CHAPTER VI

THE ENVIRONEMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF INDIA

The policy and progra~nntes of the Goventment of lndia for the

protectiort and improvement of the country's environment is reviewed in this

chapter. The focus is on plan programmes. Actions taken outside the plarlning

Irmcess are a1.w covered. Eficacy of official policy is judged on the basis of well-

known norrns of sustainable environmental managentent. The first part

concentrates on the policies outlined in the Five Year Plarts. The major

enviro~tmer~tal problems faced by lndia are then discussed. This is followed, ~ J I

the firtal part, by aft analysis of the problents facing the environnter~tul

ntartagemertt system.

Norms of Sustainable Management of the Environment

1. Economic growth, by itself, will not put a break on environmental

deterioration. A proactive social intervention system is a sine qua non for

environmental stability and safety.

2. Vital components of environment have a synergic interrelation, and hence

the need for a comprehensive approach.

3. Only a long-term management of environmental problems, based on a

sound strategy can minimise deterioration.

4. There are limits to governmental action. Participation of the community is

an important component of a successful programme of environmental

management.

Plan Programmes for Environmental Protection and Management: 1951-1997

Right from the start, planners showed concern for the environment.

Serious coverage of the various issues of environmental protection, however,

starts only with the fourth plan.

[N.B. Reference to plan docuntents are given after each quotation,

in bracket -plan number followed by page number of the document.]

First Plan (1951-1956)

At this time, awareness on the 'development - environment -

interface' was limited. The reference to environment is limited to policy

statements on forests and land management. It was stated that "forests, help in the

conservation of soil fertility and play an important part in the maintenance of

water regime of the land ...( and) exert a beneficial influence on.. the climate"

[I:285]. There is reference to the Forest Policy Resolution of 1952 and to the

norm that a country should have at least one third of the area under forest. The

trade off between economic and ecological uses of forests was taken note of. "A

planned extension of regular forests will be subject to the availability of adequate

waste areas and demands made thereon for agricultural expansion to meet the

needs of ever increasing population" [I: 2851. The Central Board of Forestry was

advised to fix a 'target area for forests' in respect of each state. It was empowered

to permit deforesration for agriculture provided the available forest cover exceeds

the target so fixed [I: 2861. The plan made a suggestion for promoting village

plantations for fodder and fuel, on wastelands. It is also suggested that by

providing 'soft coke for cooking' some check can be put on destruction of forests

[I: 2871.

It was wrong on the part of the planners to direct those engaged in

construction sector, to use timber instead of steel [l: 2891. The grazing of cattle

on forestland was not seen as a menace but instead regarded as "a source of

income to the exchequer" [I: 2921.

Land degradation received some attention. Soil erosion is "one of

the most serious problems facing the country" [I: 2971. Estimate of the stock of

nine important minerals is provided. The planners advise caution in the use of

'wasting assets' (non-renewables) "once they are taken out of the ground and

utilized, they are lost for ever. They should, therefore, be treated on a different

footing from replenishable natural resources" [I: 3831 While discussing the ill-

effects of industrial concentration, the problem of pollution is indirectly

mentioned: "the excessive concentration of industries, brings in its train, certain

economic and social disadvantages and a wider diffusion of industries is

desirable" [I: 4421.

Second Plan ( 1956-61)

Ille plan mentioned the ecological relevance of forests; "they have

an important ameliorating influence on the factors of the climate. These protective

benefits are fully realised when forests extend over sizable tracts. Forests are the

home of our rich and varied wild life. Their destmction directly spells the

destruction of wildlife" [II: 2981. But significant parts of forest "are such only in

name and are subject to various forms of maltreatment" [II: 2981. But the

economic exploitation of forests is justified. "In the immediate future the

increased demand for timber for industries and development purpose, will have to

be met by cutting forests" [[I: 2981.

'The plan provides for the establishment of 18 National Parks and

Game Sanctuaries. The need for intensified research in areas related to forests and

bio-diversity is emphasized [II: 3041. The ecological menace from soil erosion is

aptly discussed. As per the statistics given, 20 per cent of area in hilly regions

was in a serious state of deterioration. A resolve was taken to undertake soil-

conservation in three million acres that were worst hit by erosion (11: 306-3071,

Foundation for typically highly polluting industries - cement,

newsprint, paper etc., was being set in this period. Ideally, some measures in

anticipation of the evil- effects of large-scale industralisation should have been

included. But nothing to this effect is available in the Second Plan document.

Third Plan ( 1 961 -66)

No significant improvement in the approach towards environment

can be seen in the Third plan. It speaks in terms of striking a balance between the

economic and ecological aspects: "Forests have important protective as well as

productive functions" [III: 771. There is a forecast of 'likely shortage of forest

produce when development proceeds'. The need for 'more economic and efficient

utilisation of available forest produce' is pointed out. An outlay of Rs. 51 crore

(0.59 per cent of public sector outlay) is suggested for forests - a major part of

which is to be spent on afforestation of a target area of 700000 acres; 15000 miles

of forest roads were to be newly developed. There is a proposal to create three

regional research centres. Protected area is to expand - 5 Zoological Parks, 5

National Parks and 10 Wildlife Sanctuaries are to be established during the plan

period [III: 78-80]. It is noted that "nature conservation is an important aspect of

forest development and includes the protection and proper management of

indigenous flora and fauna" [111: 791.

A resolve to expand the soil conservation programme is expressed.

The possibility that unscientific irrigation may damage land is mentioned. "A

potent cause of soil deterioration of irrigated lands is the rise in sub-soil water

levels and development of saline and alkaline soils" [III: 811. Adequate drainage

is to be provided in 200000 acres of land to prevent this. A novelty of the plan

programme is the declaration of some special programmes for the environmentally

sensitive areas like deserts and hilly zones. The third plan makes a proposal, to

accelerate the industralisation process. But there is no mention of the

environmental hazards following large-scale industrilisation.

Fourth Plan ( 1969-74)

The fourth plan is widely regarded as a watershed in environmental

planning. A rather co~nprehensive treatment of the issues related to the

environment appears for the first time. There is a separate section devoted to the

crucial issues affecting environment. It is remarkable that the framers of the fourth

plan anticipated most of what appeared, much later, in the celebrated report of the

WCED, 'Our Con~rnon Future'. It is stated that most countries face "a progressive

deterioration in the quality of environment. There is growing concern about the

matter in India also. A healthy environment is vital for good life. It is an

obligation of each generation to maintain the productive capacity of land, air,

water and wildlife in a manner which leaves its successors some choice in the

creation of a healthy environmenl" [IV: 251. Stating the need to "introduce the

environmental aspect into planning and development", it was declared that "long

term basic considerations (will) prevail over short-term commercial

considerations ... (and). Social costs and benefits (will) be used as yardstick rather

than private gains and losses [IV: 251.

