Chapter Three Chapter Three LexiconLexicon

词汇学词汇学 What is word?What is word? The formation of wordsThe formation of words Lexical changeLexical change 通过本章的学习使学生对词汇、形态学和通过本章的学习使学生对词汇、形态学和语言的变化有所认识，了解词的定义、形语言的变化有所认识，了解词的定义、形成以及词汇变化。成以及词汇变化。

1. 1. What is word?What is word?

A unit of expression that has A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written expressed in spoken or written form. form. –– A vague definition. A vague definition. Three senses are involved in Three senses are involved in

defining defining ““wordword””, none of which is , none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the satisfactory to cope with all the situations.situations.

1.1 Three senses of 1.1 Three senses of ““wordword””

A physical unit:A physical unit: a cluster a cluster of sound segments or of sound segments or letters between two letters between two pauses or blanks, egpauses or blanks, eg Phonological: Phonological: Orthographic: Orthographic: It is It is

wonderfulwonderful.. Three words are Three words are

recognized.recognized.

However, in casual However, in casual speech or writing, it speech or writing, it often becomes:often becomes: Phonological: Phonological: Orthographic: Orthographic: ItIt’’s s

wonderful.wonderful. Are they two words or Are they two words or

three?three?

A set of forms: A set of forms: walk, walks, walk, walks, walking, walkedwalking, walked

How many words are there?How many words are there? I usually have dinner at 6 but I usually have dinner at 6 but

yesterday I had it at seven.yesterday I had it at seven. How many times did the word How many times did the word ““havehave”” occur? occur?

A lexical item or a lexemeA lexical item or a lexeme

A A lexical itemlexical item is an entry in a is an entry in a dictionary. A dictionary. A lexemelexeme WRITEWRITE includes all of its grammatical includes all of its grammatical forms:forms: write, writes, writing, wrote, writtenwrite, writes, writing, wrote, written

A A grammatical unitgrammatical unit: :

sentencesentence

clauseclause

phrasephrase

wordword

morphememorpheme Problem: Problem: blackboardblackboard

1.2 1.2 Identification of wordsIdentification of words Stability:Stability: stable linguistic units. stable linguistic units.

chairmanchairman, but not , but not **manchairmanchair

Relative uninterruptibility:Relative uninterruptibility: though though we recognize three components in we recognize three components in the word the word disappointmentdisappointment, we , we cannot pause and add another cannot pause and add another component in between, as in component in between, as in **disinterestappointmentdisinterestappointment.. But we can add another word between But we can add another word between

words: words: Paul, (John) and MaryPaul, (John) and Mary ... ...

A minimum free form:A minimum free form: the the smallest unit that can constitute smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, ega complete utterance by itself, eg ——Is Jane coming tonight?Is Jane coming tonight? ——Possibly.Possibly. Hi.Hi. Wonderful.Wonderful.

1.3 1.3 Classification of wordsClassification of words VariableVariable vs. vs. InvariableInvariable Words: Words:

Variable words:Variable words: they may have inflective they may have inflective changes. The same word may have changes. The same word may have different grammatical forms but part of different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.the word remains relatively constant.

write, writes, writing, wrote, written; write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, catscat, cats..

Invariable words:Invariable words: words which do not words which do not inflective endings.inflective endings.

since, when, seldom, throughsince, when, seldom, through, etc., etc.

GrammaticalGrammatical vs. vs. LexicalLexical Words: Words: Grammatical/Function words:Grammatical/Function words:

conjunctions, prepositions, articles, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.pronouns.

Lexical/Content words:Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.adjectives, adverbs.

Closed-classClosed-class vs. vs. Open-classOpen-class Words: Words: Closed-class words:Closed-class words: New members cannot New members cannot

normally be added, eg normally be added, eg pronouns, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliariesauxiliaries..

Open-class words:Open-class words: New members can be New members can be added, eg added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbsadverbs..

Word class:Word class: known as known as Parts of Parts of SpeechSpeech in traditional grammar. in traditional grammar. Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, Noun, verb, adjective, adverb,

preposition, pronoun, conjunction, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.interjection, article, etc.

