chapter4_part1
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Energy and Metabolism
Chapter 4
Part 1
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4.1 Impacts/Issues
A Toast to Alcohol Dehydrogenase
Metabolic processes break down organic
molecules such as ethanol and other toxins –
binge drinking is currently the most serious drug
problem on college campuses
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Video: Alcohol, enzymes, and your liver
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Fig. 4-1a, p. 62
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Fig. 4-1b, p. 62
alcohol dehydrogenase
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Video: ABC News: The wine of life
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4.2 Life Runs on Energy
Energy
• The capacity to do work
Energy can be converted from one form to
another, but cannot be created or destroyed –
energy disperses spontaneously
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Laws of Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed
• It can be converted from one form to another and
thus transferred between objects or systems
Second law of thermodynamics
• Energy tends to disperse spontaneously
• A bit disperses at each energy transfer, usually in
the form of heat
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One-Way Flow of Energy
Living things maintain their organization by
harvesting energy from someplace else
Energy flows in one direction through the
biosphere (starting mainly from the sun) then
into and out of ecosystems
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Material Recycle
Energy inputs drive a cycling of materials among
producers and consumers
Producers and then consumers use energy to
assemble, rearrange, and break down organic
molecules that cycle among organisms
throughout ecosystems
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One-Way Flow of Energy
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Fig. 4-2, p. 63
Light energy radiating from
the sun reaches Earth.
Producers capture some of
it by converting it to
chemical energy. They and
all other organisms use
chemical energy to drive
cellular work.
ENERGY IN
PRODUCERSplants and other self-
feeding organisms
nutrient
cycling
CONSUMERSanimals, most fungi,
many protists, bacteria
ENERGY OUT
With each conversion, there is a one-
way flow of a bit of energy back to the
environment, mainly in the form of heat.
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Active Figure: Matter recycling and
energy flow
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Animation: One-way energy flow and
materials cycling
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4.3 Energy in the Molecules of Life
Cells store and retrieve energy by making and
breaking chemical bonds in metabolic reactions
Some reactions require a net input of energy –
others end with a net release of energy
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Chemical Reactions
Reaction
• Process of chemical change
Reactant
• Molecule that enters a reaction
Product
• A molecule remaining at the end of a reaction
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A Chemical Reaction
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p. 64
Reactants Products
2 H2
(hydrogen)
2 H2O
(water)
4 hydrogen atoms
+ 2 oxygen atoms
4 hydrogen atoms
+ 2 oxygen atoms
O2
(oxygen)
+
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Energy Inputs and Outputs
in Chemical Reactions
Chemical bonds hold energy – the amount
depends on which elements take part in the bond
Cells store energy in chemical bonds by running
energy-requiring reactions, and access energy by
running energy-releasing reactions
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Energy Inputs and Outputs
in Chemical Reactions
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Fig. 4-3, p. 64
2 H2 + O2
En
erg
y
energy in
energy out
2 H2O
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Why the World Doesn’t Go Up in Flames
Molecules of life release energy when combined
with oxygen – but not spontaneously – energy is
required to start even energy-releasing reactions
Activation energy
• Minimum amount of energy required to start a
reaction
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Activation Energy
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Fig. 4-4, p. 65
Reactants:
2 H2 + O2
Activation energy
En
erg
y
Difference in
energy between
reactants and products
Products: 2 H2O
Time
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Fig. 4-4, p. 65
Reactants:
2 H2 + O2
Activation energy
En
erg
y
Difference in
energy between
reactants and products
Products: 2 H2O
TimeStepped Art
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Animation: Chemical equilibrium
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ATP – The Cell’s Energy Currency
Energy carriers accept energy from energy-
releasing reactions and deliver energy to
energy-requiring reactions
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
• Main energy carrier between reaction sites in
cells
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Phosphorylation
Phosphate-group transfers (phosphorylation)
to and from ATP couple energy-releasing
reactions with energy-requiring ones
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p. 65
ATP forms in energy-
requiring reactions
ATP drives energy-
requiring reactions
ADP + phosphate
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ATP: The Energy Currency of Cells
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Fig. 4-5, p. 65
adenine
three phosphate
groups
ribose
adenine AMP ADP ATP
ribose P P P
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Animation: Activation energy
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Animation: Energy changes in chemical