A serious shortage identified in the government machinery related

to environmental aspects is the absence of a coordinating mechanism. "At present

there is no position in the structure of government where the environmental

aspects receives close attention in an integrated manner" [IV: 251. The shortage of

experts who are qualified to guide environmental programmes is seen as an

additional problem. To make good the gaps in our knowledge about the available

resources, more study needs to be organised. "Greater knowledge about natural

resources and the capacity to make economic use of them are essential elements in

the long term development strategy" [IV: 741

Fifth Plan (1974-79)

Indira Gandhi, the then prime minister and chairman of the

planning commission in the forward to the fifth plan document observed:

"Concentration on development should focus more pointed attention on its long

term effects. We must inculcate in our engineers and all our people a deep

reverence for nature. Forests must not be recklessly cut down; nor air and water

polluted. Technology should work in resonance with natural forces." [V: (vii)]

Emphasis is put on the conservation of the non-renewable natural

resources. A number of measures are suggested in this direction like a)

Preparation of a detailed inventory of natural resources. b) Utilisation of non-

renewable resources at optimum depletion rates c) Achievement of self-reliance in

the technology of conservation and d) Utilisation of recycling possibilities

A programme for extensive geological mapping is proposed so as

to fully realise the resource potential. It is noted that the elasticity of mineral

consumption to growth of GDP is more than one, which calls for some effort at

demand management [V: 12-14]. In order to minimise pollution and maximize

resource use, utmost priority will be given to recycling. In table 4, PP. 13-14, of the

plan document, estimate of balance life of the 'known resources' of important

minerals is recorded.

The Sixth Plan (1980-85)

The sixth plan maintained the emphasis on long term planning:

"The basic task of planning in India is to bring about a structural transformation of

the economy so as to achieve a high and sustained rate of growth" [VI: 171.

Emphasis is placed on a careful use of energy resources. The need of an energy

audit and pricing of electricity at a reasonable rate is mentioned. 'The possibility

for co-generation in industries like sugar, fertiliser and paper needs to be

investigated' [VI: 2311. It is noted that energy subsidies lead to many problems.

Wherever possible prices should reflect "the true costs" in order that fuel

efficiency is promoted and the search for cheaper alternative sources of energy is

developed [VI: 2311. There is a detailed account on alternate, renewable energy

sources such as solar energy, wind energy, biomass conversion, energy-fanning

etc. For development of such sources, basic research will be promoted. Liberal

subsidy is offered to those who come forward to adopt these sources.

Chapter XX of the plan document contains focussed treatment of

the environmental issues and remedial measures. It is noted that "the environment

should not be considered as just another sector of national development. It should

form a crucial guiding dimension for plans and programmes in each sector"

[VI: 3431. The problems related to environment are grouped into two: I ) those

arising from poverty and under development 2) those arising as negative effects of

the very process of development. Careful use of the natural resources, especially

land is advocated. It is noted that "very little attention was paid to the proper

management of our land and soil resources, with the result that, they have suffered

very serious degradation" [VI: 3431. Classification of degraded land into different

groups, based on causes, is available (Chapter XX, Table 20). As per the data

provided, 175 million hectares out of a total of 304 million hectares (on which

information was available) was degraded.

Regarding the forest resources, it is noted that out of the 75 million

hectares that are classified as forest less than half is actually under adequate tree

cover. As per the estimate of the planning commission 'only 12 per cent of the

land area is covered by forests as against the norm of 33 per cent' [Vl: 3441. The

importance of conserving biodiversity was stated as follows: "Preservation of

genetic diversity arid conservation of species and ecosystems for sustainable

utilisation is of crucial importance for future survival and development of our

people" [VI: 3441. Recommendation for an expansion in the list of species to be

protected is made. Pointing to a basic deficiency of the protection schemes, it is

stated, "wildlife conservation so far was in terms of one or two spectacular

animals at the total neglect of many other ecosystems which lack such spectacular

animals but are rich in floristic reserves" [VI: 3451.

A plan to set up a few more biosphere reserves is unveiled. The

condition of the 19 National Parks, and 202 Wildlife Sanctities (area: 75736 km2,

covering 2.3 per cent of total geographical area) was described as "bad. For,

"most of them inadequately cover the ecological diversity of threatened habitats or

even the endangered species of the country and most of them suffer from lack of

scientific or any other kind of effective management" [VI: 3461. As a first step to

correct the deficiencies, a detailed survey of the species and ecosystems of the

country is proposed.

An account of the various types of pollution facing the country is

available in the plan document. Water pollution is identified as the 'most serious'

pollution problem. It is stated that the reports on the pollution levels of the

country's 14 major rivers are "uniformly gloomy" [Vl: 3461. Even the perennial

rivers are heavily polluted - the major source of pollution being 'discharge of

community waste from human settlements'. It is recommended that the 'Water

Pollution Boards' be given more resources and authority. While discussing air

pollution (AP), almost equal coverage is given to industrial and residential

sources. It is noted that frequent burning of coal, fuel wood, cow dung and thrash

in ill-ventilated houses for cooking purpose, involves considerable pollution.

Statistics generated by NEERI on major pollutants in the metropolises are quoted,

which reveal that the WHO standards applicable at that time were exceeded in

rnost cases. While advocating a serious programme aimed at curbing pollution, the

impact of pollution on crop productivity, health, and safety of structures is noted.

According to the Planning Commission, the basic cure for the widespread problem

is the creation of awareness among people through proper education [VI: 3471.

No other plan till the period was as detailed as the Sixth Plan, in

the coverage of environmental aspects. For the first time, a systematic treatment

of the domestic sources of pollution is available. The comprehensive view on

conservation may be specially mentioned. The failures of the governmental

machinery in this respect are discussed in a candid way.

Seventh Plan

The plan document anticipated some of the basic tenets of the

sustainable development model. It is stated that "if the gains in productivity are to

be sustained, resources must also continue to be available over time. This requires

that, while providing for current needs, the resource base be managed so as to

enable sustainable development in harmony with the environment. Towards this

end, it would have to be ensured that all development programmes, in all sectors,

will take environmental considerations fully into account" [VII: 3741

The two important causes for environmental problems identified

are: (1) Poverty, and (2) 'badly planned and badly implemented development

programmes'. 1n an attempt to ensure eradication of poverty, "many (people)

concerned with development activity lose sight of environmental and ecological

imperatives" [VI: 3741 An elaborate management system for environmental

aspects is proposed. Environmental management was defined as an activity

"encompassing environmental planning, protection, monitoring, assessment,

research, education, conservation and sustainable use of resources". It is

remarked that, since in the Indian case a significant part of environmental

degradation is accounted by poverty, "many of the development programmes ...

could indeed be termed as environmental management programmes" [Ibid.]. The

urgent tasks for environmental managers are identified as:

a. Finding right solutions to the problem of mismanagement of nation's

resources, particularly forests

b. Acting against unscientific and unauthorised discharge of residues and

wastes.

c. Preventing the indiscriminate construction and expansion in urban

settlements.

d. Devising safe and scientific methods for handling toxic chemicals.

