communities enable them to deliver services to people at lower costs.

Importance of NGOs‘ involvement in Disaster Reduction can be understood from

the following points:

The community-focused Approach of NGOs: It is the main strength of any

NGO, so they can take micro-level initiative for wider impact. Of course, this

is possible only when there is a continuous dialogue and interaction between

state and NGOs.

Optimum use of resources- Asian countries have always limited resources.

Logistic and infrastructure facilities cause many problems. Therefore, without

the effective partnership between the government and NGOs, optimum use of

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available financial and human resources, organizational energies not possible

for timely response to disasters.

Avoiding the overlapping, Duplication and Confusion: Timely responding to

natural disaster is a difficult task particularly in South Asian Countries. As

people live in remote rural places with no communication facilities. Reaching

to them is possible only because of NGOs. However, without coordination the

efforts of many actors would result in duplication, overlapping and confusion.

Supplement Government‘s response with sector specific initiatives: NGOs

focus on sector specific issues such as livelihood, community organization,

women group formation etc. which accelerates social and economic recovery

after disasters. Such efforts would supplement larger infrastructural initiative

of the govt.

Strengthen Community- Based Disaster Preparedness: In third world

countries, due to poverty and low level of awareness the loss of human life is

very high and their economies have long lasting adverse impact. These

countries cannot have techno intensive solutions for disaster response and

reduction. The success of disaster preparedness in such context depends more

on effective community based approaches in which NGOs can play a bigger

role.

(Mr. Aurobindo Behera, 2002)

b. Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Disaster

Management in India:

The ICT has great potential to play a critical role in managing natural and human

made disasters. The importance has been attached to ICT as it is very useful in all

phases of disaster management. It has been a global phenomenon. For Example,

after the Hurricane Katrina, the Congress in the USA directed the Federal

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to conduct a study on the application

of ICT to disaster management. The Government of India too has given due

weightage to the use of ICT in disaster risk reduction through its Disaster

Management Act,2005. The ICT in the form of internet, Geographic Information

System (GIS), remote sensing, satellite- based communication links have been

proved to be very effective in this regards. It can help a great deal in planning and

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implementation of disaster risk reduction measures. ( Dr. Anilkumar Mohapatra,

2011).

However, India has to go a long way in utilizing ICT to the fullest extent.

Barriers to the use of ICT in India:

The IT equipments are very useful in reducing the disaster risk but these are

very costly and especially in the country like ours where even minimum

necessities of people are yet to be fulfilled.

The apathy on the part of Government and its administrative staff becomes a

barrier in using these new techniques

In some cases it is found that people have not been adequately warned and

informed about the disaster which is just round the corner.

Lack of awareness among people about the severity of the calamity, due to

which they hesitate to vacate the area possibly that will be affected by the

disaster.

Sincere and in-depth efforts in ICT research is essential.

( Dr. Anilkumar Mohapatra, 2011).

c. Disasters and Role of Corporate Sector:

Business enterprises are expected to carry out responsibilities for the impact of

their activities on the consumers, employees and community as a whole. Efforts

are therefore needed to engage corporate bodies in undertaking disaster risk

reduction activities as a part of their corporate social responsibilities. NDMA and

NIDM have to actively engage with the corporate sector in mainstreaming DRR

within their CSR framework.

d. Community Based Disaster Management

Effective disaster risk reduction requires community participation. The

involvement of communities in the design and implementation of activities helps

to ensure that they are well tailored to the actual vulnerabilities and to the needs of

the affected people. This informed engagement helps to avoid problems and

secondary effects when hazard events occur. Participatory approaches can more

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effectively capitalise on existing indigenous capacities. They are usually also

more sensitive to gender, cultural and other context-specific issues that can

undermine or empower particular groups and individuals to take locally based

action. The incorporation of local perspectives into decision and activities also

helps to ensure that changes in vulnerability and perception of risk are recognised

and factored into institutional processes, risk assessments, and other programmes

and policies

(Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the resilience of nations and

communities to disasters.)

