Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Sports an integral part of the society has an important and

valuable effect on many spheres of social life. Similarly the whole

social pattern of a society may be reflected in its sports. Sports,

unlike the other activities, are not an end product. It is

undertaken essentially for its own sake. If we want to know why

people play, the first answer is that they primarily play for fun,

enjoyment or satisfaction. The sport is a carrier, which

encourages coaching of various sports and games along with

rules and regulations governed by them and also it prepares the

trainees to take active part in competitive sports. It grows out of

man’s struggle for survival in a hostile world.

With rapid growth and development in the modern world

sports becomes a highly organized and competitive social

phenomenon. It has a clear-cut classification on the basis of

intensity of participation namely the recreation sports for

children, health and conditioning sports for elders and

competitive sports for the youth and adults. The competitive

sports are further ranked according to the level of intensity of

2

the competition. The highest level of competition in which the

intensity of physical activity raises the pulse rate of the athlete to

approximately between 180-200 beats/minute is considered as

the top sport. As sports has more and more developed, it

becomes a scientific discipline. Each nation in the world is vying

with other to produce top class players to win laurels in the

international competitions. Considerable research is done and

developed to identify various factors that will be productive of

achieving high-level performance in skills of a given sport with

proper coaching (Harrold M.Barrow, 1969).

Volleyball is an excellent all-round team-sport, and it has

been widely accepted as a highly competitive and recreational

game throughout the world. Since its inception in 1895, it has

not only developed from a slow moving game into a fast one, but

also has become a game of high interest and joy to the players

and spectators alike. It is interesting to note that the speed of a

powerfully spiked ball in the game of Volleyball is about 45

meters per second, which is much faster than the movement of

the ball in most other games. Further, the game offers a wider

opportunity for the development of strength, speed, endurance,

agility, neuro-muscular skills and coordination of all parts of the

body by the actions involved in the game, such as running,

3

jumping, bending, stretching and other movements which call

for balance and poise. The game situations demand coordinated

teamwork thereby instilling in every player a sense of personal

and group responsibility by his individual performance and his

ability to combine with the rest of the team. Volleyball, when

promoted under sound leadership, brings out and sharpens the

qualities of honesty, fair play and sportsmanship in those who

participate in it.

Volleyball has an added advantage in being suitable for

both sexes, regardless of age and physical ability, as it is highly

adaptable. It is a game easy to learn, and since there is no body-

contact between opponents, there is little danger of serious

injuries. The game requires only a small play area and the

equipment needed is within the reach of all income groups.

Because of its usefulness to both sexes, there are great

opportunities for healthy and sound social contacts among men

and men of all races. As a sport, Volleyball has immense

recreational and carry-over values and thus meets all the

requirements of an ideal form of physical activity (Sue, 1987).

Volleyball

Volleyball chosen for this study is a game that can be

played by all age groups, on both sessions in indoors, outdoors

4

and beach. It can be considered as highly competitive games,

requiring a high level of fitness. It can be considered as relaxing

and highly enjoyable recreational game.

Competitively, this game requires deep concentration,

quick thinking and a great deal of movement. The speed of the

game means that players must be thinking about attack and

defense. Nichollos (1973) observes that “Volleyball is an action

oriented game with none of the players acting as an involuntary

spectator for a sport of the game as in the other games such as

Football, Volleyball and Netball”.

Volleyball may be called a movement oriented game, as

action implies the movement. This is one of the most important

reasons why this game has become the most popular sports in

the world. The skills of the game are the most pleasurable ones

they provide immediate reward. Unity in diversity is made

possible through International competitions of sports and game.

Volleyball is one such game and has all the elements of first

rated sport.

Volleyball is played by millions of people around the world.

In many countries, it has been ranked as a top-level competitive

sport. It is a fascinating game, which everybody will accept. It is

a well-known fact that volleyball is a thrilling game. It is one of

5

the recreational games within a small area. It is a game where

not only the hands are engaged in receiving and spiking the ball,

but the whole body and mind are engaged in this game.

Volleyball is probably the leading ball game in the world as far as

action and accuracy are concerned. Regarding the result of this

game anything may happen at any time.

Volleyball is a team game where six players in the court

will play as a unit and not like machine (Robert, 1933).