work
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Animation: Total energy remains
constant
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4.4 How Enzymes Work
Enzymes make chemical reactions proceed
much faster than they would on their own
Enzyme
• Protein or RNA that speeds a reaction without
being changed by it
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Substrates
An enzyme’s particular substrates bind at its
active site
Substrate
• A reactant molecule that is specifically acted upon
by an enzyme
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Active Sites
Active site
• Pocket in an enzyme where substrates bind and
a reaction occurs
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p. 66
active site reactant(s)
enzyme product(s)
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Factors That Influence Enzyme Activity
Each enzyme works best within a characteristic
range of temperature, pH, and salt concentration
When conditions break hydrogen bonds, an
enzyme changes its characteristic shape
(denatures), and stops working
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Enzymes, Temperature, and pH
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Fig. 4-6a, p. 66
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Fig. 4-6a, p. 66
normal
tyrosinase
temperature-
sensitive
tyrosinase
En
zy
me a
cti
vit
y
20°C (68°F) 30°C
(86°F)
40°C
(104°F)A Temperature
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Fig. 4-6b, p. 66
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Fig. 4-6b, p. 66
glycogen
phosphorylase
trypsin
pepsin
En
zy
me
ac
tivit
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
B pH
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Cofactors and Coenzymes
Cofactor
• A metal ion or a coenzyme that associates with
an enzyme and is necessary for its function
Coenzyme
• An organic cofactor
• Unlike enzymes, may be modified by a reaction
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Organized, Enzyme-Mediated Reactions
Cells concentrate, convert, and dispose of most
substances in enzyme-mediated reaction
sequences
Metabolic pathway
• Series of enzyme-mediated reactions by which
cells build, remodel, or break down an organic
molecule
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Linear and Cyclic Metabolic Pathways
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Control of Metabolic Pathways
Various controls over enzymes allow cells to
conserve energy and resources by producing
only what they require
• Concentrations of reactants and products
• Feedback inhibition
• Allosteric sites
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Control of Metabolic Pathways
Feedback inhibition
• Mechanism by which a change that results from
some activity decreases or stops the activity
Allosteric site
• A region of an enzyme, other than the active site,
that can bind regulatory molecules
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Feedback Inhibition
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Fig. 4-7, p. 67
Stepped Art
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Animation: Feedback inhibition
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Allosteric Sites
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Fig. 4-8, p. 67
regulatory
molecules
active site substrate in
active site
A inactive form B active form
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Animation: Allosteric activation
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Animation: Allosteric inhibition
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Electron Transfers
Electron transfer chains allow cells to harvest
energy in manageable increments
Electron transfer chain
• An array of membrane-bound enzymes and other
molecules that accept and give up electrons in
sequence
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Uncontrolled and Controlled
Energy Release
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Fig. 4-9, p. 68
carbon dioxide
glucose carbon dioxide glucose e–
1 Energy input splits glucose
into carbon dioxide, electrons,
and hydrogen ions (H+).
++oxygen water oxygen H+
2 Electrons lose energy as
they move through an electron
transfer chain.spark
3 Energy released by electrons
is harnessed for cellular work.
e–
4 Electrons, hydrogen ions, and
oxygen combine to form water.water
A Glucose and oxygen
react (burn) when exposed
to a spark. Energy is
released all at once as light
and heat when CO2 and
water form.
B The same overall reaction
occurs in small steps with an
electron transfer chain. Energy
is released in amounts that
cells can harness for cellular
work.
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Fig. 4-9, p. 68
glucose
++oxygen water
spark
A Glucose and oxygen
react (burn) when exposed
to a spark. Energy is
released all at once as light
and heat when CO2 and
water form.
carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide
glucose e–
oxygen H+
e–
water
B The same overall reaction
occurs in small steps with an
electron transfer chain. Energy
is released in amounts that
cells can harness for cellular
work.
1 Energy input splits glucose
into carbon dioxide, electrons,
and hydrogen ions (H+).
2 Electrons lose energy as
they move through an electron
transfer chain.
3 Energy released by electrons
is harnessed for cellular work.
4 Electrons, hydrogen ions, and
oxygen combine to form water.
Stepped Art
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Animation: Controlling energy release
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Animation: Enzymes and their role in
lowering activation energy
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Animation: Enzymes and temperature
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Animation: Induced fit model