chifundi and vumba: two heart attack patients who survived

8/14/2019 Chifundi and Vumba: Two Heart Attack Patients Who Survived

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Nurse,D. & Walsh,M. T. 1990. Chifundiand Vumba:Two HeartAttackPatientswho

Survivedo, aperpresentedatlrc Interndional Symposium n LanguageDeath n East,4frica,Bad Homburg,Germany, anuary1990.

Chifundiand Vumba:wo heartattackpatientswho survived

DerekNurse ndMartinWalsh

1 Introduction

The argets f hisstudy reChifundindVumba,wosmall nddwindlingwahilidialectcommunities,poken n hecoast f southern enya, ndof southern enya/northernanzania,respectively.hepurposes o nvestigatea)certainnnovations,ainly honological,nChifundi ndVumba,nnovationshich ive hema distinctlyon-Swahilippearancend b)modelshatmight xplainhediachronicppearancef hesennovations. esuggesthat heseinnovationseriveromhistoricalnterferenceromDigo, neighboringanguage.

ln all, our Bantu)anguages/dialectsre nvolved:hifundiCh), umbaVu),Digo Di),andSegejuSe).ChandVuareSwahiliSw) ialects.Di sa southern ijikendaMK)dialect.SwandMK thushemainhree argets) re ypologicallyimilar ndcloselyelated.Se (ofTanzania,ee ollowing)stoday formof Di,bulmost ikelyesultedroma languagehift nto

Dibya communitynce peaking aisu, memberf heCentral enya antu roup =Kikuyu,Kamba, eru, tc).There ere till ldSegeju n hecoastn 1935whostill pokeDaisu(Dammann93617:231-3).h,Vu ,andDieach ave omenternalvariation.

Ch sspokenna string fKenyaoastalvillagesetweenheMkurumijind heRamisiRivers,t wovillagesMkwiro, yumaaMaji) nWasinisland, ndatAleni, ungi, ndNgoajust o hewest f heShimoni eninsula.u sspoken tWasini nWasinisland,nmostvillagesn heShimoni eninsula,nd na string fcoastalvillagesetweenpproximatelyMajoreniKenya)nd heBomaPeninsulaTanzania). earenotclear xac tly here e sspoken utmost ikelyn hegeneralinterlandetweenheborder ndTanga ownn Tanzania.Di sspoken etweenus tsouth fMombasaKenya)ndTanga,mostlyn hehinterland,utatsome ointsDisettlementsome own o hecoast.

The1979Kenya ensusegistered519Swahili/Shirazi"inKwaleDistrict,hat s,

1519 eoplehoseo dentifyhemselveso hecensusakers s"Swahili"or "shirazi"on heKenya oast etween ombasand heborder ithTanzania. inceSwahili/Shirazi"in hiscontexts more r ess ynonymousith Chifundi"plus Vumba",therewere a.1519 eoplewho abelledhemselvessVumba r Chifundin Kenya.Givenhe ate f ncreasef heEastAfrican bpulation,nd hat here reseveralVumba"villages n henorthern anzanian@ast,the otaf Chifundi/Vumba"populationsprobablyetween ,OOOnd3,000.120,024eopleregistereds"Digo"in Kenya101,336)ndTanzania18,688). egeju umbersreno tclear, swewillsee elow.

The iberal seof nvertedommasn heprecedingaragraphsmeanto expressoubtabout he nterpretationf hese igures. n hisarea here soften discrepancyetween hatpeoplepeak ndhow hey dentifyhemselvesthnically.orexample,early O,OOOeopleidentifiedhemselvess"Segeju"in he as tTanzanianensus1969)hat till eferred

oethnicity,lus everalthousandnKenya.But n Kenya oobservern he astdecadesasbeenable o dentifynyone hospeaks e: n Kenya ll"Segeju"speak nlySw and/orDi- in Kenyathere renoSe-speakerseft. nTanzanian hemiddle 970s, urse ndPhilippsonere bleto collect edata hat ndicatedhatat east ome segeju"spoke formof Didifferentromforms f Didescribedlsewhere,o nTanzaniaemight edescribedsa Didialect.Similarly,when neof Walsh'so-workersnKenyanterviewed0Vu-speakingomennShimoni,heyall dentifiedhemselvess"Digo".Hencehe igures itedabove o not eflect ccuratelylanguageffiliation,fwhichwe n acthavenodetailed reakdown. urbestguesstimateouldbe henumberfVu and ossibly h)speakersughto beslightlyigherhan heethnicidentificationuggests,nd hat heDifigure ould ecorrespondinglyower.Although e havenowayof knowing owmany eople peakSe n northernanzania,he act hat he nformant



Lwhosuppliedhedatao Nurse ndPhilippsonas oung ould uggesthat heresstill nactiveSespeakingommunity,ossiblyeveral undredr housandtrong.

These iscrepanciesetweenanguagendethnic tfiliationppearo be argelyhe result fhistoricalanguagehifts.The Segeju"originallypokeDaisu.Most hiftedo Di,butsome,either irectly,r hrough i,movedovariousorms f Sw, ncludinghandVu:hence eoplewhoclaim o"be"Segeju, hile eing irst peakersf oneof theother ongues.WhilemostDigohave etainedheir anguage,ome hiftedoSw, ncludinghandVu:hence eoplewho dentify

themselvessDigowhile aving u and, resumably,h)as heir irst anguagel.Finally,swewillseebelow,heChwere nce @nquered"by heVu. The atter ere husthedominantocalforce,ndundoubtedlyomeChspeakershiftedoVu. In hese hiftsngeneral,t s henon-Swommunitieshich hiftedo Sw,and nparticularoVu2.

Evenhemodifiedigures f anguageffiliationbove eg hequestion f what t meansosay hata personsa speakerf oneof hese ialects/languages.his nvolveswo ssues: owwellpeople peakheir wn irstongue,nd hepatternsfbi-or multi-lingualismn hearea.

Howwellpeoplen hisareaspeakheir wn irst ongue otonlydependsn he usualvariableswhereheywerebornand aised, hereheynowwork, ducationalevel,male sfemale, tc)bu talso n hegeneralreal atternsf anguagese .Downo hebeginningf hepresententuryhedominantultural nd inguisticormsn heareawere hose f Zanzibar

andMombasa. ombasaasbeen hemostmportantownon hecoast incehebeginningf hesixteenthentury,ndZanzibarose nstatureuringhenineteenthentury. mallcommunitiesuch sChandVuweremuchnfluencedy hese xternalorms.Many eoplenthearea ravel ftenoMombasa. uringhesecond alf f his entury tandardw StSw) aslargelyaken ver he oleotZanzibariw. Allcommunitiesn hecoast redailyexposedoStSw,hrough chool,he adio, ewspapers,ooks, fficialsf hegovernment, nstantontactwithoutsiders,ndmembersf heir wn ommunitiesho eaveo indwork lsewherendthen eturn. he esultsaverymixed atternf anguagese, ndan ncreasingumber fpeople hoaredo notcontrolheir wndialectully.This s mostrueof young eople, dultmaleswhoravelmorehanwomen),ndpeoplen argerenters: omen ndmore uraldwellersavemore bilityn heir wn ongue. his eneralituationffects rimari[ChandVu: n heearly 980s,neof heauthorsad roubleinding nyone n northernanzaniaho

spoke nythingikea "pure"Vu. EvenDi s notexempt,s heDihave eennconstantontactwithSwcommunitiesorseveralenturies,nd slamizedince t easthe1gth entury.