This game has continuously developed from its inception

till the present day. The game was conceived and structuralized

by William Morgan, the Director of Physical Education at the

Young Men’s Christian Association, Holyoke in Massachusetts,

United States of America during the year 1895. For many years,

Morgan was in search of a recreational activity that could be

physically and psychologically refreshing and it must be suitable

to even aged people (Dave James, 1976).

At first, Morgan tried on Tennis to these people, but the

problem of purchasing rockets and materials paved the way for

the invention of Volleyball. However, the Tennis net was first

used to raise it to a height of six feet, over which a Basketball

bladder was volleyed. Since the bladder was too light and the

flight over the net was rather slow, he used the Basketball, but it

6

was too large and heavy to volley over the net. A proposal for

manufacturing a ball that was neither heavy nor big as

Basketball was given to Splading and brothers with definite

specifications. The resulting ball that was smaller and lighter

than Basketball and then the net was also approved (Batty,

1695).

At first the game was demonstrated at the Conference of

Physical Directors at Springfield College in 1896. Mintar was the

old name of Volleyball and that was played with very much

interest. Morgan named the game Mintornathe. After careful

analysis of the game, Alfred T. Halstead who witnessed the

nature of the game being played and he suggested the name

‘Volleyball’ which was unanimously accepted.

The game developed rapidly under the supervision of the

Young Men’s Christian Association, Physical Director’s Society.

Within a short time, this game moved out of the boundaries of its

homeland, United States of America, was the first country to

play Volleyball in 1900 and the next immediate country was

Cuba to play the game in 1905. Volleyball was one of the popular

army Sports during the first World War and American Soldiers

carried this game to many parts of the world. In 1912 a Special

Committee of Young Men Christian Association was assigned to

7

the task of studying the rules. In 1917, the complete Volleyball

guide made its appearance, being published by the American

Sports Company at New York (Batty, 1695).

Volleyball in India

Volleyball was introduced in India by the Y.M.C.A. during

the early part of the 20th century. The Y.M.C.A. College of

Physical Education at Madras was one of the first institutions to

take up Volleyball and the physical education teachers trained

there have taken the game to almost all parts of the Indian sub-

continent. Today, the game is played throughout the length and

breadth of the country in schools, colleges, and public

playgrounds and in villages and rural areas. The popularity of

the game is increasing day by day in all the states of the country.

The number of tournaments, competitions and coaching camps

conducted throughout the year are clear indication that it has

taken deep root on Indian soil. Volleyball is one of the games for

inter-school and inter-collegiate championships in many places

and inter-university championships are held every year.

The Volleyball Federation of India set up in 1950 is the

controlling body, which promotes the game at the national level

and coordinates the activities of member associations. Most of

the states organize annual state championships and the conduct

8

of the national championships for men, women, boys and girls

conducted every year is the highlight of Indian Volleyball. The

national championships were started in the years, 1952 for Men,

1953 for Women, 1956 for junior boys, and 1975 for junior girls.

Further, in 1979, a new event called Federation Volleyball

Tournament for men and women was introduced. In 1980, the

All India Inter-Zonal Sub-senior Volleyball Tournament was

started for the age group 18 to 22 years. Besides, sports clubs

and other agencies conducted several local and open

tournaments. Volleyball tournaments are most popular in

suburbs and some of them assume the character of youth

festivals.

Volleyball enthusiasts have also had opportunities to go

abroad. The first Indian team selected at Calcutta participated in

the World Volleyball Championship for men held at Moscow in

1952 and this was India’s first experience in the International

field. The team could only achieve the eighth place in the

Championship. In 1954, the Indian team visited China and

participated in a series of competitive games against local teams.

At the first Asian Volleyball Championship in 1955, India had

the distinction of winning the Asian title. One of the leading

volleyball clubs in the U.S.S.R. toured the country in 1955 and

9

played exhibition matches at various centers. Since then, the

Indian team has been taking part in several international events,

thereby enriching its experience by meeting highly skilled teams

in other parts of the world. In addition to competitive

programme, training and coaching schemes also have been

implemented under the direction of Indian and foreign expert

coaches. The events outlined above have considerably helped the

volleyball players in India to give up conventional methods of

play and adopt more advanced techniques.