Some new terms in word class:Some new terms in word class: Particle:Particle: infinitive infinitive toto, negative , negative notnot, ,

subordinate units in phrasal verbs subordinate units in phrasal verbs ““get get byby””, , ““look look backback””, etc., etc.

Auxiliary:Auxiliary: do, have do, have Modal verbs:Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, can, will, may, must,

etc.etc.

Pro-forms:Pro-forms: substitutes for other substitutes for other terms.terms. Pronoun:Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyonehe, she, I, they, everyone Pro-adjective:Pro-adjective: Your car is red. Your car is red. SoSo is is

his.his. Pro-verb:Pro-verb: He speaks English better He speaks English better

than he than he diddid.. Pro-adverb:Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I He hopes to win and I

hope hope soso too. too. Pro-locative:Pro-locative: He went He went therethere..

Determiner:Determiner: all the articles, all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and that appear before the noun and its modifiers.its modifiers. As many as three determiners may As many as three determiners may

be used in each case and there is a be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than fixed order when there is more than one.one.

Pre Central Post Modifier Noun all her many good ideas her many good ideas all her good ideas good ideas many good ideas all good ideas what a good idea the one good idea a few ideas both my father’s parents

Predeterminers:Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters third, three-quarters ……; double, twice, ; double, twice, three times three times ……; such, what; such, what (exclamative)(exclamative)

Central determiners:Central determiners: the; this, these, the; this, these, that, those;that, those; we, us; you; which, whatwe, us; you; which, what (relative), (relative), whatwhat (interrogative); (interrogative); a, a, another, some, any, no, either, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few,most, less; a few, a littlea little

Postdeterminers:Postdeterminers: every; many, several, every; many, several, few, little; one, two, three few, little; one, two, three ……; (a) dozen; (a) dozen

*their all trouble*their all trouble *five the all boys*five the all boys *all this boy*all this boy *all both girls*all both girls

2. 2. MorphologyMorphology Morphology:Morphology: the study of word- the study of word-

formation, or the internal formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from by which words are formed from smaller components smaller components –– morphemesmorphemes..

purify ← pur(e) + -ifypurify ← pur(e) + -ify

Verb ← adj. + -ify a Verb ← adj. + -ify a morphological rulemorphological rule

amplify, simplify, electrify, falsifyamplify, simplify, electrify, falsify

2.1 2.1 MorphemesMorphemes

The smallest unit of language in The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.whether it is lexical or grammatical.

boys, chairman, checking, boys, chairman, checking, disappointment, disappointment, disestablishmentarianismdisestablishmentarianism

2.2 2.2 Types of morphemesTypes of morphemes

FreeFree vs. vs. BoundBound morphemes: morphemes: Free morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may constitute those that may constitute

words by themselves, eg words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, boy, girl, table, nationnation..

Bound morphemes:Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur those that cannot occur alone, eg alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un--s, -ed, dis-, un-..

All monomorphemic words are free All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.morphemes.

Polymorphemic words which consist wholly Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are compounds: of free morphemes are compounds: paymaster, moonwalk, babysit, godfather, paymaster, moonwalk, babysit, godfather, sunflower.sunflower.

Root:Root: the base form of a word that the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg total loss of identity, eg friendfriend as in as in unfriendlinessunfriendliness. .

Roots may be Roots may be free:free: those that can stand by themselves, those that can stand by themselves,

eg eg black+boardblack+board; ; nation+-alnation+-al; or; or bound:bound: those that cannot stand by those that cannot stand by

themselves, eg themselves, eg --ceiveceive in in receive, perceive, receive, perceive, conceive;conceive;

reremitmit, sub, submitmit, per, permitmit, com, commitmit reretaintain, con, containtain, main, maintaintain inincurcur, re, recurcur, oc, occurcur .. A few English roots may have both free A few English roots may have both free

and bound variants: and bound variants: sleep, slept, child, sleep, slept, child, childrenchildren

Affix:Affix: the type of formative that the type of formative that can be used only when added to can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally another morpheme. Normally divided into divided into prefixprefix ( (dis-, undis-, un--) and ) and suffixsuffix (-(-en, -ifyen, -ify).). infixinfix ( (feet, goose, geese, feet, goose, geese,

abso-bloomingly-lutelyabso-bloomingly-lutely))