This ituation,lus he ac t hat he our ommunitiesave een oexistingn hearea oratleastour enturies,asalso ed o considerablei-/multi-lingualism.ost r allDi,andpresumablyheTanzaniane,speakheir wn anguagendoneormoreorms f Sw. Many(younger,ale, rban)irst peakersf ChandVuarealso luentnStSw nd/orMombasaw.Swspeakersend ospeak nly orms f Sw,whereashenon-swahiliend o speakheirownlanguagelusa form, r orms, fSwahili.

2 Historical ackgroundTheconventionalistoryf hearea nder onsiderationsas ollows3.A line f Swcommunitiesasbeennsitu orover milleniumlongheEastAfrican

littoral.Stretchingvera thousand ilesromnortho south,t waskept ntact y strongeconomic,ullural,eligious,nd amilyies.Thearchaeologicalecord,upportedya fairlydetailedral radition,ndicateshatVucommunitiesVumba huu, eemap) ave xistednsitu ince t east aAD1400.WhilehearchaeologicalvidenceorChcommunitiessharderto nterpret,umberf considerationsaket ikelyhatChsettlementsreequally ld .Thedifficultyfdistinguishingu romChsettlementst hat emove,nd hedispersedature fthesettlementslus he relativebsencef stone/coraluildingsn hearea T.Wilson .comm)make tdifficultoestimatehesizeof these arly opulations.ut heverynature fthesettlementsnd heabsence fearly eferenceo hemmakest ikelyhat heywerenotlarge,withpopulationsrobablyardlyargerhan oday's.At a pointunclear utmostprobablyuringhesixteenthentury,heDimoved own.fromhenorth nd apidlyccupied



..,)

thehinterland.inally,uringhe ate ixteenth,ndearly eventeenth,entury,heSe(orDaisu) rrivedrom henorth ndsettledn hehinterland.

In heearly ecadesf heseventeenthentury,heVucommunityxpandedndwith heaidof DiandSe,conqueredheCh, apturing any f heirmain illages,nd educinghem o a

subordinateole.Thehighpoint fVupowerwas eachedn he estof heseventeenth,ndduringhe irstpartof theeighteenth,enlury, henheyplayed nactive conomicolealonglhe coast, ndwere hedominantoliticalforcen he egion outh f Mombasa. he atereighteenth,nd henineteenth,entury asa period f decline,nwhich everalfactorseem o

have layed role: n ncreasinglyarginaleconomicndpoliticalole, ssmall ommunitieswere idelinedy he ising izeandpower fMombasandZanzibar,nternaloliticalsquabbles,ttacksy heMaasai,everalfamines,nda numberf epidemics.u n hepresentcentury laysittle rno role n hemajor ffairs f hecoast, onsiderableut-migrationoccurs, nd hedialecttselfs ncreasinglyhreatenedy hespread nduseof StSw.

Weknowmuchessof hehistory f heChcommunity,ut t would ppearo mirrorhatof Vu,excepthat tstartedroma lesser oliticalndeconomicasen heseventeenthentury.

Although eknowequallyittle bouthehistory f heSecommunity. Sperling ),certainacts anbe deduced. nitially,l thestart f heseventeenthentury,heyand heDiwere mployedy heVu n heir ubjugationf heChi, uggestingconsiderableemographicandmilitaryresence,ndalso n nterminglingf heir ffairs ith hose f heDi ,withwhomthey ive odayn hesame r adjacentillages.udging yscatteredeports,heSestill eem

to have layed noccasionalilitaryole own o henineteenthentury. hey lsoplayed nactive conomicole n he radenetworkseadingrom hecoast o he nterior. here eemsohave eenmoreSepresencenTanzaniahann Kenya, hereheirmain ettlementreawas heShimoni eninsuly'Unfortunatenvolvementn hepoliticaltrugglesetween ombasandZanzibar,nd n hepoliciesf heBritisholonialpower,n hesecond al fof henineteenthcentury,ed o hedestructionf some many )of heir oastalillagesn Kenya.

WhenheSe irst rrived longhehinterlandn heearly eventeenthentury,t s ikelythat heywere till peakingaisu,heir riginalanguage,hich ven odaysspoken y aremnantommunityfseveralthousandome 5 milesrom hecoast, t andnearBwiti,nnortheasternanzania. here ppearhereaftero have een woSecommunities,neon hecoast,heotherupat Bwiti, onstantontact etweenhe wo,anda leaking fpeopleromBwitidowno hecoasl.Parts f hecoastalommunityeremostikely ilingualn Daisu ndDi ,

theirorm f he atter eing e. Wedo notknow xactly henheuseof Daisu nat eastheKenya oastwasgiven p,but hedestructionf Sevillagesn he atenineteenthentury,together ith he actshat n 1935 nlya fewoldpeople till pokehe anguagend oday ocoastalcommunityses tanymore, ould uggest progressiveoss uringhe atter ecadesfthe ast enturynd he irst alf f his entury.Wealso onotknowwhen rwhy heuseof Sewasabandonedn heKenya oast orwhethert n actwaseverused n hatcoast Since hemain rea fDaisu ettlementn hecoastwas athernTanzania,t spossiblehatSeassuchnever xisted n hesouthern enya oast.On heother and, ecause estill xists n heTanzanianoast, ndbecauseshift oDi "Segeju"),r at east ilingualismnDi ,by hecoastal aisunKenya ould ave een robableuringheir enturiesfco-existence,t spossibleherewasa Kenya e. lf tdidexist,hen since conomicallyiandSewere irtuallyindistinguishable,ndsince enumbersnwhat snowKenya ere robablylwaysess han nTanzaniatheseactors,lushedispersalf heir eparatedentityesultingrom hedestructionf heir illages,ere robablyesponsiblen heKenya oastor hedisappearanceof Seat muchhesameime s hatofDaisu.

TheDiare he argestf he our ommunities,utdespiteheir ize, eem ohave layedsomewhatecondaryole oVumba p o thepresententury.Becausef theirgeographicalpresencen heentire interlandrom outh fMombasaoTanga, nd heir djacencyo heSwahilitradingommunitiesf hecoast,heir ffairs aveong eennextricablyied o heeconomicndpoliticalfortunesf hose ommunities.his onnectiono hecoasted o heirlslamizationn he19th enlury, hich ave heSwahilicommunitiesetanotherold verthem, s hecenlers f slamiculture ere irmlyootedn heSwahiliommunities. ostlybilingualnoneor otherorm f Sw oday,heyhaveikely een o orseveralenturies.