Physical Exercise

Exercise occupies a lead role in keeping a person fit. It will

be quite difficult to adjust one’s life in terms of stress, diet, sleep

and so on without proper exercise. According to Plato, Lack of

activity destroys the good condition of every human being while

movement and methodical physical exercise save it and preserve

it. Exercise means using and toning the body. Exercise builds

and maintains physical fitness (Barry, 1987).

Physical exercise is a capsule for better living. With regular

exercise, coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart enlarge

and new blood capillaries develop within the organ larger,

stronger and more efficient. Exercise increases the strength and

efficiency of the muscles of the rib cage and diaphragm. This

10

causes an increase in the lung volume, enabling a person to take

in more air and thus absorb more oxygen. A person who

exercises regularly breathes more slowly at rest than one who

does not work out. But, when required, he or she can breathe

deeply and oxygenate a given volume of blood, spending less

energy. Exercise increases the size of existing blood vessels and

makes them more elastic. It promotes the formation of new blood

vessels not only in the heart, but also in the skeletal muscles,

thus improving the oxygen supply to all parts of the body.

Exercise increases the total blood volume in the body, the

density of red blood cells and the haemoglobin content. This

increases the efficiency of the body’s oxygen transport system as

well as the waste disposal mechanism, leading to improved

muscular endurance and efficiency. Exercise helps to burn

calories not only when exercising, but burns calories at a higher

rate even after finished exercising and converts them into muscle

tissues. “High levels of blood cholesterol are strongly associated

with heart attacks. Regular exercise will lower cholesterol levels.

Exercise brings down high blood pressure; reduces body fat and

increases muscle mass; helps reduce weight; keeps blood sugar

under control; relieves muscle and joint pains; reduce stress;

prolongs life; exercise improves feeling of well being (Arjun,

1991).

11

Achieving and maintaining physical fitness helps prevent

the premature occurrence of numerous illnesses and diseases. It

also helps in rehabilitation after illness or disease has happened.

It helps for mental alertness. It promotes emotional stability. It

enhances spiritual and moral development. Exercise, thus

contributes towards an increased level of fitness and an holistic

approach to good health.

Yoga

The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root Yuj

meaning to bind, join, attach and yoke, to direct and concentrate

one’s attention on, to use and apply. It also means union or

communication. It is the true union of our will with the will of

God. ‘In thus means’, says Mahadev Desai in his introduction to

the Gita according to Gandhi, “the yoking of all the powers of

body, mind and soul to God; it means the disciplining of the

intellect, the mind, the emotions, the will, which that yoga pre-

suppose; it means a poise of the soul which enables one to look

at life in all its aspects greatly (Iyangar, 1993).

The aim of yoga is to teach the means by which the human

soul may be completely united with the supreme spirit parading

the universe and thus serve absolution (Iyangar, 1993).

12

The word yoga has its roots in the Sanskrit language and

means to merge, join or unite. Yoga is a form of exercise based

on the belief that the body and breath are intimately connected

with the mind. By controlling the breath and holding the body in

steady poses, or asanas, yoga creates harmony. Yoga is a means

of balancing and harmonizing the body, mind and emotions and

is a tool that allows us to withdraw from the chaos of the world

and find quite space within. To achieve this, yoga uses

movement, breath, posture, relaxation and mediation in order to

establish a healthy, vibrant and balanced approach to living.

Modern scholars have defined yoga as the classical Indian

science that concerns itself with the search for the soul and the

union between the individual, whose existence is finite, and the

Devine, which is infinite.

Yoga is one of the original concepts which today would be

labeled as holistic. That means that the body is related to the

breath; both are related to the brain; in turn this links with the

mind, which is a part of consciousness.

The essence of yoga is to be in the driver’s seat of life.

Control is a key aspect of yoga: control of the body, breath and

mind. The secret of yoga practice lies in a simple but important

13

word: balance. In every area of our life yoga represents balanced

moderation.

Numerous issues are confronting in the world today. The

media have brought many of these issues to the forefront,

increasing their visibility. The issues are political instability,

violence, stories of corruption, health hazards, and so on. In

recent years, medical research has shown that a great deal of ill

health is directly related to lack of physical activity. Moreover,

with the advent of the industrial revolution, machines began to

do the work once done by hand. As people became less active,

they began to lose strength and the instinct for natural

movement. Machines have obviously made life easier, but they

also created serious problems. Without daily physical exertion,

human bodies become storehouses of unreleased tensions.