Base:Base: a morpheme to which an affix a morpheme to which an affix is added, egis added, eg

A base is any form to which affixes A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; a form to of any kind can be added; a form to which a rule of word-formation is which a rule of word-formation is applied. Any root or stem can be a applied. Any root or stem can be a base, base, desirabledesirable is a base in is a base in undesirableundesirable, , internationinternation is a base in is a base in internationalinternational.. friendfriend root > baseroot > base friendlyfriendly root/base + suffix > baseroot/base + suffix > base unfriendlyunfriendly prefix + base > baseprefix + base > base unfriendlinessunfriendliness base + suffix > base?base + suffix > base?

Stem:Stem: a morpheme or a morpheme or combination of morphemes to combination of morphemes to which an which an inflectionalinflectional affix may be affix may be added, eg added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-espossibility+-es..

Inflection:Inflection: grammatical endings, grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.etc.

Derivation:Derivation: combination of a combination of a base and an affix to form a new base and an affix to form a new word, eg word, eg friend+-ly > friendlyfriend+-ly > friendly..

Inflectional affix(Inflectional morphemes)

Derivational affix(Derivational morphemes)

Often only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem, Serve to produce different forms of a single wordToys, walks, John’s

Often change the lexical meaningCite citation; Gernerate generation

Do not change the word class flower/flowers

change classsmall/smallness

not change classbrother/brotherhood

Are conditioned by nonsemantic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase of sentence.The boy likes to navigate on the internet.

Are often based on simple meaning distinctions.Clever: 1.the property: clever 2.the state of being clever: cleverness

Mostly suffixes, always word finalDrums, walks, Mary’s

Be prefixesdisable, depart, online

suffixesslaver, teacher,workable

2.3 2.3 Word-formationWord-formation

In flec tio n a lM o rp h o lo g y

D er iv a tio n a l/L ex ica l

M o rp h o lo g y

Morphology

Inflections (Inflectional morphology)Inflections (Inflectional morphology) The manifestation of grammatical The manifestation of grammatical

relationships through the addition of relationships through the addition of inflection affixes, such as number, inflection affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.the stems to which they are attached.

Number: table/tables, apple/applescar/cars

Person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked, open/opens/opening/opened, shout/shouts/shouting/shouted

Case: boy/boy’s, John/John’s, university/ university’s

InflectionInflection Nominal forms:Nominal forms: boys, boy boys, boy’’ss Verb forms:Verb forms: wants, wanted, wants, wanted,

wantingwanting Adjective/adverb forms:Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smaller,

smallestsmallest Each set constitutes a single

paradigm, a set of grammatically conditioned forms all derived from a single root or stem.

Word formation (Lexical / Dervational morphonogy)

The process of word variations signaling lexical relationships.

purify → pur (e) + -ify Two types: Compound and Derivation Compound (Compositional type) :

Words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. Relations between lexical words,

icecream, sunrise, paperbag

CompoundingCompounding

Two or more free roots combine Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.to make a new word. Noun compounds:Noun compounds: daybreak, daybreak,

playboy, haircut, windmillplayboy, haircut, windmill Verb compounds:Verb compounds: brainstorm, brainstorm,

lipread, babysitlipread, babysit Adjective compounds:Adjective compounds: gray-haired, gray-haired,

insect-eating, dutyfreeinsect-eating, dutyfree Preposition compounds:Preposition compounds: into, into,

throughoutthroughout

Endocentric & exocentricEndocentric & exocentric Endocentric:Endocentric: one element serves one element serves

as the head, the relationship of as the head, the relationship of ““a kind ofa kind of””; eg; eg self-controlself-control: a kind of control: a kind of control armchairarmchair: a kind of chair: a kind of chair

Exocentric:Exocentric: there is no head, so there is no head, so not a relationship of not a relationship of ““a kind of a kind of somethingsomething””, eg, eg scarecrowscarecrow: not a kind of crow: not a kind of crow breakneckbreakneck: not a kind of neck: not a kind of neck