In order to have effective action against pollution, "a country-wide

rapid inventory on pollution from large and medium industries has been prepared

[VII: 3751. Monitoring of pollution, setting standards for discharges, developing

suitable systems of environmental impact assessment etc. are steps suggested to

curb the dangers of pollution. In spite of the setting up of 120 monitoring stations,

the state of pollution control is seen as 'far from satisfactory'. It is noted that only

about 30 per cent of large and medium plants in industry had, up to the period,

installed pollution control equipment. A resolve is taken to 'vigorously

implement' the 12 point programme for wildlife protection (1983). New

programmes envisaged in the seventh plan for ecological improvement are:

1. Preparation of a national vegetation map through a survey, employing

remote-sensing satellite technology.

2. Instituting a few more biosphere reserves.

3. Creating major environmental monitoring centres at Calcutta and Madras

'to study the impact of development activities on living beings.'

4. Constituting an eco-development task force of ex-service men.

5. Using media to educate the masses on environmentally sensitive matters.

6. Financing 400 research projects, which are someway related to

environmental issues.

On the broad policy front, it is suggested that long

term solution to environmental pollution requires the stabilisation of human and

animal population. It is remarked that only 'a highly coordinated' and 'highly

decentralised' approach can bring real success. A notable project declared for

the plan period is the Ganga Action Plan - which was an elaborate scheme to

clean up river Ganga. It is suggested that a new institution for overall

monitoring of environment - the National Environment Monitoring

Organisation -be created. A decision to make environmental impact

assessment mandatory for all major projects undertaken by ministries dealing with

socio-economic matters is announced.

Eighth Plan (1992-97)

While exposing the philosophy of development implied in the new

plan, the Planning Commission stated: "From the point of view of long range

sustainability, the need for greater efficiency in the management of natural

resources... has become urgent ... A package of incentives to promote efficiency in

the use of nature based resources needs to be devised as a matter of priority ..."

[VIII-1: 71

An estimate of the available resources is presented. On the forest

resources, it is noted that though gross forest area comes to 19.45 per cent of total

land, only 11 per cent of the country's geographical area can be truly called

forests. Showing great concern about the declining trend in the availability of

water, it is advised that 'saving water by achieving increased efficiency in use'

should become a national priority. In the case of non-renewable resources,

'planned demand management, substitution by renewables and intensified

exploration for new deposits'. are suggested [VIII: 341 The amount of degraded

land is put at 174 million hectares (out of a total arable area of 329 mill. ha.) and

with population growth, the availability of land per head is steadily falling.

Promotion of efficiency is suggested as the remedy.

The 'remaining stock estimates' of important minerals is provided.

Those identified to be in immediate danger of exhaustion, are rock phosphate (8

years) lead (14 years) and crude oil (15.3 years). In view of the declining stock of

non- renewables, there is a call for shifting energy production from non-

renewable sources to renewable~. It is hoped that the 'present high cost' situation,

in case of renewables like solar and wind power will change with indigenisation

of technology. An 'Integrated Rural Energy Programme', to ensure sustainability

of energy supply to rural areas is outlined as a measure against the 'depletion of

biomass cover' [VIII-I: 461.

Chapter IV, Vol I., starts with a realistic assessment of the

environmental situation: 'the scenario of environment and forests continues to

cause concern'. It is noted that the pollution problem is getting more complex with

the increased presence of non-traditional items (as pollutants) like chemicals,

heavy metals and toxic substances in the water bodies. [VIII-I: 921.

Taking a broad view of basic remedial steps, it is suggested that

removal of poverty, raising the levels of education and increasing the awareness

of people should receive more attention. Several steps to meet the environmental

challenge are enumerated, such as:

1. Decentralisation of control over nature.

2. Making individuals and institutions more accountable for their actions

impinging on the environment.

3. A reclassification of land areas based on the level of degradtion,

4. Preventive and regulatory action to counter the 'stress on environment' in

the form of 'pollution, overuse and destruction'. [VIII-I: 92-94]

It is emphasised that the system of statutory assessment of

environmental impact should be widened. On the projects already in operation,

effective regulation via close monitoring is necessary. There is a valid case for

including commercial agriculture in the list of activities to be monitored, as

farmers apply substantial quantities of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Strengthening of the legal and institutional system related to management of

environment has to be accorded great importance. While the penalty system is

strictly applied to offenders, it is essential that the officials behave in a customer-

friendly manner. Monetary rewards should be given to members of the public

who help book offenders. [VIII-I: 931. People's participation in all operations

should be ensured. They have to he provided minimum training in technical

aspects of environmental protection.

Some constructive suggestions towards restoration and

regeneration of damaged ecosystems are offered, which include:-

1. Making it mandatory that those who degrade the environment undertake

the regeneration work, and -

2. Clubbing environmental regeneration and employment generation. This is

considered easy since most of such works requires very little capital and

expertise.

The National Wastelands Development Board, one of the three

organs of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF), is designated as the

agency to coordinate environmental regeneration works. In order to

systematically organise community participation, various organs of the local

governments should be given an important role. Such an action is especially

crucial in matters related to common property resources.

On environmental planning, the need to evolve a comprehensive

national policy on nature and natural resources evolved in consultation with the

people is underlined. Tribals and weaker sections are to be guaranteed adequate

access to common property resources [VIII -I: 941. Sustainable development, it is

noted, demands that inter related activities like irrigation, energy, agricultural

operations and rural development are well coordinated. A significant suggestion

in the plan is the internalisation of environmental costs in the national accounts.

Since the designing and implementation of policy rest with governments at

different levels, the planners suggested that a clear demarcation of the

responsibilities be made. At the same time scope for participation of people had

to be ensured.

The eighth plan was finalised at a time when preparation on the

Earth Summit was in full swing. So it was expected that environmental aspects of

development would get wide coverage in the new plan. This was indeed the case

and the environmental plan, as such, is flawless. The spirit of the participatory

model of development is fully ingrained in the various policies. The attempts to

strengthen the grass roots level monitoring system and the resolve to integrate

environmental aspects with the system of national accounts are praiseworthy

moves. But a serious issue remains - the failure to balance the physical plan with

a suitable financial plan.

Survey of Major Environmental Problems of India

Time series data on environmental aspects, extending to the early

years of planning, are not available. Data of reasonable quality exist for the

period after 1972, the year in which actual legislative measures on environmental

protection were initiated'. The official data on environmental problems are

available in the publications of the MEF, but there are serious gaps in these. A

dependable alternate source is the series captioned, 'The Citizens Report'

published by the Centre For Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi. The

first report of the CSE appeared in 1982 and the latest available one in the series is

'The Citizens Fifth Report' (1999). Reports of numerous Non-Governmental

Organisations (NGOs) and international agencies were referred to obtain an overall

view of major environmental problems faced by India.

The general impression that emerges is that the state of

environment, presently, is far from satisfactory. The genesis of some of the

environmental issues can be traced back to the colonial policyz. However, the fact

that in the last 50 odd years they remained unresolved speaks volumes on the

attitude of the government to these problems. In fact, upto mid 1970% the

colonial regulatory systems and laws were still in force. Since then, numerous

legislations aimed at improving the condition of environment were enacted '. But

factors like inefficient administration, irresponsible behaviour and indifferent

attitude of the public contributed to a continued deterioration of environment.

While the point to point increase in India's GDP from 1975 to 1995 was 163 per

cent the respective value for total pollution load was much higher at 478 per cent4.