People now realize that the only way to prevent the diseases

inactivity is to remain active not for a month, or a year, but for a

life time. No doubt, yoga is the important link between the

sedentary life and the active life. It keeps the muscles supple,

prepares for movement and helps to make the daily transition

from inactivity to vigorous activity without undue stress and

strain. Thus, yoga restores ‘wholeness”.

Psychology

14

Psychology is defined as the science of behaviour and

cognitive process. In other words psychologist are concerned

with obtaining scientific information on everything we think, and

do. They examine observable behaviour, cognitive process,

physiological events, socials and cultural influences and hidden

largely unconscious process. They also look at the complex

interactions between all of these different factors in order to

understand behavior.

Psychology should focus on the study of conscious,

experience. Our task is that of analyzing sensations, feelings,

and images in to their most basic parts, just as chemists analyse

complex substances. In that way we will come to understand

the nature of the human mind – what it is. We can accomplish

this through introspection asking individuals to describe what is

going on in their own mind as they perform various tasks or

have specific experience (Robert A.Baron, 1996).

Psychology is an extremely exciting and challenging field of

knowledge. It continues to go in an accelerating phase, each

year and it continues to provide answers to basic questions

about the human condition. Psychology has enormous

potential. It offers as the hope of both understanding and

15

improving our lives, our community and planet (Andrew

B.Crider, 1981).

Modern psychology in contrast with its early status is an

objective rather than subjective; experimental rather than

speculative science. Psychology is an objective study of

behaviour, does not lay down norms for behaviour. It simply

explains how under such circumstances would and animal or a

human being characteristically behave ‘ what should be’ is no

concern of psychology No branch of this science talks of any

norms or standards it explains how and why things happened

the way they do so far as bahaviour is concerned. In its extreme

form psychology enters physiology and this suffices to prove the

wood worth’s thesis is that psychology is a science it aims to

understand to get insight in to, to interpret and throw light on

the mind, its processes and procedures implicit and explicit

(M.L.Kamlesh, 1998).

Sports Psychology

During the past two decades sports psychology has

emerged as a legitimate field of scientific inquiry. As with all

scientific endeavors, sports psychology shares the same basic

goals of science, the observation of events, the description of

phenomena, the explanation of the factors that influences events

16

in systematic manner, the prediction of events or out comes

based upon systematic and reliable explanations and ultimately,

the control of events or contingencies that result in expected out

comes. Sports psychology in many ways is a fortunate scientific

field of inquiry. Researchers are afforded ample opportunity to

observe, describe, and explain the various psychological factors

that influences diverse aspects of sport and physical activity

(John M.Silva & Robert.S.Weinberg, 1991).

Sports psychology when viewed of as a sub discipline

within the larger field of psychology would be defined as an

applied psychology or as a field of study in which the principles

of psychology are applied. Although sports psychology has not

been recognized traditionally as a sub disciplinary area of study

with in the field of Academic psychology. Scientists recently

suggested that sports psychology is read to be embraced by

mainstream of psychology.

The view of sports psychology as a sub discipline with in

the field of sports and exercise science comes mostly from

scientists in physical education. They argued that the academic

discipline of Physical Education consist of the study of certain

aspects of such field as psychology physiology and Anatomy

(Thelma S.Horn, 1992).

17

“Sports and Exercise psychology has evolved into an

interdisciplinary field involving both sports scientists and

psychologists. From an initial focus on sports performance as

the primary outcomes of interest sports and exercise psychology

has broadened considerably performance enhancement remains

an important area of research and applied work, but

improvement of the quality of participant involvement in physical

activity has emerged as an emphasis of researchers and,

practitioners. Although collegiate, professional collegiate

professional, and elite amateur athletics have traditionally been

the main recipient of inventions, professionals have expanded

the horizon to include youth competitors, adult recreational

participants, master’s athletics and undeserved populations. In

keeping with the winding range of population targeted for

intervention, sport and exercise psychology research and

practice extended beyond the playing field and the laboratory to

the host of other venues, including schools, health clubs, sports

medium clinics, counseling centers and private practice offices

(Judy L. Van Raalte & Britton W.Brewer, 1997).

Importance of Psychology of Sport

Psychology of sport means applying psychological theories

and concept to aspects of sport such as coaching and teaching.