Written forms of compoundsWritten forms of compounds Solid: Solid: blackboard, teapot, blackboard, teapot,

bodyguardbodyguard Hyphenated: Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-wedding-ring, wave-

lengthlength Open: Open: coffee table, washing machinecoffee table, washing machine

Free variation: Free variation: businessman, business-man, businessman, business-man,

business manbusiness man winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottlewinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle no one, no-one, nooneno one, no-one, noone

Derivation (Derivational type)Derivation (Derivational type) Relations between roots and Relations between roots and

affixesaffixes

un + conscious → unconscious, un + conscious → unconscious,

nation + al →national, nation + al →national,

national + ize →nationalize, national + ize →nationalize,

nationalize + ation nationalize + ation →nationalization→nationalization

DerivationDerivation Class-changing:Class-changing:

N>V: N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discardlengthen, hospitalize, discard N>A: N>A: friendly, delightful, speechlessfriendly, delightful, speechless V>N: V>N: worker, employee, inhabitantworker, employee, inhabitant V>A: V>A: acceptable, adorableacceptable, adorable A>N: A>N: rapidness, rapidityrapidness, rapidity A>V: A>V: deafen, sweetendeafen, sweeten Adj>Adv: Adj>Adv: exactly, quicklyexactly, quickly

Class-preserving:Class-preserving: N>N: N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, bookletnonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet V>V: V>V: disobey, unfastendisobey, unfasten A>A: A>A: grayish, irrelevantgrayish, irrelevant

Sememe vs. MorphemeSememe vs. Morpheme Sememe Sememe is the smallest is the smallest

component of meaning.component of meaning.

The morpheme The morpheme –s–s has only one has only one sememe: PLURALITY, meaning sememe: PLURALITY, meaning more than onemore than one..

2.2.4 Sememe vs. Morpheme, 4 Sememe vs. Morpheme, and Phoneme vs. and Phoneme vs. MorphemeMorpheme

Five occasions of the relationship Five occasions of the relationship One morpheme vs. one sememeOne morpheme vs. one sememe

-less-less: WITHOUT. : WITHOUT. fearless, careless, countless, fearless, careless, countless, facelessfaceless

One morpheme vs. more than one sememeOne morpheme vs. more than one sememe

a-a-: :

1. arise, await1. arise, await, enhance the meaning of the , enhance the meaning of the original sensesoriginal senses rise rise and and waitwait; ;

2. 2. awash, ablushawash, ablush, changes both the semantic and , changes both the semantic and the grammatical catories ofthe grammatical catories of wash wash and and blushblush, verb , verb → adj;→ adj;

3. 3. atypical, asymmertryatypical, asymmertry, no, non, no, non One sememe vs. more than one morphemeOne sememe vs. more than one morpheme

no, non: no, non: aatypical, typical, eerostrate, rostrate, ilillegal, legal, neneither, ither, ununtidytidy

Morphemes that have no specific sememeMorphemes that have no specific sememe

en-en- has no specific sememe, but may help has no specific sememe, but may help change grammatical and semantic change grammatical and semantic categories.categories.

joyjoy (adj, quality) (adj, quality) enjoy enjoy (verb, event) (verb, event)

cran-cran-: cranberry --- blueberry, blackberry, : cranberry --- blueberry, blackberry, cloudberrycloudberry

Function changes in both sememe and Function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme changemorpheme without morpheme change

runrun: run a company : run a company (verb, event)(verb, event)

in a short runin a short run (noun, thing) (noun, thing)

No morpheme change, but the sememe is No morpheme change, but the sememe is changed: changed:

progress, fish, progress, fish,

fatfat (verb, event / noun, thing / adj, quality) (verb, event / noun, thing / adj, quality)

Morpheme vs. phonemeMorpheme vs. phoneme

Morphophonology (Morphonology, Morphophonology (Morphonology, Morphonemics, Morphophonemics):Morphonemics, Morphophonemics): a a branch of linguistics that refers to the branch of linguistics that refers to the analysis and classification of the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms and, morpheme forms and, correspondingly, the morphological correspondingly, the morphological factors that affect the phoneme forms. factors that affect the phoneme forms. It studies the interrelationship It studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology. between phonology and morphology.