What follows is a category-wise description of the crucial environmental problems

of India. [ NB: Since the major resource problems have serious environmental

implications, the discussion includes some of them.]

Land Degradation

India has a low rank among world nations in per capita land

availability. Arable land per head declined by 25 per cent between 1980 and 1995

and was just 0.18 ha. on the latter point '. The subdivision of land that follows

population growth, itself is detrimental to eMicient land use and maintenance of

flora and fauna. Worse still, a significant portion of land suffers from different

sort of qualitative deterioration. The Draft Ninth Plan noted that nearly 45 per

cent of the total geographical area was degraded due to soil erosion. If the area

suffering from water logging, salinity and deseitification are added to the above,

the figure may exceed 50 per cent 6. The annual average loss of plant nutrients

with eroded soil, was estimated (1989), to be in the range of 5.37 to 8.4 million

tonnes7. Various types of land degradation - which have obvious negative

implications to food security and biodiversity-accelerated with the growth of

output. Water logging is traced to unscientific irrigation practices. The sharp

growth in the use of chemicals in the farming process led to serious chemical

pollution of land. Table 6.1 provides data for the increase in the use of chemical

fertilisers and pesticides in Indian farms, during 195 1 - 97 period.

Table 6.1

Use of Chemicals in agricultural sector (1951-1997)

i. Nitrogen I 0.06 1 10.30 .- ................................................................................................................................................. I

....................

Potash

Pesticides 0.16** 56.00

1996 - 97 (mill. tonne)

Item

A. Fertilisers

* data for 1960-61 ** data for 1948-49

Source: CSE(1999) Tab. 1.5.1, P.12 & Tab. 1.5.5., P16.

1951 - 52 (mill. tonne)

The official green revolution strategy promoted the use of both

fertilizers and pesticides through liberal subsidy. Majority of farmers who were

illiterate could not apply these in the right dosess. The failure to take care of the

ecological and environmental spillover of chemical intensive farming contributed

to serious deterioration of land. Of the non-agricultural land, the problem of

degradation of forestland has attracted considerable attention. Severely degraded

forests constituted nearly 28 per cent of the 'reported area under forest' in early

1980s 9. Unregulated and unscientific mining fills thousands of hectares of fertile

land with overburden every year lo. Rearing of an enormous number of livestock

(over 470 million in 1992) takes a heavy toll of the quality of land.

Deforestation

As per 1995 official statistics, India's forest area, net of the

degraded tracts, constituted barely 13 per cent of its total geographical area":

Substantial conversion of forests took place in the early phase of India's economic

development; (See table 6.2, for motives); the annual rate of deforestation in the

1980's (0.6 per cent), was double the world average 12.

Table 6.2

1 Transmission lines & roads 1 0.061 I

Motive for conversion of forests (1951 - 1980)

Purpose

Agriculture

River valley projects

Industries & townships

Source: CSE (1999) Tab 3.2.1, P. 77

Area Converted (mill. ha.)

2.623

0.502

0.134

Others

The available forest in exploited too much, mainly for obtaining

1.008

fuel wood for cooking. In 1991.61.5 per cent of Indian households used wood as

I

cooking medium (rural: 71.69 per cent)13. The forest survey of India has

estimated that current collection of fuel-wood from government forests, for

cooking purpose alone, is 102 million tonnes whereas the sustainable annual

regeneration is only 17 million tonnes 14. Most of the country's mines are located

in areas that were once thick forests. Cattle grazing is yet another activity that

accelerates deforestation". In addition to all the above. an unnoticed factor is the

impact of air pollution. According to an estimate made in 1993, the Asia Pacefic

region emitted 51000 kilotons of sulfur dioxide and 21000 kilotons of nitrogen

oxide leading to serious air pollution and acid rain. This has adversely affected

the tropical forests of southwest India and the mixed forests of the Himalayan

16 region .

The effects of progressive deforestation have appeared in different

ways. The weather pattern is no more predictable as in the past, thus, adding one

more dimension to the risk scenario of the average farmer. In the Aravallis, there

was a marked reduction in the monsoon period, from 120 days in the past, to

17 30-40 days in the 1990s, which is principally attributed to deforestation .

Moreover, habitat loss due to deforestation has led to the extinction of a number

of wild plant and animal species in the recent period.

Fall in Biodiversity

India, considered to be one of the world's leading mega- diversity

states, is home to over 200000 species 18. The total number of endemic plant

species, is 5150 and that of endemic animal species, 1837 19 . North-East India

arid the Western Ghats are internationally recognised, biodiversity hot-spots. The

rich diversity in species is related partly to the geographical and climatic variation

obtaining and partly to the age-old tradition of caring for nature ". However in

the last three decades, a good number of the species originally present has either

become extinct or moved into the category of endangered species. The annual

report of the MEF 1992-93 placed as many as 1143 animals in the list of rare and

endangered species"'. The spread of modem agricultural practices (monoculture,

chemical intensive farming etc), over-grazing by cattle, poaching and illegal

trapping of animals and birds etc, account for the loss of species. The number of

protected zones went up from 224 in 1980 to 521 in 1997 (area covered 7.6 -

14.88 mill.ha) 22. But due to poor maintenance, the measure failed to produce the

intended effect. The massive loss of biodiversity does not augur well for the

country's future. Dire consequences predicted include increased threat to food

security and the decline of the Indian System of Medicine (Ayurveda). Around

the year 1900, Indian farmers planted nearly 50000 varieties of rice, many of

which are no more in use2'. Most of them now depend on a limited number of the

so called high-yielding variety seeds. These farmers, are likely to become easy

target for exploitation by the agribusiness MNCs, in future. Availability of

medicinal plants has declined with deforestation. I t affected the indigenous health

care system.

Perils of Pollution

Pollution, particularly of water and air, has assumed a very serious

proportion in India. An estimate on premature death and sickness from pollution

due to suspended particulate matter (SPM),made in 1990s, showed that there was

28 per cent increase in premature deaths and 34 per cent increase in cases of

sickness, between 1991-92 and 1995. A recent study on the monetary cost of

these, reported an amount of Rs. 4659.4 crores 24. It may be noted that the study

covered only 31 select Indian cities and just one of the many air pollutants. In

India's case growth of pollution was at a faster rate than the growth of GDP.

Between 1975 and 1995 the total pollution load (vehicular +industrial) rose from

1346691 metric tonnes to 7785266 m.t while the GDP at 80-81 prices in the same

period grew from Rs. 104968 crore to Rs. 276132 croreZ5. A disaggregated

treatment of the major types of pollution in the country is made below.

a. Air pollution: Various types of air pollution (AP) have risen steeply with

industrialisation and the development of transport sector. Vehicular source

accounted for 57 per cent of the combined air pollution load in 1975; it's

share rose markedly to 74 per cent in 1995'~. The change occurred due to the

phenomenal increase in the number of vehicles and some deceleration in

industrial growth in the relevant period. Table 6.3 presents the growth of

automobile population in India from 1950 -5 1 to 1995-96.

Table. 6.3.