18

The sport psychologist use psychological assessment techniques

and intervention strategies in an effort to help individuals to

achieve their optimal performance. While sports psychology is

concerned with analyzing human behaviour in various types of

sport settings: it focuses on the mental aspects of performance.

Psychology as a behavioural science has made its

contribution for improving sport performance. It has helped the

coaches to coach more efficient athletics to perform more

proficiently. This psychological aspects on sport is gaining much

attention among sports administrators. A rapidly growing area of

interest in sports psychology concerns the use of stress

management, procedures such as biofeedback and relaxation

training to enhance athletic performance by reducing (Charles

A.Bucher and Deborah, 1987).

Preponderance of scientific evidence obtained from different

investigations have revealed that apart from somatic and

physiological variables techniques and tactics etc., high level

performance of a sportsmen is dependent upon his psychological

makeup. Different psychic abilities play decisive roles in

achieving top level performance in track and field athletics.

Therefore superb psychological fitness and training of the

19

"individual" are important factors, which help in achieving

outstanding performance.

Psychology can help the sportsman in the activity of sports

excellence. Role of psychology in selection sports, training

materials and rehabilitations would definitely help in achieving

sports excellence. Tigher et al (1986) emphasized has been laid

on pointing out that psychology and sports converge at the same

point and excellence in sports can be optimally obtained by

developing appropriate strategies.

Anxiety

Anxiety results when the individual doubts his or her

ability to cope with the situation that causes him or her stress.

Another important point that needs to be clarified is the

difference between state and trait anxiety. While state anxiety

can be considered to be more situational in nature and is often

associated with arousal of the autonomic nervous system, trait

anxiety can be thought of as a world view that an individual uses

when coping with situations in his or her environment

(Spielberger, 1966).

Trait anxiety influences performances in that individuals

with high trait anxiety will attend more to information related to

state anxiety. Previous research outside of sport and exercise

20

psychology has indicated that individuals with high trait anxiety

who are state anxious attend to threat related information, while

individuals with low trait anxiety that are state anxious will

attend away from threat related information. Within the context

of sports, those individuals who are low trait anxious and

experience high state anxiety would find it facilitative to a peak

performance; but, those individuals with who are high trait

anxious and experience state anxiety will find it debilitative to

athletic performance.

The catastrophe model of anxiety and performance looks at

the interactive effects of physiological arousal and cognitive

anxiety upon performance. Physiological arousal can influence

performance as a result of the individual's interpretation of their

physiological symptoms. According to the model as cognitive

anxiety increases it will be beneficial to performance at low levels

of physiological arousal but a detrimental effect at high levels of

physiological arousal.

Furthermore, when cognitive anxiety is at a low level,

changes in physiological arousal have little effect upon

performance. However, as cognitive anxiety increases

physiological arousal can have either a positive or negative effect

on performance depending on how much arousal there is. Once

21

physiological arousal levels are too high there is a steep drop in

performance, which can only be reversed by a reduction in

physiological arousal. Jones and Gould (1996) feel that even

though the model fails to include a aggression variable, its

interactive approach seems to be the best explanation for

observed behavior.

A great deal of research has been devoted to the effect of

anxiety on sports performance. Researchers have found that

competitive state anxiety is higher for amateur athletes in

individual sports compared with athletes in team sports. In

addition, participants in individual non-contact sports have been

found to report lower levels of state anxiety than participants in

individual contact sports (Simon & Martens, 1977).

Cognitive anxiety has been found to exert a powerful

influence on performance. This statement holds true regardless

of the individual's skill level. Clearly the cognitive interpretation

an individual gives to a situation exerts an effect. The most

powerful quality that elite performers posses is a high level of

aggression which may act as a protective factor from cognitive

anxiety.

Clearly, anxiety exerts a variety of effects on athletic

performance. These effects vary based on sport, gender and level

22

of experience. In order to facilitate peak performances by

athletes, sport psychologists must consider the three different

facts of anxiety: cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and

aggression. Given the research that indicates that successful

athletes who interpret their anxiety as being facilitative is

characterized by high scores on aggression and low scores on

somatic and cognitive anxiety, sports psychologist should work

towards achieving this ideal state among their clients. Let us

now turn our attention to the variety of treatments that are

available for the treatment of anxiety within the athletic context.