LI

Insummary,n non-linguisticerms,he womost ignificantommunitiesrom heearly17th,o he19th, entury ereVuandDi , he ormer ecausef heir @nomic,olitical,cultural,nd eligiousower,he atter naccountf heir umbersndomnipresence.heChwere ubordinateo heVu,and heSe o bothDiandVu. This ll mplieshat henorms fVuandDi , n hatorder, re ikelyohave een ominant,nd ha tany anguagehiftwould ave

been utof Se,Ch,andDi, n ha t rder,ntoVuandDi, n hat rder.Aswewillseeshortly,examinationf he inguisticvidencenlypartly upportshese ypotheses.

3.0 The inguisticicture

Althoughhemain argets f this nvestigationreVuandCh,wenow ookat eachof the ourlanguagesn urn ogeta completeicture f hediachronicnteractionsetweenhem.

3.1 SegejuWeuseSehereo refer ot o Daisu, ut o the ormof Diapparentlytillused n Tanzania,

andpossiblyormerlyn heKenya oast.Of he our ongues nder xamination,t s heoneforwhichwe haveeast ata.Thisdataderivesroma word istof ca 800 tems illed ut n he1970s ya Tanzaniane romMonga illage,ollowedya shortnterviewocussingndetailsofphonologyndmorphology.hemaineaturesf hisdata re:

- lexically,honologically,ndmorphologically,hisSemost esemblesi(Nurse 982),

specificallyouthern i(seebelow).- whilehemajorityf exissshared ithDi ,avery ewSe exicaltems reshared ithDaisu lone, nd hephonologynd/or eographicalistributionf hesetems uggestsriginnDaisu.nslightly ore ases,tems reshared ySe,Di ,andDaisu4.

- of he800 exicaltems t east 50areborrowedromSw. Ina modifiedersion fSwadesh's00-wordistat east13%sborrowedromSw. As weseebelow,hephonologyfVuandCh squite istinctiverom hatof he est f Sw:on hisbasis, singletem n800 sborrowedromVuor Ch. That s,VuandChareno t hesource f Sw oansnSe. Themajorityfloans romSware rom heZanzibarialect nguja r fromStSw.

- theSe nformantasmore avaliernwritingown honologicaldetailshan therMKinformantsompletinghesameist:hus, ffricatesere ometimesendereds heequivalentfricatives,ll and r]were ometimessednterchangably,hevoiced ilabialricative as

rendereditferentially,tc .15yearsatert s hardoknowwhetherhiswas he esult f theinformant'sncompleteontrolofhe anguage,rof his ack f experiencenwritingtdown,or whethert mirroredhestate fSeat hat ime.Atany ate,tseemsosuggesthat heinformantas ess ware f normshan therMK nformants.tcould enoted erehata Dilinguistt heUniversityfDaresSalaamnce eferredisparaginglyo Seasa "garbled"formofDi.

- theuseof ll and 4 us tmentionedsof particularnterest. llSwahili ialects re"f-fanguages",thal s, he egulareflex fProto-BantuPB) l (Guthrie's/dl)in nheriteditemss ll (orzero).WithheexceptionfDiandSe, he egulareflexesf his l ininheritedtemsnallMKdialects ereoriginallyr] nowr/) n hecontext f front owels,otherwise] (nowl/):statisticallyllpredominates.nSeandDi,especiallynsouthern i(the ypeof Dispoken herehere reorwereadjacent ecommunities),hedistributionf l/andrlis opaque, ot o llowingnyobviousr regularallern, utwitha preponderanceflrl. ln Daisu nd ts elativesnCentral enya,he egulareflex f PB l in nheritedordsis r/ . Thisbehaviourf Seandsouthernorms f Diwould eemo suggest transferfarticulatoryr allophonicabitsromDaisu, snootheranguagen hewhole rea reats l inthisway. Whetherhese abits ereransferredirectlynto outhern i,or nitiallyntoSe,and ater ntosouthern i, s notclear.

3.2 DigoAt all inguisticevelsheMKdialects,ncludingi,are elativelyomogeneous.ihas

undergoneertain inornnovationsotshared y henorthern K Nurse 982).As most fthese renotattributableo Sw nfluenceedonotdiscusshemhere.Sw-inducedeatures re:



affricated.ngeneralMKhasmore egmentshatareclearly ffricatedhanSw:so MK s= Swry, MKdz= 5e7 j6. However,he ouianteriorricativesf SwandMKcorrespondegularly(Sw , v, s, z = MK , v, s, z),so t sunclearow heseChaffricatedounds re o be explained.Walsh asobservedhat oday nlyFunzi as hese ounds, hereas ambertmplieshat nthe1920sheywere resenthroughouth.

- Lamberteportshat he ormof the3pl nFunzican e wa-or a-,whereasWasini, u,

andallotherSwhasonlywa-.AllMKhave -, he esult f regularossof w/. L-loss lsoappearspasmodicallynotherwords, .g.kaidihabit'(cf

StSw awaida,romArabic).3.4 Vumba

WithinheSwspectrum,uhasa numberfspecificeatures,utnonehat suniquelyattributableoanyMK.

3.5 Chifundiand umbaChA/u hare number f eatures ithMK, eatures hich et hemoff rom he estof Sw:- one sa setof exishat or reasonsfphonologyrgeographicalistribution ustbe

borrowedromMK.Weareno lsure owextensivehis et s,bu t n he1o0-wordis t hefollowingere oted: ili'two'(Swwili,MK ir ibyregular -loss),os iall,(MK osi,Sw-ote),aupe'white'other whas eupe, hich howshe nheritednitialowel, hereas

some orthern') MKhavennovatednitiala]), ombo'breast'(occursodaynallnorthernMK ') ,where llSwdialectsave nother ord), ia'song'theMKword,where whasaderivativef -imba'sing'),andpossiblyordsnvolving-loss uch smongoback'andmbeu'seed'(allMKhave -lessorms, here outhernwhasmgongondmbegu). ome utno tal lof these tems lsooccur nMtang'ata,heSwdialectust o thesouth f Vu.

- all MKdialects ave regularabiovelarizationrocess herebyequencesf kw,gw,mWare ealiseds[kp,gb, mw].

lt might enotedhat hisprocess asbeen eportedsbeing omewhatess egularn Dithannmore ortherly K .) . AlthoughheprocesstselfsnotactivenChor Vu, hey oshow everalexicalizedorms f t (alsonMtang'alao hesouth):hus bwa'fall'(otherSw gwa), nda passiveuffixbwa elsewheregwa).Lamberteportshese ases scharacterizingheWasini,atherhan heFunzi, ialect fCh.

- oneverbmorphologicaleaturehatcharacterizeshandVu sa -jambwa-'notet'

morpheme,or nstanceukha-jambwa-(ku)renda'heasn't one et'.This ccursnnootherSwdialect,ut hroughoutKwe ind orms uch sGiryamaha-dzangwe-kuhenda'heasn,tdone et'.MK dzlcorrespondsegularlyo SwandVu g1/, nd fweassumehatVu mbw salexicalisedorm f he abiovelarizationrocess,hen nly heMK el andVualis irregular.ln MKat easthis sa compound,rammaticalised,orpheme-dza-recentpast'< come,plus-nQwe- ?).

- themost ignificanteaturef ChandVu,however,swhat ashappenedo PB pand t.