Vehicle Population in India (million) with Rate of Increase from 80-81

Source: CSE (1999): Table.5.7.1, p.127, adapted.

The period after 1980-81 saw a very sharp growth in automobile

population (534.7 per cent). Largest increase was recorded in the number of two-

wheelers (803.9 per cent), the most polluting type of all vehicles. Bus is the chief

mode of public transport in the countryside. Relatively slow increase in the

number of buses resulted in a rise in the number of personal vehicles. As a result,

air pollution increased considerably. Road development has been very slow.

Total road length, in the 1980-1996 period, increased by 61.82 per cent only2'. As

a result, congestion on the Indian roads has increased tremendously, pushing up

the emission from running vehicles. Use of very old vehicles, poor maintenance

of vehicles and low quality of fuel sold are some of the commonly cited causes for

excessive pollution. The government had a lax attitude to this problem. The

standards officially set for automobile exhaust were low. A comparative view of

the Indian standards and those followed elsewhere is available in table 6.4.

Table 6.4

Auto Emission Standards: India Vs Others

Source: Anantltaraman, Ambujam, ( 1 996)

Country

India (1996)

USA (1995)

In spite of the norms being very liberal, the automobile

manufacturers are pressing the government for relaxation in the standards that are

Emission standard (g/km)+

proposed for the year-2000 28. Another reason for high level emission from

Japan (1996) 0.48

vehicles is the fact that Indian roads carry a mixed traffic, which necessitates

Nox CO

EEC (1995)

frequent speed adjustments while driving 29.

HC

The second most widespread, but inadequately addressed, sort of

8.68 - 12.4

2.12

Note: + For the USA given values apply to passenger cars; for others, general standards. * HC and Nox combined

2.72

AP is caused by cooking in homes (indoor AP). Firewood, dung cake and coal are

0.97*

the widely used fuels for cooking, which generally generate a lot of smoke and

3.0 - 4.36*

SPM. Majority of houses are ill ventilated and unplanned so that the pollutants are

0.16 0.25

directly inhaled by the inhabitants. A survey in Delhi, revealed that pollution by

SPM was 100 per cent above safe levels in most housing units ".

Pollution from industrial sources remains high in India when

compared internationally. Carbon emission is the most conspicuous of industrial

air pollutant. In mid 1990s, India's share in world production was just one

percent, but her share in Global C 0 2 emission was four percent. By contrast,

Japan which produced 17 per cent of global output had a share of only 5 per cent

in C02 emission". This indicates that stringent measures are to be taken to curb

AP from the industrial sector. The small and tiny sector units, their number

running into millions, are largely left off the hook of pollution control system, a

reason why the problem remains very serious.

It is feared that the AP problem is running out of hands. A recent

study on pollution levels in 50 major residential areas spanning the entire country,

revealed a grim picture. As per the methodology adopted, a situation was

charecterised 'critical', if pollution level prevailing in a location was above 150

per cent of the officially set limits. It was considered 'high' if excess pollution

ranged between 100 and 150 per cent. The result of the study is available in table

6.5.

Table 6.5.

50 Residential Locations, Classified Based on Level of Pollution (Mid 1990s)

I Critical I 3 I I 3 I 2 I Category

I High

1 LOW to nil I 7 I 44 I 43 I

Presence in the air, of

Sortrce: Sainy R.S. and P.J.S. Dadwa1(1998), adapted.

SPM

As may be noted, air pollution by SPM has become critical in the

majority (62 per cent) of cases. When the four metros were studied for their

So2

pollution profile (SO,, NO, and SPM), it was found that the national capital Delhi

NOz

had critical AP related to NO, and SPM. Calcutta (Howrah region) proved to be

the pollution capital of India, with critical levels reported for all the three

pollutants

Various attempts have been made to quantify the human cost of AP

and results indicate high costs to society. AP adversely affects plant growth and is

cited as one of the major causes for deforestation. Besides, it leads to enormous

loss in terms of reduced life of buildings and metallic structures. The damage

caused to historical monuments is beyond monetary calculations. The case of

gradual disintegration of the Taj Mahal has attracted considerable international

attention. Data relating to a recent study of pollution in the adjoining area of the

Taj is quoted below in table 6.6.

Table 6.6

Concentration of Pollutants Near Taj Mahal

Standard Actual value in Pollutant Value*

* Maximunt permissible value for ambient air.

Source: Sai~zy and Dadwal(I998), adapted

b. Water Pollution: While AP is limited mostly to the urban and industrial areas,

water pollution (WP) is found throughout the country. Major sources of WP are

chemical run off from farms, industrial effluents and municipal waste (solid and

liquid). Effluents from thousands of industrial units containing highly toxic

chemicals, such as arsenic and mercury are mostly pumped into rivers, lakes and

sea. Where such easy outlets are absent, the effluents are pumped into ditches,

from where they reach ground water. Water quality in the major rivers has

deteriorated to such a low level that elaborate action plans to clean them up had to

be drawn up. India has a vast recycling industry that imports, every year, huge

quantities of hazardous wastes. The problem has become so acute that the

Supreme Court, in May 1997, ordered that a complete ban on import of hazardous

wastes should be imposed by the end of 1998 32. The fact that almost the entire

recycling industry is in the small scale and tiny sector (most of them unregistered)

makes it almost impossible to control them properly.

Due to dumping of acidic waste from the many soda ash factories

along the shoreline, coastal waters of the Mitapur and Porbander areas of Gujarat

have become inhospitable to marine life. In Goa, the dumping of iron ore rejects

has turned the beaches red and made the water highly polluted j3. In the country's

capital, as many as 89000 industrial units let out some 20 million litres of waste

water each day, of which half a million litres contain highly toxic D.D.T. waste.

With another 410 million litres of municipal waste flowing in daily, the Yamuna

has turned into a "huge sewer". The water has become a true menace to public

health. A study made in 1993 showed samples of water taken from Yamuna,

-i containing colifo&m counts up to 24 million mpn. per 100ml. (the recommended / ,

maximum is 5000 rnpn/100 ml. of water) (1993-report) 34.

The very high pollution levels of river Ganga - the holy river for

the Hindus - has attracted considerable national attention. A massive action plan

to clean up the river was drawn up in 1985 - which included establishment of

sewage treatment plants, low cost sanitation facilities, electric crematoria and

regulation of traffic in the river. The Central Ganga Authority, which was to

direct these activities, first turned its attention to the most polluted sections of the

river in U.P., Bihar and W. Bengal. The project's first phase aimed to intercept,

divert and treat 870 million litres of sewage a day. But due to administrative and

financial problems, less than half of this target was achieved in 1 9 9 1 ~ ~ . The task

is by no means easy since the river serves the needs of 25 large towns and

numerous industrial centres along its course. The total sewage entering Ganga,

daily, is estimated at 1400 milliotl litres 3h.

