Chapter OneChapter One

What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

1. Why Study Psychology?1. Why Study Psychology?

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Behavior – any action that other people can observe or measure. Examples: walking, talking, sleeping, eating, etc.

• Mental processes/cognitive activities – private mental activities that cannot be observed. Examples: dreaming, perceptions, thoughts and memories.

The Goals of PsychologyThe Goals of Psychology

• Psychology aims to observe, describe, explain, predict and control behavior.

• Psychologists observe and describe behavior and mental processes to better understand them.

• A better understanding of behavior enables psychologists to explain, predict and control behavior.

Psychology as a SciencePsychology as a Science

• Psychology is a social science that has its foundations in the natural sciences, particularly biology.

• Social sciences deal with the structure of human society and the nature of the individuals who make up society.

ResearchResearch

• Psychologists test ideas through various research methods.

• Two widely used methods of psychological research are surveys and experimentation.

• Survey – asking questions of people in a particular group.

• Experiment – method of testing a hypothesis

Psychological TheoriesPsychological Theories

• Theory – a statement that attempts to explain why things are the way they are and happen the way they do.

• Psychologists propose theories to explain behavior and mental processes.

• They then seek evidence to support their theories.

2. What Psychologists Do2. What Psychologists Do

• There are many types of psychologists.

• Some psychologist are interested mainly in research.

• Other psychologists consult, or provide services to help people live better.

Clinical PsychologistsClinical Psychologists

• Clinical psychologists evaluate and help people overcome various mental and emotional problems.

• Clinical psychologists treat people for depression, anxiety, as well as more severe disorders such as schizophrenia.

• Clinical psychologists work in hospitals, in prisons, and in college and university clinics.

• A Clinical psychologist is not a psychiatrist, a medical doctor who specializes in the treatment of psychological problems and can prescribe medication.

Counseling PsychologistsCounseling Psychologists

• Counseling psychologists generally help people with adjustment problems rather than severe psychological disorders.

• Use interviews and tests to identify their clients problems.

• Often employed in businesses and in college and university counseling and testing centers.

School PsychologistsSchool Psychologists

• School psychologists help students who have problems that interfere with learning.

• Problems might be learning disabilities, psychological problems or peer and family issues.

• Make recommendations regarding the placement of students in special classes and programs.

Educational PsychologistsEducational Psychologists

• Educational psychologists focus course planning and instructional methods.

• Educational psychologists are concerned with theoretical issues that relate to learning, measurement of abilities an child and adolescent development.

Developmental PsychologistsDevelopmental Psychologists

• Developmental psychologists study the physical, emotional, cognitive, and social changes that occur during the life span.

• Attempt to sort our the relative influences of heredity and the environment on development.

Personality PsychologistsPersonality Psychologists

• Personality psychologists study the effects of personality traits on behavior.

Social PsychologistsSocial Psychologists

• Social psychologists look at people’s behavior in social situations.

• Study, for example, interpersonal attraction, group conformity, prejudice, etc.

Experimental PsychologistsExperimental Psychologists

• Experimental psychologists conduct research into basic human processes such as learning, memory, thinking and motivation, in order to understand their effects on behavior.

Other SpecialistsOther Specialists

• Other areas of specialization include industrial, organizational, environmental, consumer, forensic, and health psychology.

3. A History of Psychology3. A History of Psychology

• We have always wondered about human behavior.• Interest in actions, motives and thoughts of human beings can

be traced as far back as the philosophers and scientists of ancient times.

Roots from Ancient GreeceRoots from Ancient Greece

• Socrates suggested that human beings learn about themselves by examining their thoughts and feelings. “Know thyself.”

• Introspection – carefully examining our thoughts and feelings

• In Peri Psyches (“about the mind”) Aristotle argued that human behavior is subject to certain rules and laws.

• Hippocrates suggested that psychological problems were not punishment from the gods, but caused by abnormalities in the brain.

The Middle AgesThe Middle Ages

• Most Europeans believed psychological disorders were caused by demons

• Water-float test – individuals suspected of being possessed were thrown into deep water, suspects who managed to keep their heads above water were thought to be proven in league with the devil. Those who sank…

The Birth of Modern ScienceThe Birth of Modern Science

• The 1500s, 1600s, and 1700s witnessed the birth of modern science.

• The scientific approach led to the birth of modern psychology in the 1800s.

Wilhelm Wundt and Wilhelm Wundt and StructuralismStructuralism

• In the late 1800s Wilhelm Wundt founded structuralism, which sought to discover the basic elements of conscious experience.

• Wundt broke down conscious experience into two categories: objective sensation (sight, taste) and subjective feelings (emotions, mental images).

• Structuralists believed that the mind functioned by combining these two categories of experience.

William James and William James and FunctionalismFunctionalism

• James stated that experience is fluid and continuous, and could not be broken down as structuralists maintained.

• James founded functionalism, which focused on how mental processes help adaptation to the environment.

John B. Watson and John B. Watson and BehaviorismBehaviorism

• John B. Watson believed that it is unscientific to study consciousness.

• Watson founded behaviorism, the scientific study of observable behavior.

B.F. Skinner and ReinforcementB.F. Skinner and Reinforcement

• Introduced the concept of reinforcement.

• Showed that when an animal is reinforced, or rewarded for performing an action, it is more likely to perform that action again in the future.

• Showed that lab animals were capable of learning complex behavior patterns if they are reinforced, in the right ways.

The Gestalt SchoolThe Gestalt School

• Gestalt psychology focuses the ways in which context influences people’s interpretation of their environment.

• Gestalt psychologists believed that experience cannot be broken down into parts.

Sigmund Freud and the School Sigmund Freud and the School of Psychoanalysisof Psychoanalysis

• Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, believed that human behavior is determined by unconscious motives.

• In consultation with patients, he came to believe that unconscious processes, especially sexual and aggressive urges, are more important than conscious experience in governing people’s behavior and feelings.

• According to Freud, people’s behavior is aimed at satisfying their basic impulses, but many are socially unacceptable, and thus we are in conflict with ourselves.

4. Contemporary Perspectives4. Contemporary Perspectives

• Historical psychological perspectives have evolved over time.

• Today, the most important contemporary perspectives are biological, cognitive, humanistic, psychoanalytical, learning and sociocultural.

The Biological PerspectiveThe Biological Perspective

• The biological perspective emphasizes the importance of biological factors in determining behavior.

• Subject matter: Nervous system, glands and hormones, genetic factors.

The Cognitive PerspectiveThe Cognitive Perspective

• The cognitive perspective studies mental processes to explain human nature.

• Subject matter: Mental images, information processing, thinking, language

The Humanistic PerspectiveThe Humanistic Perspective

• The humanistic perspective stresses human consciousness, experience, and self-awareness in helping people make life choices.

• Subject matter: subjective experience

The Psychoanalytic PerspectiveThe Psychoanalytic Perspective

• The pscyhoanalytic perspective has roots in Freud’s theories, but psychoanalysts today are less concerned with unconscious motives and are more concerned with conscious choice and self-direction

• Subject matter: unconscious processes, early childhood experiences.

The Learning PerspectiveThe Learning Perspective

• The learning perspective maintains that people learn through experience or by observing others.

• Subject matter: Environmental influences, habitual behavior, observational learning.

The Sociocultural PerspectiveThe Sociocultural Perspective

• The sociocultural perspective examines the effects of ethnicity, gender, culture and socioeconomic status on human behavior and mental processes.

• Subject matter: Ethnicity, gender, culture, socioeconomic status.