A single phoneme vs. a single morpheme A single phoneme vs. a single morpheme

A single phoneme may represent a A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not single morpheme, but they are not identical.identical.

A single morpheme vs. multiple phonemeA single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme Morphemes may also be represented by Morphemes may also be represented by

phonological structures other than a phonological structures other than a single phoneme.single phoneme.

Thus, the syllabic / phonological structure of a Thus, the syllabic / phonological structure of a word and its morphemic / grammatical word and its morphemic / grammatical structure do not necessarily correspond.structure do not necessarily correspond.

tell + er /te + tell + er /te + lәlә / / big (g) + er /bi + big (g) + er /bi + gәgә / /

Monophonemic dogs / d£gz /

Monosyllabic love + ly /'lΛ v + li /

polysyllabic tobacco /tә + 'bæ + kәu /

Allomorph

Some Morphemes have a single form in all contexts: dog, bark, cat…

A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms:

map maps / mæps / voiceless /s/

dog dogs / d£gz / voiced /z/

watch watches / w£t∫iz / vowel-consonant structure /iz/

mouxe mice / mais / diphthong /ai/

ox oxen /'£ksn / nasal sound /n/

tooth teeth / ti:θ / long vowel /i:/

sheep sheep / ∫i:p / zero form /Ø/

The plural morpheme can be expressed in the form of

{ -s ~ -z ~ -iz ~ -ai ~ - i: ~ -n ~ - Ø }.

Morpheme, like phoneme, is an abstract Morpheme, like phoneme, is an abstract unit, but on a higher level of unit, but on a higher level of abstraction. It consists of a sequence of abstraction. It consists of a sequence of classes of phonemes and has either classes of phonemes and has either lexical or grammatical meaning.lexical or grammatical meaning.

Some morphemic forms represent Some morphemic forms represent different morphemes and thus have different morphemes and thus have different sememes.different sememes.

The morphemic shape The morphemic shape –s–s can express can express

pluralityplurality: : tables, apples, carstables, apples, cars

person / finitenessperson / finiteness: : talks, opens, shoutstalks, opens, shouts

casecase: : boy’s, John’s, university’sboy’s, John’s, university’s

Morphemic conditionsMorphemic conditions

Morpheme shapes vary Morpheme shapes vary according to both according to both phonological conditions and phonological conditions and to the conditions of their to the conditions of their own.own.

▲▲ Phonologically conditionedPhonologically conditioned The form or shape of morphemes may be The form or shape of morphemes may be

conditioned by phonological factors.conditioned by phonological factors.

in- im-

injustice imperfect

inefficient impenetrable

infirm impossible

/ n / / m /

an alveolar nasal a bilabial nasal

/n/ (alveolar nasal) changes to /m/ /n/ (alveolar nasal) changes to /m/ (bilabial nasal) to make it more (bilabial nasal) to make it more similar to /p/(bilabial stop).similar to /p/(bilabial stop).

The assimilation of /n/ is to be The assimilation of /n/ is to be conditioned by /p/.conditioned by /p/.

ggrrammar gammar gllamoramor

peperregrinus piegrinus pillgrimgrim

marbmarbrre marbe marbllee The phoneme /r/ dissimilates to The phoneme /r/ dissimilates to

/l/./l/. DissimilationDissimilation refers to the refers to the

influence exercised by one sound influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.become less alike, or different.

▲▲ MorphologicallyMorphologically conditionedconditioned Morphemes can also be conditioned by Morphemes can also be conditioned by

morphological factors. morphological factors. Three requirements should be met.Three requirements should be met. a. All the allomorphs should have a. All the allomorphs should have

common meaning. common meaning. E.g. the plural morpheme E.g. the plural morpheme { -s ~ -z ~ -iz ~ -ai ~ - i: ~ -n ~ - Ø }.{ -s ~ -z ~ -iz ~ -ai ~ - i: ~ -n ~ - Ø }.b. All the allomorphs should be in b. All the allomorphs should be in

complementary distribution.complementary distribution.c. Allomorphs that share the common c. Allomorphs that share the common

meaning should occur in parallel meaning should occur in parallel formation.formation.