Withinhesubgroupf Bantuanguages"Sabaki")o which wandMKbelong,neof hemostsignificantsoglossessone nwhich B andProto-sabaki)p and t lenitednMK alsoPokomondComorian),utwere etainednSw alsoElwanandMwani). irtuallyllswdialectsave ept'p, evenoday, nd n he ew hathave ot, heshifts reminor nd ecent.ComparativevidenceromMK,Pokomo,ndComoriantronglyuggestsha t he enition asashared rocessha toccurredn hemidor ate irstmilleniumD,andproceededhus:

Proto-Bantu Proto-Sabaki. EarlyMK.Swahili Pokomo/Comorian

*pp

'tt

Ef

Later evelopments

8> V in Comorian,outhernMK (Di)> h in northernMK

> r in Comorian> h inallMK,somePokomo

-rh

(=vl fricative)



The ast olumnsmeanto ndicateha t ater, fterMK,Pokomo,ndComorianplit p, hevoicelessricativesere etainedown o thepresentnly n(part r allof)Pokomo. henorthern K urther eakenedoth ricativeso h/, hesouthern K, ncluding i,weakened'rh to h/butvoicedf lo lll. Sereflects ihere. he esultsregularetsof tems uchasPBandsw pa-,northern Kha-, outhern K a- class16marker';Bandsw {atu,butMK hahu'three'.nse andsouthern ithis hlcan eletesoalso au three').

ContraryowhathappensnallotherSwdialects,pand thave ecome il andrlrespectivelynChandVur. Thushe eflex f hevoicelessabial top s denticald4 in Di,

Ch,Vu , andSe).The eflex f heapicalsdifferent: handVu r/ butDi andSe)/h/. tmight enotedhat he eflex f*p in Daisusalso V (Out f .t is V).Wecombedhrough early ll heavailablehandVudata Bakari985,Moehligarious,

Lambert954, 958, urseield otes)nvolvingeflexesf*pand t,and oundhefollowingales f occurrence. ach f the woselsof percentageselowsbased nbetween0and90 eligibletemsrom ll hesources,ependingnwhich ialect r stopwas nvolvedS:

Chifundi Vumba

Reflexesf*p :

t{1lpl

mixedl, pl

Reflexesf*t :

l4Irlmixedr, ]

79%16%

5%

83o/o

10%7%

65%27%

8/"

71o/o

26/"3%

Itshould e notedhat hedataonwhichhese ercentagesrebased ame roma range fsources:ome lder/someore ecent,ome ral/some ritten,ome romnarratives/somefromelicitationf ndividualitems,omerommen/women,lder/youngernformants,tc .Thushe igureshould e aken s ageneralndicatorf requency,otanexactmeasurefoccurrence. lthough hshows igherevels f he enitedricativeshanVu,bothdialects

clearly avemanymore ricativeshan tops.The tems ontaininghestops nd ricativesrespectivelyre requentlyhesame n he wodialects9. he easonor heappearancefapparentlyon-lenitedegmentss not hat hey ailedoundergoenitioniachronically,utrather,nder ressureromMombasawandStSw,hat he wosmall ommunitiesreslowlynow eplacingheir ricativesy hestops oundn he estof Sw,wordbyword.

Theobvious,utdifficult,uestioneres:whydidChandVuundergoenitiont all?Fivepossiblecenariosresenthemselves:

i. ChandVuarenotSwdialectsndnever ere. notherwords, hen he nitial arly plitoccurredetween w(alsoElwana ndMwani:heconservativeembers)ndMK alsoPokomoandComorian:theeniting,nnovaling,embers),handVuwent longwith he enitingroup.Theobjectiono hisscenarios hat,apart rom

hiseature

nd he ewothersmentionedn3.3and3.5,basicallyvery ther haracteristicfChandVu sSwahili-like.oChandVuwould avehad o undergo assiveorrowingteveryinguisticevel,whichspossibleutimplausible.t salsono tsupportedynon-linguisticactors,uch soraltradition: KD|traditionso notclaimhat heChandVuwere nceMK,nordo hecoreChor Vu raditions.

ii . ChandVudevelopedogether ith, rwere eavilynfluencedy,ComorianeforeheComoriansef t hemainlandoastn hesecond alf f he irstmilleniumD,a possibilityadvancedyNurse1982b,984/5). hecentral asisor his laims hat rom pand t,

Comorianevelopedll andrl,iustasChandVu. A secondaryupportomesromComoriantraditionshich laimhat hey ame rom Mrima":Mrima"inSw eferso henorthernTanzanianoast ndmight eheldo ncludeheChandVuareas but Mrima"in Comorianreferso heEastAfricanoastngeneral. heobjectiono his cenarios hat,whilet s rue



there sconsiderablevidencehatComorianndSw ngeneralso ncluding handVu),havehad ong ontact ver he astmilleniumnddoshare ertaininguisticnnovations,here s noevidence,therhan heirdenticalreatmentf*pand t,of specifichared imilaritiesrinnovationsetween omorianndCh/Vu.

iii. ChandVudevelopedogether ith, r wereheavilynfluencedy,UpperPokomo tsomeunspecifiedarly oint,whichssimilaroa hypothesisdvancedyMoehlig1984/5).Theonlybasis or hisclaim s hatwhereUpperPokomoas he earlier)oiceles! airf ,'rh/,ChandVu haveheexact later) oiced@ngeners, r/ which

ould asily avedevelopedfrom heUpperPokomoituationy a simple oicingule.Themain bjectiono thissuggestionis hesame s hat o hepreceding:heres noevidencefother pecificinguisticimilaritiesanykindbetween pperPokomondCh/Vu.A secondarybjections non-linguistic:ooraltraditionublishedrknowno useven uggestst.

iv. Despitehedifferencen heCh/Vu ndDitreatmentf*t,it could earguedhat hewhole etof similaritiessections.3and3.5)betweenhem ointso engthy nd ntensecontact, itheitherhiscontact ra languagehift romDi ntoCh/Vu eing esponsibleortoday's ituation:ediscussorrowingsshiftnsection . Thishypothesiss heavilysupportedy heknown istoricalactsassetout nsection .

TheDiarrived ith V and rhl. V presentsoproblemsf nterpretation,s t scommon Di ,Vu,andCh. ThedifferenceetweenheCh/Vu ndDi eflexesf*tcanbereasonably

xplained:othh/ and rlderiveiaa single tep y@mmon honologicalprocesseslenitionndvoicing,espectively)romrh/,a segment hichn EastAfrica t eastappearso beunstablend s highlymarkedngeneralMaddieson985). ha t s,at he imeDiandCh/Vu irstoamencontact, istillhad rh/,heearlier tage. his eaves pen hequestionf why ficyshould ave evelopedifferentlysection).