When all the different surface water sources are taken together,

nearly 70 per cent of them suffers from pollution of varying degree. Pollution of

ground water is also on the increase, though very little attention has so far been

paid to this. The water pollution problem is attributed to the failure of local

governments to curb and control the growth and casual disposal of waste - solid

as well as liquid. Even the financially better off administrative units in large cities

are not able to clear the mess created and thrown about by their inhabitants. An

estimate made in mid 1990s revealed that only eight out of a total of 3119 large

and medium cities had full waste water collection and treatment facilities. In many

cases the sewer net works, established a long time back are crumbling. They were

meant to serve only a small fraction of the current population 37. Table 6.5

presents the performance of the four largest cities of the country on garbage

collection. The uncontrolled waste,causes severe water and land pollution. Water

borne diseases take a heavy toll of life-both in rural areas and urban areas. One

and a half million infants die every year in the country, a majority of them due to

diarrheal diseases 3x.

Table. 6.7

Daily Generation and Collection of Garbage - Selected Cities

Source: Subltadra Menon (1997.b), adapted

c. Radiatiori Pollution: Radiation pollution is a relatively unnoticed, yet very

lethal type of pollution. India has 10 operational nuclear power plants, many of

Uncollected Portion( per cent)

40

27

25

35

32.3

which are in a dilapidated state. The under ground tests of nuclear devices in

Pokhran (Rajastan) in two stages (1974, 1998) have been carried out with very

little 'impact assessments' (other than from a military angle). There is high

Garbage collected (tonstday)

3000

4964

1875

3900

3434.8

City

Delhi

Calcutta -

Chennai -

Mumbai

Average

possibility of contamination of the ground water sources in the nearby locations

through residual radioactivity 39. It is reported that the concerned authorities pay

Garbage generated (tons1 day)

5000

6800

2500

6000

5075

little attention to the health and other impacts emanating from the high profile

nuclear tests4'. The government has monopoly in the production, storage and use

of nuclear fuel. This enables the officials to mislead the people on health effects

from radiation. Recent revelations by erstwhile top brass of the country's premier

nuclear establishments indicate that many of the power stations are devoid of the

necessary facilities for safety4'. John Hallam, a well known expert in the nuclear

field, warns that, the VVER-1000 Russian reactor proposed to be set up at

Koodankularn, in its safely aspects, is not suitable to Indian condition^^^.

Attempts have been made to quantify the mortality and morbidity

cost of pollution in India. Carter Brandon and Kirstern Hommann of the World

Bank have calculated the annual health cost due to increase in pollution in 36

Indian cities, and reached a figure in the range of Rs.1810 to Rs.7357

Another estimate on mortality from pollution puts the total number of death at

40000 a year 44.

Environmental Issues from Development Projects

In India, recent controversies related to environment mostly

revolve around a few prestigious development projects. According to

environmentalists, these are capable of causing irreparable damage to the

country's environment. No case typifies this better than the Narmada Valley

Project (NVP). Billed as the largest river projects in the world, the NVP involves

setting up of over 3000 dams in the Narmada river, which flows through many

states. The states of Gujarat and M.P. are the main beneficiaries. It was proposed

that the two biggest dams in these,viz. Narmada Sagar (NSP) in M.P. and Sardar

Srovar (SSP) in Gujarat (heights 262 and 139 metres respectively) will bestow

enormous benefits to the respective states. But environmentalists and human

rights groups soon came up with irrefutable facts about the possible adverse

effects of these mega dams, which included serious threat to rare flora and fauna,

an increase in seismicity, inundation of vast tracts of fertile land (NSP & SSP

togethcr inundate 56000 ha.) and displacement of over one million people 45.

Stiff opposition from different quarters, including some international NGOs,

forced the government to suspend work on many occasions. The prqject, which

got government approval in 1987, is dragging on. Judged from the experience of

the operation ti l l now, the NVP does not appear to be a case of good

implementation4! 'The interests of powerful lobies of rich farmers, builders and

international agencies, rather than the upkeep of environmental balance, seems to

have guided official policy, all these years47. The controversy is far from settled,

at this juncture.

A widely reported study on the environmental costs of 111dia's

economic march is quoted in table 6.8. Prominent items, not quantified and

excluded from the estimate include: bio-diversity loss, health costs from

hazardous industrial waste, cost of provision of clean mater, loss of marine

resources due to unsustainable harvesting and health cost of indoor air pollution.

Table 6.8

Economic Costs of Environmental Degradation (estimated in mid 1990s)

Problem -

IJrban air pollulion -

-

Soil degradation -

Range land degradation -

Deforestation

Tourism - Total cost of environmerital degradation

Total cost as percentage of GDP L I I I I

Source: (a , ) Carter Brandon and Kirsten Hatnr~tart

(b . ) Artil Agarwnl. (both quoted in CSE (1999) Table 10.7 P. 232.)

India's Environmental Management System - What Went Wrong ?

The Environmental Management System (EMS) of India has to

improve substantially, from the present level. The major shortcomings of the EMS

are enumerated below:.

Faulty Planning; Inconsistency in the Approach

India was late to react to many problems, as planners were initially

preoccupied with the stepping up of output. The Fourth Plan considered EMS

rather seriously. But significant measures to correct environmental degradation

were taken only in the Sixth plan. In spite of the fact that India had a long

tradition of caring for nature, our constitution in its original version, contained

very little for environmental protection. This lacuna. had to be later corrected

through a series of amendments4'. When priorities of planned development were

being fixed, Gandhian economics did not get official patronage. Rather, Nehru's

obsession with big and grandiose projects greatly influenced the pattern of

planned development. Very little attention was paid to resource conservation and

environmental prudence49. The casual attitude of the government in environmental

matters changed only after the major disaster of Bhopal gas leak, in 1984''.

But even after the build up of an elaborate administrative set up

and passing of a number of new laws, the EMS is effective only in patches. A lot

of attention has been focussed on problems of the urban areas. Very small interest

was shown on the specific issues connected to rural environment5'. Within the

industrial sector, the small-scale sector was largely left uncontrolled. Until 1994,

only mega projects required mandatory environmental c l e a r a n ~ e ~ ~ . In order to

protect endangered species, many reserves and sanctuaries were created, but

attention was focussed on the protection of a limited number of 'exotic and large

species of animals'. Protection of plant species received attention only after a

number of instances of surreptitious taking out of useful plant varieties (mostly

medicinal herbs), by large multinational corporations for patenting came to light

through media reports 53. The official policy regarding protected areas was not

firm and consistent. Commercial interests led the government to resort to 'de-

notification' of certain reserved areas. In case of Darlaghat in Himachal Pradesb

and Narayan Sarovar in Gujerat, vast areas of the reserves were de-notified to

promote mining activity 54. Often notification steps were taken in an arbitrary

manner, inviting popular resistance.

Another deficiency of the control system is that the Centre mostly

makes laws while implementation is left to the statesss. The executive agencies

very often lack the power to take action. For e.g., the pollution control board can

identify polluting sources but cannot proceed against the offending units, on its

own. (Either the government or the offended party has to make an appeal). The

legislators were reluctant to grant more powers to these bodies.