3. 3. Lexical changeLexical change

Formation of new wordsFormation of new words Phonological changePhonological change Morphosyntactic changeMorphosyntactic change Semantic changeSemantic change Orthographic changeOrthographic change

3.1 3.1 Word-formation through Word-formation through lexical changelexical change

Invention/CoinageInvention/Coinage Mostly brand names: Mostly brand names: Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid,

Xerox, LycraXerox, Lycra

BlendingBlending transfer+resistor>transistortransfer+resistor>transistor smoke+fog>smogsmoke+fog>smog motorist+hotel>motelmotorist+hotel>motel breakfast+lunch>brunchbreakfast+lunch>brunch modulator+demodulator>modemmodulator+demodulator>modem dance+exercise>dancercisedance+exercise>dancercise advertisement+editorial>advertorialadvertisement+editorial>advertorial education+entertainment>edutainmeducation+entertainment>edutainm

entent information+commercial>infomerciinformation+commercial>infomerci

alal

Back-formationBack-formation diagnose < diagnosis diagnose < diagnosis enthuse < enthuse <

enthusiasm enthusiasm laze < lazylaze < lazy liaise < liaison liaise < liaison reminisce < reminisce <

reminiscence reminiscence statistic < statistics statistic < statistics televise < televisiontelevise < television

burgle, commentate, edit, peddle, burgle, commentate, edit, peddle, scavenge, sculpt, swindlescavenge, sculpt, swindle

air-condition, babysit, brainstorm, air-condition, babysit, brainstorm, brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, house-hunt, housekeep, sightsee, house-hunt, housekeep, sightsee, tape-recordtape-record

articulate, assassinate, coeducate, articulate, assassinate, coeducate, demarcate, emote, intuit, demarcate, emote, intuit, legislate,legislate,marinate, orate, vaccinate, marinate, orate, vaccinate, valuatevaluate

AbbreviationsAbbreviations ClippingClipping

Back-clippings: Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)sreg(ulation)s

Fore-clippings: Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake(alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake

Fore-and-aft clippings: Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)(de)tec(tive)

AcronymAcronym AIDS, Aids:AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Acquired Immune

Deficiency SyndromeDeficiency Syndrome ASAP:ASAP: as soon as possible as soon as possible CD-ROM:CD-ROM: compact disc read-only compact disc read-only

memorymemory WASP:WASP: white Anglo-Saxon white Anglo-Saxon

protestantprotestant dink(y):dink(y): double income, no kids double income, no kids nilk(y):nilk(y): no income, lots of kids no income, lots of kids

InitialismInitialism AI:AI: artificial intelligence artificial intelligence a.s.a.p.:a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible as soon as possible ECU:ECU: European Currency Unit European Currency Unit HIV:HIV: human immunodeficiency virus human immunodeficiency virus PC:PC: personal computer personal computer PS:PS: postscript postscript RSVP:RSVP: répondez s répondez s’’il vous plait il vous plait

((‘‘please replyplease reply’’ in French) in French)

Analogical creationAnalogical creation

From irregular to regular:From irregular to regular: workwork: wrought > worked: wrought > worked beseechbeseech: besought > beseeched: besought > beseeched slayslay: slew > slayed?: slew > slayed? gogo: went > goed???: went > goed???

BorrowingBorrowing

French:French: administration, administration, parliament, public, court, crime, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, soldier, war, faith, peace, soldier, war, faith, religion, coat, costume, dress, religion, coat, costume, dress, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast, customer, roast, supper, toast, customer, money, price, money, price, art, college, music, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, studypoet, prose, story, study

Latin:Latin: admit, client, conviction, admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minormedicine, minor

Greek:Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasycriterion, idiosyncrasy

Spanish and Portuguese:Spanish and Portuguese: banana, banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanillatomato, vanilla

Italian:Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli, aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi ((singularsingular paparazzo), piano, pizza, paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcanoumbrella, volcano

Dutch:Dutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yachtyacht

Arabic:Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, magazine, safari, sofa, zerosafari, sofa, zero

Indian:Indian: bungalow, cashmere, bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, swastika, thug, yogayoga