Whilehis s hebest f he our cenarioso ar,a fifth hould lso econsidered.v. In he irstwoparagraphsf his ection.5, t willbenotedhat ertain imilarities

(marked.) n he ext)between KandCh/Vu renotDispecific:heonephonologicalfeature,abiovelarization,sreportedlyore ctiven hemorenortherly K han nDi,andanumberf exicaltems reattestednmore ortherly K,not nDitoday.Furthermore,heDireUex"'ilof earlierp isalsoattestednDurumandRabai,pokeno henorth f Di,whereasthe arnorthern Khaveh/. Duruma/RabaindCh/Vu renot oday djacent. o he

possibilityxistshat hepresencef hese eaturesnCh/Vumight eriveromanearlierperiod f contact hen ome f oday's ore orlherly Kcommunitiesivedurtherouth,adjacento Di. Spear197S)uggestsha ton heway o heir resentocation,ome f hemore ortherly Kcommunitiesollowedcircuitousoute hichnvolvedormerlyeingsome istanceouth f Mombasaeforemovingurther orth.

It s hard o udgehishypothesis. hileheevidenceor t sclear nough,tcould asilybeexplainedway.Labiovelarizationight ave eenmore ctive arliern Di,butbelesseningnderheongoingnfluencefSw. Dimight arlier ave ad he exicaltems, nly ohave eplacedhemmore ecently. nd V as he eflex f p might ave ecentlypread orthfromDi ,a large ommunity,ntoDurumandRabai,mallerommunities:abai,or nstance,hasboth h/ andd/asreflexesf *p indifferentexicaltems.Weseenoother inguisticevidencefsimilarityetween iandmore ortherly K.

Of he irst ourhypotheses,e ind he ourthmost onvincingsanoverall xplanationfthesimilaritiesetween iandCh/Vu, ndweadmithe ifth sa minor dditionalossibility.

3.6 Summary f the inguistic icturelf we ookat heprecedingrom hepoint fviewof recipients,esee:

(Ianzanian) egeiu.Se s oday formof southern i. lt hasconsiderableexical ndlimitederb-morphologicalaterialfromw:almost oevidencef specific aterialfromhor Vu,mostSwmaterialeingromUngujand/or tSw. t spossiblehatSe sunstable,inceour nformanthowedariationn his endering,lthoughhismight edue o otheraclors.Limitedexical ndphonologicalvidenceor DaisumaterialnSe.



Digo. t has onsiderableexicalandimitederb-morphologicalaterialfromw: imitedevidencef specific aterialfromhor Vu,mostSwmaterialbeingromUnguja nd/or tSw.

Southern ishowsimitedraces fmaterialfromaisu, ossibly ediatedhrough e.

Chifundi.ConsiderablehonologicalvidenceorconvergenceithDi: eflexesf *pand.t (?),palatalization,exicalizedases f abiovelarization,ossiblyffricationnd imitedloss f M. Also ome howmuch ) Di exis, ndat east ne erlc-morpheme.heongoing

repfacementf d, rl by lp,y

pointso nfluencerommore tandardorms f Sw. ThedatafromLambertor hedifferencesetweenheWasini ndFunzi ialectsuggestshatbothhaveabsorbed i material,utapparentlyifferentially.lthoughheevidencef Di nfluencesbetteroday orWasinimore alatalizationnd abiovelarization)han orFunzi limitedossof wl, andaffricationwhich shardo substantiate),hismaybe he esult f the ossoftheseeaturesnFunzi,o s non-diagnostic.

Vumba.PhonologicalvidenceorconvergenceithDi: eflexesf*pand't (?),andlexicalizedases f abiovelarization.lso omehowmuch ) Di exis, ndat east neverb-morpheme.heongoingeplacementfd, rlby lp ,Upointso nfluencerommorestandardorms f Sw,more o han nCh.

lf we ookat heprecedingrom hepoint fviewof donors, esee:

Daisu.Onlymentionedriefly boves he ac t hat heearlier aisu ommunityrefenedto as"theSegeju")ada considerableexical,nd ome honological,mpact n heMK ngeneral,n heperiod uring ndafterhesixteenthentury,s heymoved own hecoastromthenorlh, assinglongheMKspectrum,ndapparentlyettlingmongheMK Nurse 982).

Apartrom, nd aterhan,hat,heres imitedexicalndphonologicalvidencef DaisumaterialnSe,and n Di,possibly ediatedhroughe.

Daisu eased eing poken n hecoast etweenhe ast ecadesf he ast, nd hemiddle fthepresent,entury.

Segeju.Ambiguousvidence,s ustmentioned,orsomeSematerialnDi: t might ave

passedntoDi romSe,or directlyromDaisu.

Digo.Strong videncef Diphonologicalnd exicalmaterialnChandVu,and imitederbmorphologicalaterial. ore bviousnCh hanVu. Possibleha t therMKdialects ight avecontributedarlier.s tpossibleha tDimaterialassedirst nto neor other f ChandVu,and hen nto heother

Chifundi.NoevidencehatChhas ontributedaterialo anyof heother ommunities,otherhanminimalexicalracesn Di,which owever ight ave omeromChor Vu.

Vumba.AsCh,whichssurprising,ivenhat heVumbaommunitys representedsbeinghepolitical,conomic,ultural,nd eligiousenter f hearea uring

heseventeenthandeighteenthenturies,ndpossiblyntohenineteenth.lf twere sked hyVu,Ch,Diandadjacent Kcommunitiesave.'ilas he eflex f*p,

whereashenorthern Kcommunitiesaveh/ , t might eansweredhat his hoicei.e.voicingf

, ralherhan enitingt)wasmade nder u nfluence.hat t hard oprove.Foronething,tcould qua lly ellbeclaimedhatDaisu / from p played role theDaisu ereconsiderableresencearlier);fornother,ll heother videnceuggestsha t onvergencewent ntoVuandCh,not romhem; nd ora third,t sVuandChwhich onot itwith he es tof heSwspectrum,hileDidoes itwith he est f heMKspectrumngeneral.

Unguja, tandardndMombasa wahili.ThatUngujan henineteenthentury,ndStSwn his entury,ashada large ffect nall hese ommunitiessundeniable.partromthemass f oanwords, heeverydaypeech erformancefmost f themembersf the arget



communitiesuggestsonstantnterferenceromStSw t all evels.

We havenotdiscussedndetailhe oleof Mombasawon he arget ommunities.tcanhowevereshownhat n hepastMombasawstronglyffected ll our ongues,exically,phonologically,ndmorphologically.ombasaas he argest rban enter n hecoast romthesixteentho hepresententury.

4.0 Summary ndconclusionsThisconferencesexplicitlybout ases f anguageeath.There reclearly ases fdeath

andnear-deathn hesouthern enya ndnorthernanzanianoast.Coastal aisunotDaisu tBwiti)ingeredear eath rom he ate19th entury nd inally isappearedn hecoastatsome ointowardhemiddle f he20th entury, ith heunannouncedeath f ts astspeaker.Tanzanianedoesnotappearo be na healthytateoday:f Kenyan e everexisted,tpresumablylso ied elativelyecently. uandCharesmall,nsignificant,nddwindlingcommunities,heir conomicndpoliticalole iminishedyexternalvents incehe19thcentury,heirdialectsenderedrrelevantn hepresententury y hespread f StSw.WhatDistartednVuandCh, hepressuresf he20th entury illpresumablyccomplish.Wearehoweverot eallynterestedn he elative oribundnessf SeandDaisu, ut athernsomeof heprocessesnvolvedn hesickly onditionfVuandCh. ChandVupresent uniquelaboralory,s heyseemohave een ealt massivelowby Di,andyet o have urvived.