Wiggins and Brustad (1996) include that it is therefore

necessary to consider all aspects of an individual's psychological

functioning if sport psychology interventions are to have a

maximum impact.

Achievement motivation

Today sports psychology has provided little information

about now competitiveness develops and now it affects sport

participants. However, we do know more about the closely

related construct of achievement motivation. Competitiveness is

a sport specific form of achievement motivation, and sport

psychologists generally agree that competitiveness develops from

achievement motivation. Thus by examining the factors that

23

influence achievement behaviour we can begin to understand

competitiveness.

Achievement motivation has a rich reach tradition that

provides insights applicable to sport competition is the most

common achievement situation in sport, buy achievement also

occurs in non-competitive situating when individuals compare

their performance to personal standards (Diane L.Gill, 1948).

An individual’s driven to achieve success for its own sake is

known as achievement motivation. In sports people this is

closely related to competitiveness: in other aspects of physical

activity we would refer to the persistence of a climber in the face

of difficulty or the striving for perfection of a dancer.

Achievement motivation is about what happens when we are

faced with choice to seek out or to avoid situation where we

might or might not be successful (Davis et al, 1981).

Today sports psychology has provided little information

about how competitiveness develops and how it affects sports

participants. However, we do know more about the closely

related construct of achievement motivation. Competitiveness is

a sport - specific form of achievements motivation and sports

psychologist generally agreed that the competitiveness develops

from achievement motivation Thus by examining the factors that

24

influences achievement behaviour we can begin to understand

competitiveness (Diane L.Gill, 1948).

The theory postulates that achievements situation arouse

and expectancy that an individual performance succeed or fail,

which cause a conflict between two opposing tendencies. The

tendency to approach success or the tendency to avoid failure.

Both the motive to achieve success or the tendency to avoid

failure is relatively stable and results from the individual’s

previous experiences in achievements situations.

25

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of the study was to find out the relative effect

of physical exercises and yogic practices on anxiety, aggression

and achievement motivation levels of college volleyball players.

Research Questions

1. Would the physical exercises and yogic practices

improve the selected psychological variables (anxiety, aggression

and achievement motivation) while the presence of covariate

(control)?

2. Would the physical exercises and yogic practices differs

each other and also with control group while improving the

selected dependent variables (anxiety, aggression and

achievement motivation)?

Assumptions

Validity of this study will rely on the following assumptions

1. The subjects made an honest effort to comply with

the intervention protocol according to their specific training.

2. The subjects performed the assigned three different

training sessions separately, for three alternative days per week.

3. The subjects complied with the best of their ability to

the training and testing direction.

26

4. The subjects were tested accurately by the

standardized test items.

5. The selected tests were reliable and valuable for

assess the selected variables.

6. Subjects were not performed any vigorous exercise

during the course of study.

Hypotheses

It has been scientifically accepted that any systematic

training over a continuous period of time would lead to produce

changes on athletic qualities. Based on this concept and the

research questions the following hypotheses were formulated

and tested at 0.05 level of confidence.

1. There would be a significant improvement on selected

variables such as trait anxiety, cognitive anxiety, somatic

anxiety, aggression and achievement motivation due to the effect

of physical exercises and yogic practices.

2. There would be significant differences on trait anxiety,

cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, aggression and achievement

motivation among the physical exercises, yogic practices and

control groups.

27

Delimitations

1. For the purpose of the study only thirty six male

volleyball players from the affiliated colleges of Manonmaniam

Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India were

selected at random. The age of subjects ranged from 18 to 25

years only.

2. The subjects were assigned at random to one of the

three groups (n=12), in which group I had undergone selected

physical exercises programme, group II had undergone a

selected yogic practices programme and group III had acted as

control group and they had not undergone any specific training

programme.

3. The training period was delimited to eight weeks for

three sessions per week.

4. The criterion variables tested were anxiety (State

anxiety, trait anxiety, somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety),

aggression and achievement motivation.

5. The selected variables were measures using by

standardized questionnaire.

6. The data on the selected variables were collected

immediately before and after the training period.

28

Limitations

The following limitations will not be considered while

interpreting the result of the study

1. External factors like diet, lifestyle, habits, body

structure, socio – economic Status, motivation and other

environmental conditions were not taken into consideration.