Chinese:Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoontea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoon

Types of loan wordsTypes of loan words

Loanwords:Loanwords: au pair, encore, coup dau pair, encore, coup d’’etat, kungfu, etat, kungfu,

sputniksputnik LoanblendLoanblend

coconut:coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut coco (Spanish) + nut (English)(English)

Chinatown:Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town China (Chinese) + town (English)(English)

LoanshiftLoanshift bridge:bridge: meaning as a card game meaning as a card game

borrowed from Italian borrowed from Italian ponteponte

Loan translation, or calqueLoan translation, or calque free versefree verse < L verse libre < L verse libre black humorblack humor < Fr humour noir < Fr humour noir found objectfound object < Fr objet trouvé < Fr objet trouvé

3.2 3.2 Phonological changePhonological change

Loss of sound: Loss of sound: loss of the velar fricative loss of the velar fricative /x//x/ which which

existed in O.E. existed in O.E. loss of sound in fast speech, loss of sound in fast speech,

eg eg librlibrararyy, , lablabooratoryratory andand > > ’’nn in connected speech, in connected speech,

eg eg rock-rock-’’n-rolln-roll

Addition of sound:Addition of sound: L. L. studiumstudium > O.F. > O.F. estudieestudie, Sp. , Sp.

estudioestudio, Port. , Port. estudoestudo English: rascal > rapscallionEnglish: rascal > rapscallion

Metathesis:Metathesis: changing the changing the sequence of soundsequence of sound O.E. O.E. bridbrid > bird, O.E. > bird, O.E. ox/axox/ax > ask > ask

Assimilation:Assimilation: impossible, immovableimpossible, immovable irregular, irresponsibleirregular, irresponsible illogical, illegalillogical, illegal

3.3 3.3 Morphosyntactic changeMorphosyntactic change Morphological change:Morphological change:

third person singular present third person singular present tense: tense:

-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, -(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >findeth >

-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds

the campus of the university > the campus of the university >

the universitythe university’’s campuss campus

Syntactic change:Syntactic change: He saw you not. > He didnHe saw you not. > He didn’’t see you.t see you. I know not where to hide my head. > I know not where to hide my head. >

I donI don’’t know where to hide my head.t know where to hide my head. Fusion/blending:Fusion/blending:

equally good + just as good > equally good + just as good > equally as goodequally as good

ItIt’’s no use getting there before nine s no use getting there before nine + There+ There’’s no use in getting there s no use in getting there before nine > Therebefore nine > There’’s no use getting s no use getting there before nine.there before nine.

3.4 3.4 Semantic changeSemantic change

Broadening:Broadening: holiday:holiday: holy day (religion) > day for holy day (religion) > day for

restrest bird:bird: young bird > any kind young bird > any kind task:task: tax > work tax > work

Narrowing:Narrowing: meat:meat: food > food > girl:girl: young person > young woman young person > young woman deer:deer: beast > a special kind of beast > a special kind of

animalanimal

Meaning shift:Meaning shift: bead:bead: prayer > the prayer prayer > the prayer

bead > small, ball-bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, shaped piece of glass, metal or woodmetal or wood

Class shift:Class shift: conversion conversion to other word classesto other word classes engineer:engineer: person trained person trained

in engineering > to act in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)as an engineer (N>V)

Folk etymology:Folk etymology: a popular but a popular but mistaken account of the origin of mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrasea word or phrase .. history:history: Old French < Latin < Greek Old French < Latin < Greek

historiahistoria, meaning 'knowledge , meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or through inquiry, record, or narrative'.narrative'.

his storyhis story > > herstoryherstory

Fake etymology:Fake etymology: a kind of folk a kind of folk etymologyetymology Manhattan:Manhattan: man with hat on man with hat on MBA:MBA: married but available married but available PhD:PhD: perhaps have divorced perhaps have divorced golf:golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Gentlemen Only; Ladies

ForbiddenForbidden

3.5 3.5 Orthographic changeOrthographic change Change of spelling:Change of spelling:

Iesus > JesusIesus > Jesus sate > satsate > sat Sunne > SunSunne > Sun