4.1 ModelsOur irst im section)was o nvestigateheappearancef certain on-inherited

innovations,articularlyril andrl,inChandVu section.0).Our econd as oexploremodelshatmight xplainhesennovationsthis ection).n whatollows e eanheavilynThomasonndKaufman988,whopresent number f concreteroposalsbout ypes flanguagehange, ndabouthe inguisticraces achmight e expectedo eave.

They uggestourbasicmodelsf anguagehange. he irsts hegenetic odel, herebychanges argelynlernal,anguages handedn rom enerationogeneration,nd esultsnthekindof relationshiphatcanbe recoveredy heComparativeethod.We ake orgrantedthat arge arts fDi ,Ch ,andVucanbeexplainedy hismodel, ndwearenotparticularlyinterestedn tsapplicationere.Theotherhreeypes ll nvolveontact-inducedhange:pidginization/creolization;borrowing;nd ubstratumnfluence,fwhichanguagehiftsa

central art.For wo easons, e hink idginizationndcreolizationlayed osignificanlolein hesituationeare nvestigating.irst,heresnoevidenceor hekind fsociolinguisticsituationhat ypically ives ise opidginization/creotization.hat s,oursituationnvolvesnophysicalisplacementfpopulations,o emovalloome lacear emovedromhome ndown anguagerea, ndnomixing fpopulationsithno@mmonanguage. econd,hekind flinguistichangeshatnormallyesultrom idginizationreabsent: eseenoevidencefirregularransmission,implification,eatureshat annot eexplainedrom he anguagesinvolved,eplacementf syntheticyanalyticeatures,ole funiversals,rpossibleapplicationfbio-settings.

That eaves onowingnd ubstratumnfluence. e ollow homasonndKaufmannthinkinghatwhile lmost ny inguisticeatureanbe heoreticallye ranferredrom nelanguageo another,t sonlypossibleopredict hatwill

benpractice

ransferredyexaminingactors uchas hesociolinguisticetting nd hedegree f ypologicalimilaritybetweenhe anguagesnvolved.Westartwith hesociolinguisticetting, nd nsertypologicalsimilarityheretseemselevanl.We ocusmainlynVu,Ch,andDi, ess nSeas tdoesno tappearo haveplayed cenlralole, nd esson Ch hanVu, oralthough hhasbeenmoreaffecledhanVubycontact, e havemoreacts boutheVumba ommunity.

Afterhearrival f heSearound D1600,he our ommunitiesave adsome ourcenturieso nteract:t spossiblehat heDi n act rrivedomewhatarlier. heVuandChtoday re estrictedo a narrow tretch f hecoast ome 5 milesong. Evenallowingorclaimshat hey arlierived tpoints omewhatorth nd outh f oday'sange,heir reawasnevermuchonger.Bycontrast,heDioccupy uch f hearea etween ombasandTanga, a100miles, ndextendingome istancenland. s arascanbe udged,heyare ikelyohave



i{.

occupied uch f thisarea roman early oint.TheDipopulationoday sover

100,000,ndeven llowingornaturalrowth,t must lways ave een ignificantlyargerthan hatof ChandVu. As araswecan ell, heCh/Vu opulationasnevermuchargerhan tis oday.Apartrom llelse,ha tmeanshat lthoughhenumberf VuandChspeakerssdwindlingoday,hecommunitieshemselvesave otshrunk emographicallybut henumberof VuandChspeakers hocan egitimatelylaimVuandChancestry asprobablyhrunk, hilethose fDiandSeancestryasprobablyisen.Balancingut henumericatndgeographicalsuperiorityf theDi, heVu

communitynjoyed ore ocio-politico-economicuperiorityndprestige,ertainlyuringhe17th nd18th enturies,ndprobablyfter hat.TheChcommunityrobablyccupiedsomewhatntermediateosition:sa Swahilicommunity,heyenjoyedome fthekinds f superiorityfVu,but rom hearrival f DiandSe heyhadbeenoverrun y heVu,and husplayed subordinateole.

Whilemore istant iandSe/Daisuommunitiesould ave eltonly he ndirectffect fVuactivity,irectVu nfluencen hatpartof theDi(andSe)communitymmediatelydjacentto Vuwould ave een onsiderable.n he17th nd18th enturiesheVuusedDiandSemercenaries,ndemployediandSe n heir ariousrade nterpriseshat tretchedorth ndsouth longhecoast, nd nto he nterior.n he19th entury, iandSewereused y heVuas"slaves",that s, heyworked nVu-ownedlantationsplantationsere largely 9thcenturynstitution).n he20th entury,omeVuhaveDiwives.

Al l hishas wosignificantesultsor he inguisticicture.

(i) Borrowing. ertainlyn he17th nd18th enturies,ecreasinglyomore ecently,superstratesubstrateelationshipxistedetweenuand hegeneral icommunity.Economicndpoliticalnfluenceadiatedut rom hecoast, nduntilheDibecameslamizedthemselves,opresumablyid eligiousndspiritualuperiority.heres nosuggeslionha tVu orCh)speakersver hiftedo Di orSe).

Thiswould eemo bea classicituationorborrowing. borrowingituationnvolvesnalmostmplicationalierarchyherebyhe irstinguisticomponento beborroweds exis.Thishasbeen xiomaticn inguisticsora long ime, nd sendorsedyThomasonndKaufman(p.37). We indalmost omaterialnDi orSe)unambiguouslyttributableo Vu cf3.2,3.6).Di andSe)have mass f exis, nd imited orphologicalaterial,romUnguja nd/or

StSw,which eflectshesociolinguisticeality f he ast wocenturies.s t possiblehatearlierexicaloansromVu(orCh)were ystematicallyeplacedy aterUnguja/StSwnes?

ln heother irection,heVuandChcommunitiesave een ompletelyurroundedyDicommunitiesn he andorat eastour enturies. sstated arlier,his actor lays minorrole n heVu andCh?)accountf hatperiod. heres ittle ublishedvidenceoranyDi orSe)view f heperiod. his salso classicituationorborrowing:mall ommunitiessurroundedy arge, lus engthy,ntense,nddaily, ontact.

