chapter8. observation studies donald r. cooper & pamela s. schindler 授課老師:洪新原...
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Chapter8.Observation Studies
Donald R. Cooper & Pamela S. Schindler
授課老師:洪新原 教授組員:林佳縈
李海微黃天慧
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USING OBSERVATION
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Observation and the Research Process
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Selecting the Data Collection Method
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Selecting an Observation Approach
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Observation Classification
Nonbehavioral•Record analysis
• Physical condition analysis
• Process or Activity analysis
Behavioral• Nonverbal observation
• Linguistic observation
• Extralinguistic observation
• Spatial observation
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Nonbehavioral Observation
Record analysis is the extraction of data from current or historical
records. Data mining is a type of record analysis.
Physical condition analysis is the recording of observations of current
conditions resulting from prior decisions.
relate to a safety audit or an analysis of inventory conditions or an analysis of food preparation areas in a restaurant.
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Nonbehavioral Observation(Cont.)
Process or Activity analysis observation by a time study of stages in a
process, evaluated on both effectiveness and efficiency.
relates to any organization that tracks time related to activity or process steps and stages.
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Behavioral Observation
• Nonverbal
the most prevalent and refers to recording
physical actions or movements of participants.
• Linguistic
the observation of human verbal behavior during
conversation, presentation, or interaction.
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Behavioral Observation(Cont.)
Extralinguistic
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Behavioral Observation(Cont.)
Extralinguistic
the observation of human verbal behavior during
conversation, presentation, or interaction.
Spatial
the recording of how humans physically relate to one
another.
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EVALUATION OF BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION
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Evaluation of Observation
Strengths
• Securing information that is otherwise unavailable
• Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting
• Securing environmental context
• Optimizing naturalness
• Reducing obtrusiveness
Weaknesses
• Enduring long periods
• Incurring higher expenses
• Having lower reliability of inferences
• Keeping large records
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THE OBSERVER-PARTICIPANT RELATIONSHIP
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Whether the observation is direct or indirect.• Direct observation occurs when the observer is
physically present and personally monitors what takes place.
• Indirect observation occurs when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, or electronic means.
The Observer-Participant Relationship
may be viewed from three perspectives:1) Whether the observation is direct or indirect2) Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to
the participant3) What role the observer plays in the events or effects of
events recorded.
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Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant.• Concealment shields the observer from the
participant to avoid error caused by the observer’s presence.
• A modified approach involves partial concealment. Whether the observer should
participate in the situation while observing.• Participant observation, exists when the
observer enters the social setting and acts as both an observer and a participant.
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CONDUCTING AN OBSERVATION STUDY
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The Type of Study
Simple observation Its practice is not standardized, as one would expect,
because of the discovery nature of exploratory research.
System observation It employs standardized procedures, trained
observers, schedules for recording, and other devices for the observer.
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The Type of Study
Research Class Environment Purpose Research Tool
Completely unstructured
Natural setting
Generate hypotheses
Unstructured Laboratory
Structured Natural setting
Observation checklist
Completely structured
Laboratory Test hypotheses Observation checklist
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The Type of Study
Observation checklist It is a measuring instrument for testing hypotheses
of class 4 studies.
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Content Specification
Specific conditions, events, or activities that we want to observe determine the observational reporting system.
Observation may be at either a factual or an inferential level.
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Content SpecificationFactual Inferential
Introduction/identification of salesperson and customer.
Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of customer.
Time and day of week Convenience for the customer. Welcoming attitude of the customer.
Product presented. Customer interest in product.
Selling points presented per product.
Customer acceptance of selling points per product.
Number of customer objections raised per product.
Customer concerns about features and benefits.
Salesperson’s rebuttal of objection.
Effectiveness of salesperson’s rebuttal attempts.
Salesperson’s attempt to restore controls.
Effectiveness of salesperson’s control attempt.Consequences for customer who prefers interaction.
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Observer Training
General guidelines for the qualification and observers.ConcentrationDetail-orientedUnobtrusiveExperience
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Data collection
The data collection plan specifies the details of the task.
It answer the questions who, what, when, how, and where
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Data collection-what
The characteristics of the observation must be set as sampling elements and units of analysis.
Event samplingThe researcher records selected behavior that
answers the investigative questions.
Time samplingThe researcher must choose among a time-point
sample, continuous real-time measurement, or a time-interval sample.
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Data collection-what
Time-point sampleRecording occurs at fixed points for a specified
length.
Continuous measurementBehavior or the elapsed time of the behavior is
recorded.
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Data collection-what
Any of the following could be defined as an act for an observation study:A single expressed thoughtA physical movementA facial expressionA motor skill
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UNOBTRUSIVE MEASURES
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Unobtrusive Measures
Innovative observational procedures that can be both nonreactive and inconspicuously applied.
Of particular interest are measures involving indirect observation based on physical traces(實體追蹤 ) that include erosion (耗損性 )and accretion(添加物 ).
Physical trace methods present a strong argument for use based on their ability to provide low-cost access to frequency, attendance, and incidence data without contamination from other method or reactivity from participants.
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