Russell Dynes, a well-known scholar, emphasizes that "the local community is

taken as the primary focus of attention (in disaster reduction) since that is the

common unit which is affected by disaster and, more importantly, responds to deal

with the event." - Whether a disaster is major or minor, of national or local

proportion, it is the people at the community or village level who suffer its

adverse effects. They use coping and survival strategies to face and respond to the

situation long before outside help from NGOs or the government arrives. They are

interested to protect themselves from the damage and harm.

e. Climate Change and Disasters:

The current trends of climate change are expected to increase the frequency and

intensity of existing hazards, an increased probability of extreme events, spur the

emergence of new hazards and vulnerabilities with differential spatial and socio-

economic impacts. This is likely to further degrade the resilience and coping

capacities of poor and vulnerable communities, who make up from a quarter to

half of the population of most Indian cities Vulnerability has typicall ycontributed

more to overall risk in India than hazard exposure. The efforts for integrating

climate change and DRR measures needs to be further strengthened and

institutionalised and community be sensitised to take up such adaptive measures,

which reduces their vulnerability.

f. Mainstreaming of Disasters

An integrated, multi-hazard approach to disaster risk reduction should be factored

into policies, planning and programming related to sustainable development,

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relief, rehabilitation, and recovery activities in post-disaster and post-conflict

situations in disaster-prone countries. (Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015.)

In the words of the Planning Commission as spelt out in the Eleventh Five Year

Plan document, ―Mainstreaming disaster management into the development

planning process essentially means looking critically at each activity that is being

planned, not only from the perspective of reducing the disaster vulnerability of

that activity, but also from the perspective of minimizing that activit‘s potential

contribution to the hazard. Every development plan of a ministry/department

should incorporate elements of impact assessment, risk reduction, and the ‗do no

harm‘ approach. Examples of this approach are urban planning and zoning, up

gradation of building codes and their effective enforcement, adoption of disaster

resilient housing designs and construction of school and hospitals, flood proofing,

response preparedness planning, insurance, establishment of early warning

systems for various types of disasters, generating community awareness, creating

technical competence and promoting research among engineers, architects, health

experts, and scientists.‖

g. Disasters and Development

As per the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987, ‗development that meets the

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs is sustainable‘. It contains within it two key concepts: the

concept of ‗needs‘, in particular the needs of the poor; and the idea of ‗limitations‘

imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment‘s

ability to meet these needs. The main objective of sustainable development is to

prevent the acts of nature from becoming disasters. Development that is

sustainable will not disturb its environs beyond reasonable levels. It is based on

socio-cultural development, political stability, economic growth and ecosystem

protection, which all relate to disaster risk reduction.

(Hyogo Framework of Action (2005) Priorities for Action)

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危机 This is the chinese expression of the word ‘Disaster’. The first letter of the

word implies danger and second part of the word indicates an opportunity.

On the same lines scholars explain four realms or domains of disaster. The

relationship between the Disaster and Development is as follows:

Figure No.-2.10

Development Realm

Disaster Realm

Dr. R. A Stephensons UNDP, 1994

Aspects of a community‘s development and vulnerability to disasters are charted

on the above figure. The graphic shows the various ―orientatiojns‖ with which you

may analyze the ―field‖ of development and disaster vulnerability. The field is

divided into positive and negative aspects of the disaster/ development

relationship by the vertical axis. The right half reflects the positive or optimistic

side of the relationship and the left side of the diagram deals with the negative

Development

can increase

vulnerability

Neg

ativ

e R

ealm

Po

sitive Realm

Development

can reduce

vulnerability

Disaster can

setback

development

Disaster can

provide

development

opportunity

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aspects of the relationship. The short statement given in each quadrant sums up

the basic concept derived from the overlap of the two realms

Realm 1. Disaster can set back Development:

Loss of resources and resources are to be diverted from development

projects, social programs in order to manage the disaster consequence and

begin recovery efforts.

Interruption of development program.

Negative impact on investment climate.

Vital infrastructure is damaged or destroyed such as roads, bridges, airports,

communication systems, power generation and distribution facilities.

Possibility of political destability due to which foreign investment inflow

gets affected.

Attention is focused on short term relief.

Disruption of non formal sector

Realm 2 Development can increase vulnerability:

Because of development, new jobs are created, they attract people to cities.

Due to high cost of housing they have to live in informal settings. They

have to reside on hillside, in floodplains, encroachment of river basin and

lack areas takes place. This is highly vulnerable situation.

Housing and reconstruction projects lead to deforestation

Dam projects compel the population displacement.

Traffic congestion increases pollution.

Realm 3 Disasters can provide development opportunities:

Disaster serves as catalyst for implementing mitigation projects.

Disaster may create favorable environment from Political and economic

point of view for rapid change in land reform, improving housing stock,

create new jobs, and skills and modernize economic base.

Self-help housing, teaching new skill and labor intensive reconstruction.

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Realm 4 Development can reduce Vulnerability:

If the government adopts sustainable development approach(earlier it is

explained the meaning of what is sustainable development) vulnerability

can be reduced.

Housing projects adhering to disaster resistant building codes.

Development in rural areas can decrease massive population migration to

urban areas.

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