Whenexissborrowed,e irstexpecto indnon-core/cultural,ontenttems,ollowedlater ycore/basicontent ords nd unctionords.Wehave xaminedll hepublishedexisavailableor VuandCh,and orChwealsohadaccesso ca500moretems ollectedyWalsh tMkwiro. hismaterialncluded uch asicexis nd, omewhataphazardly,ulturalandfunction aterial.We ind urprisinglyittleexisromDi orSe), ither ultural,ore, rfunction. he tems edid indarevirtuallyhesamenVuandCh. In3.S,wese tout he temswe hink orrowedromDi na 1OO-wordis t orVuandCh a handful. xaminationf hewider asic@rpus evealshesame icture-handfulf tems, ot@ncentratednspecificsemanticreas, nd hisextendsoculturalnd unctionexis10.. can MWhelphere?l)

Why,whenhesituationould uggestha twewould xpectmoreexical aterial?Weadmitonotbeing ure, ut wopossibilitiesfferhemselves.ne s hat,ormuch f heperiod f Vu-Di ontact, uwas hesuperstrateommunityneconomic,olitical,rprestigeterms.This, lus hehighevelofanguageonsciousnessmong oastal wcommunitiesngeneral, aybenhibitedarge caleexicalorrowingcfThomasonndKaufman:17).Theotheries n heeconomicnd ulturalature f heVu,Ch,andDicommunities.t hebeginningf heir o-habitationt east, hileheVuandChhadanextramaritimend rade



componentolshared y heDi,lhe hree ommunitiesere imilarn hat heyall eliedheavily nagriculture.oVuandChwould othaveo borrown hisarea.Andalthoughhelocale f heir arlier omesdisputed,t s ikelyha t heDi ivednanenvironmentot

greatly ifferentrom heirnew ocationdjacentotheVuandCh,sowould othavebroughtwith hem setof ermsor ocallora nd auna nfamiliaro theVuandCh. SincenanycaseVu,Ch,andDiareallquite loselyelatedanguages,heseermswould otdiffermuch etweenthe hreeanguagesevenhoughhephonetichapewasdifferent).

Ina borrowingituation,ependingn hedegree nd ypeof contact,exicalmaterialan

beollowed

yphonetic,

honological,ndsyntacticl material,ollowed ossiblyy eatures finflectional orphology.homasonndKaufmanpp.74-951proposen approximateive evelborrowingcale,angingromcasualcontact'Category) o verystrong ultural ressure'(Category),addinghesehese ategoriesrenotwatertightndmaybemodifed y actorssuchas ypologicalimilarity.

BothVu andChhave ases f exicalizedabiovelarization,hichmight e explainedimplyas exical orrowingssince, s araswecansee,all hecases lsoexist n Di),or,moreplausibly,s exicalizedraces f thephonologicaluleactiven Di,andpresumablyormerlyaclivenChandVu.

Chhasadditionalfeaturesot oundnVu. lt palatalizeselars, phonologicalallophonic)rule. t has ome ases fw-loss, diachronichonologicalule nDi : hesemight eexplainedas ndividualexical orrowingsr as he ncompletepplicationfa phonologicalule.Finally,

Chshows igns f affrication,Ml(Di eature,lthough,swepointedut n3.3, t snotclearhow o nterprethis.InThomasonndKaufman'sierarchy,honetic-allophonic-phonologicalorrowingsuch

as heprecedingend ooccur t evel3 'morentense@ntact'),('strongultural ressure')or 5 ('very trong ulturalressure').u s ower n hishierarchy,hhigher, hichitswellwithwhatweknow f he elativeoles fVuandGhsinceheearly 7th entury.

Theborrowingf nflectionalorphology,itherndividualorphemesr hecategoriestheyexpress,ccurs nlyat evels or 5,becausenflectionalyslemsrehighly tructuredand orm elativelylosed etsrz. n Vu/Ch e ind he'not et 'morpheme,ither borrowingora calqueromDi . This s mostikely borrowed orphemeilling n existingategory,ratherhana borrowedategory.t seemsobe a grammaticalizedompoundi.e.analyticratherhansynthetic):his s rue orMKDI,maybe otat he imeof ransfero Vu/Ch

(ii) Partial)anguagehift.Vu andCh)acted sa magnetornearby i andSe)communities.sotherSwcommunitieslonghecoast,hey onstantlybsorbedndividualsndmaybe mallgroupsromDi ,andultimatelyssimilatedhem ntirelyinguistically.hiletis notclearf manyDiwere ilingualn heearliesttages f he elationshipetween uandDi , t must ave een hecasehatat easthosendividualshowere ssimilatedaterwerebilingual,nd hat hiswasanongoingituation.here ere lso robably imiddlemenhowere ilingual.tshould e ememberedere hat t eastodayt s henon-Swahiliho endto bebilingual,hereasheSwaremonolingual,ften peakingwodialectsf Sw,but arelyanotheranguage. iven ha tsknown bouthecommunity'seeling f superioritybouttself,thissituationanprobablyeprojectedackward. n heShimoni ensinsula/thererevillages hich reVu-speaking,ut nwhich ectionsf hepopulationlaimcibeno t us tDi norigin, utalsoSeandCh. Thiswould uggestinguisticsgimilationf SeandChalso.Economicdgp.etdentswitchedo he anguagef heir conomic asters. t eastnsome illagese.g.

-Kyuv0, theVudo notappearo bephysicallyepresentedn oday's opulation,ndarenotevensuperiorumericallyn hearea:ha t s, anguagehiftwaspossiblet a short emoverom hetargetanguageommunity.

It should ekept nmindha tVuonly cted sa magnetnadjacentarts f heDi andSe)communities.inceheDicommunityngeneralwas uchmore umerous,ndoccupiedlarger rea,much f t wasnot ncontact ithVuon a regular asis.

ThomasonndKaufmanpp.38-39)efine ubstratumnterferences he esult f"imperfectgroupearninguring processf anguagehifi...inhis ind f nterferencegroup f speakershiftingoa targetanguageails o earntcorrectly. heerrorsmade y

'



membersf heshifting roupnspeakinghe argetanguagehen preado he argetanguageasa wholewhen heyare mitatedyoriginalpeakersf hat anguage...interferencehroughimperfectearningoesnotbeginwith ocabulary:tbeginsnstead ithsounds ndsyntaxi ,andsometimesncludes orphologyswellbefore ordsrom heshifting roup's riginal

languageppearn he argetanguage".ssuminghis s rue,hen t ollowshat hekinds finterferenceustoutlinedould ue oshift r toborrowing:honetic-allophonic-phonological,with imitedexical ndmorphologicalaterial.

Butwhatof ",iland rl ?Languagehifts pparentlyead

ovariable

ndunpredictableesults,ut argely ecausethehistoricalsociolinguisticicturesusuallyacking,s t s nourcase.That s,although ehavea reasonableicture f hekindof relationshiphatobtainedormost f the ourcenturiesof nteractionetween u/Vh ndDi,we havenodetailor heearliesteriod fcontact.Weonlyreally nowhat heVumustnitiallyave ad onsiderablerestige,nd ome ind fsocial,economic,olitical,r culturaloweritcannot ave eenmilitary)ver heDi andSe) norderopersuadehemoacton heir ehalf gainstheCh.

Further,ormuch f he ast ourcenturies,nce heDi hadsettled ownadjacentoVuandCh, headjacent igroups us t lways ave ad he argetanguagevailableo hem, osomebilingualismnd ullaccesso Vu/Ch xisted.ndeedoday, swesuggestedn3.2,manyDihaveinternalizedcodewhich llowshem oswitch ack nd orth etween iandSw. But tseemsunlikelyhat hiswas hecase n hebeginning.heDiarrivedna situationhereby uandCh

were learlyhemasters,nd ome arts f heDicommunityanted,rhad,oassimilate. iwould othave eenul lbilingualnVu/Ch, nda languagehiftn hese ircumstancess ikelyto eado some nterferencen he ormof he argetanguage/dialectcquiredy he Di. Thissituations not ikelyo haveastedormorehana generationrso.