Absence of a Comprehensive Approach

Planning related to environmental management generally consisted

of ad hoc measures. The systematic tackling of major causes of environmental

damage demanded a coherent, comprehensive and consistent policy. For eg.

opening of a major mine involves (a) degradation of land (b) deforestation and (c)

eviction of people. If any one of these aspects does not get attention, the long run

impact of the project will be negative. Major projects like the Sardar Sarover,

Failed to tackle the different issues satisfactorily. The international commission

(Morse Cornmiltee) which studied the project found serious infringement of

human rightss6. At the macro level, environmental destruction is related to

poverty and over population. Thus policies on all the three fronts are to be

operated in a complementary manner. But the country's record in this respect is

not very good. The official policy treats the environmental issues and growth

issues as if they are mutually exclusive ".

Paucity and Low Quality of Staff

The extensive operations related to project evaluation, monitoring

and enforcement of regulations require good number of qualified personnel in the

various departments related to EMS. There is serious shortage of personnel. The

lower level staff does not have any specialised training. As a result, the advanced

computerised systems of monitoring and information, employing the satellites,

cannot be expanded to all areass8. Many non-complying industries are tolerated

because of the immense workload at the pollution control boards and the lack of

staff, budget, equipment, and facilitiess9. The large number of small industries is

not monitored now because of the shortage of the required infrastructure for

checking, and due to understaffing '".

Poor Implementation

Since 1986, there were laws and regulation to book serious

offenders. But these were not implemented properly. The state governments were

rather reluctant to apply the regulations of the centre once they seemed to affect

the economic interest of the region or touch any of the pressure groups controlling

local politics. Because of poor implementation of regulations on handling, storage

and use of hazardous substances, accidents of varying intensity occur regularly.

The Bhopal gas leak attracted considerable media attention because of the sheer

size of civilian population killed (about 2000). Accidents of smaller intensity take

place unnoticed. According to one estimate, between November 90 and October

94, chemical disasters alone claimed 208 lives6'. Judged by international

standards, fines and penalties for noncompliance with regulations in India are

moderate, so that firms do not bother to establish pollution control equipments.

Enforcement of penalties requires the ratification of courts and a protected legal

battle is frequently considered cheaper than following guidelines rightaway 62.

One of the reasons for the lack of efficiency in implementation is

the small size of budgets that the low profile Ministry of Environment and Forests

commands. Ever since it was created (1985) the ministry was headed by political

'light weights' so that fund flow into this critical area could not be augmented.

"The vastness of the country and the magnitude of the problem (of environmental

deterioration) are such that measures will have to be implemented on a massive

scale to achieve any perceptible results"63. In the situation of cash crunch facing

the MEF, many programmes stop short of the viable minimum size.

Administrative convenience and self-interest, rather than common

good, guide the bureaucracy, 64. A review of the major river valley projects, made

by the MEF (1995) brought to light the fact that the public authorities

implementing these projects, gave a damn observing the many regulatory

prescriptions set by the government. Of the total number of 212 projects reviewed,

as much as 87 per cent was found to be violating at least a major item in the

regulations. Each one of the projects implemented in the central and southern

region (total 84) involved violations 65. It is paradoxical that the authorities violate

laws and regulations set by the government. The union government has violated

the zoning rules when building new offices in large cities like Mumbai 66.

'Top Down' Approach - Low Involvement of the People

In the formulation of policy and in their implementation, very little

popular involvement is allowed. Regarding the forest policy legislation

(amendment) carried out in 1995, one critic has commented that it retains the

'colonial touch'. The alienation of the people in and around the reserved forests is

such that terms like 'sarkari forest' and 'sarkari tiger' are commonly used in

conversations 67. The official policy is guided by certain wrong ideas about the

capacity as well as interest of the poor to protect natural resources. It is assumed

by bureaucrats that (a) over extraction of resources is the only means of

sustenance that the poor people know (b) the poor are ignorant of both the

limitations of their environmental resources and the consequence of their over

extraction. (c) the poor have little stake in the health and productivity of natural

resources. In reality each of these assumptions emanate from ignorance about the

ways the traditional Indian society protected its natural resources ". But it is a fact

that, with the destruction of the grassroots level mechanism that previously existed

and with increased impoverishment, some change in the approach of the poor has

taken place. When the rich, with their command over market and technology

engage in reckless exploitation of natural resources, the poor, by reaction and by

69 force of circumstances, occasionally deviate from the customary practices .

People who are not in touch with the ground realities often take

important policy decisions. These 'outsiders' who lack sufficient understanding of

the concerns of local communities, their capabilities and knowledge,often end up

making patently wrong suggestions ' O .

When affected parties and NGOs demand details on projects,

authorities often withhold information. The lack of transparency breeds more

suspicion and the meeting ground between the rulers and the ruled melts away. An

extremely antagonistic relation develops, leading to heightened passions on both

sides - which is ultimately detrimental to environment and wider national interest.

A sincere attempt should have been made to involve people at all stages. The

success of the joint forest management in few states and more conspicuously the

success of grassroot movements like the Relegaon Siddhi experiment guided by

Anna Hazare in Maharastra, prove that once people are suitably motivated and

assured a fair share of the gains from a development project, considerable

improvement in the environment can be achieved 71.

Many of the reserved area are in or around tribal settlements.

Granting limited rights to these people to collect forest produce and at the same

time involving them in the protection activity would benefit both the government

and the local population. In the present arrangement, forests are classified into

'reserved', 'protected' and 'village' type and the entire control of the first two, is

vested with the government. This not only raises the cost of protection but also

alienates the local cornm~ni t ies~~. An estimated three million people reside in the

protective areas, and forest acts as their life support system. In view of the

enormous expense required to resettle them, granting limited rights (to collect

minor forest products) to them would appear the logical step 73.

Lack of Political Commitment

The greatest obstacle to efficient operation of environmental policy

is the lack of commitment on the part of the government. It is the dictates of an

industrial and consumerist economy and political exigencies that guide the

government - be i t the case of deforestation or pollution 74. After enacting laws,

the same government, grants liberal exemptions, and worse still, violates its own

laws when public sector projects are implemented. On many occasions reserved

forests have been de-notified on purely economic grounds even when the public

wanted a continuation of protection 75.

In fact some of the major statutes on environmental management

have been made just to satisfy the international donors or as follow up steps to the

country signing certain international conventions. The spadework usually

preceding national enactment, has been conspicuously absent in such cases 76.

These legislation's, carried on with a view to placate aid dispensing agencies are

not seriously implemented. This has given rise to numerous disputes between the

state and citizens. In recent years the Supreme Court has taken the government to

task on many an occasion for its lapses 77. Dictates of political economy than that

of reason seem to guide the governments at all levels. The 'vote -bank' politics

being played by all parties make a mockery of the EMS.