2. Changes in atmospheric pressure, temperature, relative

humidity and such period of administering the test could not be

controlled or assessed, and their possible influence on the

selected variables and the test performance was also regarded as

a limitation.

3. Though the subjects were motivated verbally, no attempt

was made to differentiate the motivation level during the period

of testing.

4. The study was conducted over the course of eight

weeks and was not able to control for variations in the

environmental conditions and the level of acclimatization.

5. Only 18 to 25 aged men participants were included in

the study, therefore, results cannot be generalized to other

populations.

29

6. The background of the previous training was not

taken in to consideration.

7. Rest periods were not standardized for all subjects.

8. The researcher may not control all outside activities,

food habits, physical activity and social habits of the

participants.

Significant of the Study

1. Machines began to do the work once done by hand with

the advent of the industrial revolution. The advancement of

Telecommunication system changed the lifestyle also. As people

became less active, they began to lose the instinct for natural

movement. But the 1990’s have brought the people especially

the children a critical awareness of the necessity for a healthy

life.

2. The study would expose and encourage players in yoga

and develop in them the habit of exploration; popularize yoga

among the masses particularly the sportsmen and create in

them an awareness of the importance of yoga; make them realize

the relevance of yoga to society and the responsibilities of the

Physical Educators of tomorrow by encouraging in them an

attitude of yogic practices.

30

3. The study would assess the status of psychological

variables of college level male volleyball players.

4. The study would help to assess the effects of yogic

exercises and Physical Exercises among male volleyball players.

5. The study would be benefited to the yoga trainers,

physical educations and coaches in the field of Physical

Education and sports to give coaching for volleyball players.

Definition of the Operational Terms

Volleyball

Volleyball is a game played by two teams of six players

each with a ball in the court. The players will play as a unit and

not like a machine (Robert, 1933).

Yoga

Patanjali defines yoga as the suspension of all the

functions of the mind (Sri Swami, 1983).

Yoga is a timeless pragmatic science evolved over

thousands of years dealing with the physical, mental and

spiritual well-being of man as a whole (Iyangar, 1993).

31

Asana

The word “Asana” is formed from the Sanskrit root ‘As’

meaning ‘to sit’. It is used to denote a posture as well as a seat to

sit upon (Gharote, 1985).

Exercise

The word Exercise refers to conscious and purposeful

physical activity, usually of sufficient intensity to increase to

some degree of respiratory and circulatory function. It refers only

to the actual movement process at the time it occurs (Perry,

1972).

Psychology

Psychology as defined by Andrew B. Crider (1989) is “the

scientific study of behaviour and mental process”.

Sports Psychology

Thelma S. Horn (1992) defines “Sports psychology as the

branch of sports and exercise science that seeks to provide

answer to questions about human behaviour in sports”.

Anxiety

It is a negative emotional state with feelings of

nervousness, worry and apprehension associated with activation

or arousal of the body (Thelma S. Horn, 1992).

32

State Anxiety

Rainer Martens, etal define “State anxiety as an existing or

current emotional state characterized by feelings of

apprehension and tension and associated with activation of the

organism. State anxiety is linked with negative effect” (Rainer

Martens et al, 1990).

Trait Anxiety

“Trait anxiety is a predisposition to perceive certain

environmental stimuli as threatening or non-threatening and to

respond to these stimuli with varying levels of state anxiety”

(Rainer Martens et al, 1990).

Cognitive Anxiety

“Cognitive anxiety is mental component of anxiety and is

caused by negative self-evaluation”.

Cognitive anxiety is characterized by “conscious awareness

of unpleasant feelings about oneself or external stimuli, worry,

disturbing visual images”. In sport, cognitive anxiety is most

commonly manifested by negative performance expectations and

thus negative self-evaluation (Rainer Martens et al, 1990).

33

Somatic Anxiety

“Somatic anxiety refers to the physiological and affective

elements of the anxiety experience that develop directly from

autonomic arousal. It is reflected in such responses as rapid

heart rate, shortness of breath, clammy hands, butterflies in the

stomach, and tense muscles” (Rainer Martens et al, 1990).

Achievement Motivation

Achievement motivation is dominant motivational

orientation in situations characteristised by the attainment of

clear success or failure. In their work, Anne Marrie Bird and

Bernette K. Cripe say that the two primary motives are either to

achieve success (Mass) or to avoid failure (Anne and Bernette,

1992).