Chapter Reference

CSE (The Centre for Science and Environment) (1999): The Citizens Fifh Report, New Delhi: CSE, Table 10.5.2., Footnote(a), p.229

Pouchepadass, Jacques (1995): "Colonialism and Environment in India", Economic and Political Weekly, (Aug.19). pp. 2059-2067

CSE (1999), op.cit., tables 10.5.2 and 10.5.3, pp. 227-230

Ibid., Table 10.7.2, p.233

The World Bank (1998): World Developntent Indicators-1998, Washington D.C: World Bank, Table 3.2., p.123

Sen, RajKumar [1992(1995)] "Environment Versus Development" in Roy, Karthik C. et.al. (eds.) Economic Development and Environment, Calcutta. Oxford University Press, p.119 ( Data for salinity and desertificatiom quoting a study by Vaidynathan)

CSE (1999), op.cit., table 1.3.2, p.9

Chauduri, Prarnit (1979): The Indian Economy- Poverty and Development, New Delhi: Vikas, pp.llO-147

CSE (1999), op.cit., table 1.3.1.. p.8

Mohnot, S.M. (1999): "Mining- Gouging Out the Desert Heart" Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp. 85-89

Report in the Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, p.329

CSE (1999). op.cit., Table 11.4, p.238

Ibid., Table 8.2.1 and 8.2.2, pp. 182-3

Ibid., Footnote to table 3.3.2. , p.78

Krishnan, N.R. (1999): " Where People Help Themselves" in The Hindu (daily), Sunday Supplement, (Sept.26), p.11

16. WWF- International's Research Report, Summarised in WWF- lndia Quarterly, (Jan- March, 1995), p.26

Report in WWF- lndia Quarterly, (Oct-Dec,1993), p.24

Laxmi, Vijay et.al. (1997): "Environment - Can Neglect no longer" in Parikh, Kirit S. (ed.) India Development Report-1997, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp.104-105

CSE (1999), op.cit., Table 9.1.3, p.207

Sharma V.S (1999): "Bishnois- An Eco-Religion" Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp 95-99

Laxmi, Vijay et.al. (1997), op.cit., p. 105

CSE (1999). op.cit., Table 9.3.1, p.214

Vyas V.S. and V. Ratna Reddy (1998): "Assessment of Environmental Policies and Policy Implementation in India" Economic and Political Weekly, (Jan. lo), p.50

CSE (1999), op.cit., Tables 7.10.1 and 7.10.2, pp. 178-179

Ibid., Table 10.7.2., p.233

Ibid., graph on p.219

Ibid., Table 5.8.1, p.128

Singh, Damdeep (1996): "Their Profits- Our Health in Indian Express (daily), (Oct. 14)

Mohan, Dinesh and Geetam Tiwari (1999): "Sustainable Transport Systems", Economic and Political Weekly (June-19), pp. 1589-1596

Halarnkar, Sarnar (l998):"Hell at Home", India Today, (July 13). pp.70-71

CSE (1999). Table 11.1, p.236

Menon, Subhadra and Srnruti Koppikar (1997): "Toxic Terror", lndia Today, (July 14), pp.69-70

33. Koppikar, Smruti (1997): "The Death of Life", India Today, (March 15), P.85(ln 35 years from 1962, 15 million tons of ore waste has been dumped)

Roy, A.K. (1993), "Delhi's Sewer of Sledge" WWF- India Quarterly, (Oct- Dec.). pp. 14-15

World Resources Institute (1994): World Resources- 1994-95, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.94

Ibid., p.94

Menon, Subhadra (1997) : Cities- Drowning in Trash" India Today, (MaylS), pp. 78- 82

Ambekar, Jayawant (1999): "Water Pollution and Epidemics in India3'- towards a sustainable approach" Journal of Human Ecology, (Vol.10. Jan), pp.35-39

Ramana M.V. (1999) Underground Tests - Ravaging Nature", Hindu Survey of the Environment - 1999, pp.53-57

Sharma, Kalpana (1999): "Khetolai - the Forgotten Village" Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp.17-19

Gopalakrishnan, A. (1999): "Foreign Reactors - Dangerous Liaisons", Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp.39-43

Hallam, John (1999): VVER - 1000 -'Untested and Unsafe', Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp.53-57

Singh, Dandeep (1996). op.cit., p.22

Halarnkar, Samar (1998). op.cit.,

Sen, Rajkumar (1992) op.cit., pp. 115-16

Report of the Independent Review (1992): Sardar Sarovar, Pune, Narmada Bachao Andolan and others.

Vyas V.S. and Retna Reddy (1998), op.cit., p.48

Sen, Rajkumar (1992). op.cit., p.102

49. Roy, Karthik C. et.al.[eds.,1992(1995)]: Economic Development and Environnzent - A case study of India, Calcutta: Oxford University Press, P.x.(Preface)

The World Resources Institute (1994), op.cit., Box 5.2, p.90

Krishnan N.R. (1999), op.cit., p. I1

Spedding, Linda (1995): Irztemational Environmerltal Policy and Marlagenlent, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes, p.42

Vardan, M.S.S. (1998): "Greening in a Big Way7',The Hindu(dai1y) (June 7), p.5

Kothari, Ashish (1996): "Conserving Biodiversity- Doomed Without People",Hindu Survey of Environment -1996, p. 13 1

Spedding, Linda S. (1995), op.cit., pp. 44-45

Roy, Karthick C. et. al. (eds., 1992), op.cit., (Preface) p.xi

Vyas V.S. and Retna Reddy (1998), op.cit., pp. 48-54

Vardan, M.S.S. (1998). op.cit., p.5

The World Resources Institute (1994). op.cit., p.88

Ibid., p. 88

Rego, Loy (1995): "Environmental Legislation-A Long Way to Go" Hindu Survey of Environment-1995, pp.170-71

The World Resources Institute (1994). op.cit., p.88

Roy, Karthik C. and C.A. Tisdell [1992(1995)] : "Planned Development" in Roy, Karthik C.et. al.(eds.) op.cit., pp. 38-39

Ibid., pp.35-36

Brijnath, Rohit(1995): "River Valley Projects and Low Standards",lndia Today, (Sept.l5), pp.96-101

Vyas V.S. and Retna Reddy (1998), op.cit., p.51

Kothari, Ashish (1995), "Forest Bill - Old Wine in New Bottle", Hindu Survey of the Environment 1995, p.51

(a) Jodha N.S. (1998) "Poverty and Environmental Resource Degradation", Economic and Political Weekly, (September 5- 12)

(b) Report on Third World Consultation on Wild Life Conservation and Peoples Rights, Econornic and Political Weekly, (Aug.l4), pp. 2305-8

Ibid., (a), p.2384

Ibid., p.2386

Sinha, A (1995): "A Concrete Agenda for Sustainable Development" The Admir~istrator Quarterly (Vol.XL. April-June), pp. 12-39 (for details on Relegaon Siddi)

Kothari, Ashish (1995), op.cit., p.52

Kothari, Ashish (1996), p.131

Kothari, Ashish (1995), pp.51-52

Ecological Economic Unit- ISEC (1999): "Environment in Karnataka", Ecor~omic and Political Weekly, (September 18) (reference to the case of the move for de-notification of part of the Cubbon Park in Karnataka which had to be withdrawn due to spirited resistance of people)

(a) Report on Third World Consultation, op.cit.,(68.b) p.2305

(b) Chandrasekharan Pillai, K.N. (1998): "Environmental Legislation in India-a Hapazard Exercise" Paper presented at the National seminar on Health,safety and Environment, FACT, COCHIN, Dec.5, 1998

Ibid. (b)