We hinkhekey o he ransferfd/ and r/ ies n his ituation. ur nterpretationfwhathappenedsas ollows.

Where uandChhadpl and U, he Diarrived ith {/ and rhl, espectivelyl3,ninherited,ognale, ords.At he imeDihad abial/b,, v, , ph/.Themost bvioushoneticrepfacementsor p/would e ph/, bl ^ll,or t/. l.il waschosen ecausetwasclearoDispeakershat t waswhatheyusedn manywords here u/Ch adpl,wordswhichwereothenrvisephonetically,emantically)imilarr dentical. lsoV wasstatisticallyhemosttrequentf he ive n Di.

. similarly ith rh/. while t s not learwhichDisegment? tg , lgcl, d/ ,rhl,/t'r/)might ave eenmost imilarhoneticallyoVuandCh Vat he ime tmust ave eenobviouso Dispeakershat rh/waswhat heyhad n hundredsf words orrespondingoVu/Chtu.

Soa Divariety fVu/Ch merged,avinghe wo enitedonsonantsnplace f p,U. Overtheyears,einforcedyconstantontact ithDi tself, ndbyconstantssimilationndshift fDispeakersndgroupsnto heVu/Ch ommunities,his ariety raduallyustedhe standard"

Vu/Ch ronunciation.Overhe ongerears omethinglse lso appened.sVuandChgraduallyecoveredrom

the nitialmpetusf heDi nflux ndassertedts ieswith est f he arger wcommunitynthecoast,tstartedo replacerh/and/V. first odisappear as rh/. Inuniversalerms,this sa markedegmentt4.nEastAfricangeneralt suncommon,nd n he est fSw t snon-exislent.t merged ithrl ,which adappearednSw includinguandCh) n hemeantimeargelyn Arabicoanwords.ln he arger icommunity,ore istantrom heVu/Ch rea,rh/weakenedo h/). Then,muchmore ecently,/ lmoremarkedhan p/ ,fessmarkedhan rh/)hasstartedo be re-placedordbywordby pl,a process owvisiblyunderwaysee3.5 ordetails).

Insummary,hilemost f heDifeaturesnVuandChcould e he esult f borrowingrshift,hepresencefd/ and r/ ('/rh/)almostertainlyointso a quick iachronichift(ThomasonndKaufman:14: iftwo anguagesreknownohave een ncontact..theresenceinoneof hem fnoninheritedniversallyaked eatures ay...provideood videncefinterferencerom heother.")



*

4.2 Theclassificatoryosition f Chifundiand umbaInanygenetic lassificationf ChandVu heobviousrritantsd/ and r/. Defin ing was

a whole isa vis MlVPokomoependsartly n he etentionf *pand t. AllSwdialects, ithminor xceptions,ave pand tl5. Bu tasTKpoint ut, hegeneticlassificationfa languageinvolveseing bleoprovehatall ts inguisticubsystemsre nherited.n exical,morphological,ndmost honologicalterms,handVuare ather learly wdialects,erivingtoday'sharacteristicsn

aregular

ay romearlier tages11. heanomalyresentedylenited, r/ sa relativelymall artof the otalpicture.ln a typological,real, ndpresumablyialectrometrical,lassification,handVu would

showmajor imilaritiesith he est f Sw,and esser imilaritiesithMK,especiallyi.

4.3 Linguistic s ethnic dentityThe inguisticdentityfChandVu s hus lear nough.Wehave otbeen ble oconduct

comprehensiveurvey fethnicdentityhroughoutheVuandChcommunities,nd hereforehaveo relyonquestionssked omewhataphazardly. canMWdo somethingbouthis?l).

Thedescriptionsy Lambert1957, 958) mphasizethnic elf-identificationyVuandChas"Swahili"and/orShirazi"ancl/orarious rabic isbahs:utLamberteemso havetalkedo membersf he ocal lite.Walsh'snquiriest heChcommunityfMkwiro licited

similaresponses,itha denial f any nputromDi/Se. he engthynalylis y McKay f heVucommunitylso eflectshis, mphasizingheir olen heevents f heSwahili@ast, nddeemphasizinghe ole f DiandSe.

Possiblenswersoquestionsbout thnic elf-identityependn what uestionsreput,or how heyareput.Other nquiriesyWalshnboth mainly)uvillagesesultedninformantsdmittinguite penlyheir riginsn heDi ,Se,oi Chcommunities.t seems erylikelyhatmany f hepeoplen heFunzi illages,urroundeds hey reby Dicommunities,would imilarlydmitosimitarly ixed rigins.

One ign fa historicalanguagehiftiesna discrepancyn hepart fat east omemembersfa contemporaryommunityetweenhat hey peak ndwhat hey laimo ,be,,.This aises ertain uestions. orhow ongafter shift ccurswill hisdiscrepancyast?WhenVumbadentifiedhemselveso LambertsSwahilTshirazi/etc,ere fieysimply

unawaref he ather bvioushoneticimilarityetween uandDi ,orwas anguageimply otanessentialomponentf heir thnicdentityl6z



ENDNIOTES

'1 ConsiderereChwaka,pokennseveralvillagesnornearheShimonieninsular,whichappearso bea formof Ml(iDi tself urrentlynprocessf shiftingo Vu. SeeMoehligarious.'2 We gnore erehe hornyssue f he

erm

Shirazi".

This sanethnic r historical,otalinguistic,abel sed ysomeSwahilicommunities.n hecontextf ocal istory,tgenerallyreferso a non-Vu,hat s, o heCh,andmanyChspeakersdentifyhemselvessShirazi,ndtheir anguagesChi-shirazi.utmany ualso ecognizeha t heywere shirazi"originally,and he erm salso nuseelsewheren hecoast,withdifferentialeference.-3 lt should e kept nmindhatnodetailedeneral istory xistsor hispartof thecoast, ndthatVu s heonly ommunityf which reasonablyomprehensiveistoryMcKay 97S) asbeenwritten. DN ocheckwithD.parkinforsperling'sccount f Digo/segeju.*4 Al lMKdialects,ot ustDi ,borrowedxtensivelyromDaisun hepast Nurse gB2).The ew temseferredo n he exthere reseparaterom hisgeneraioan et nMK.*5 The ormsChifundi[gcifu]n]dil)nd Chi)funziust e elated,ut nanopaque ay.Sincehe nz] hapemust e heoriginalform,ut heonlyNorthern ialectsn whichhis nz]

hasshiftedo n]dl are oday pokennnorthernenya, anymiles way,t sunclear hythis ormappearsn hesoulhern enya oast..6 InSw here restop llophonesncertainnvironments.'7 Thisstatementsnotstrictly ccurate,sonedialect f Sw onZanzibarlsohasa voicedlabialfricativerom p (but elainst) . we donotdiscusshishere.'8 We gnorehe eflexesf mpand nt ,which redifferent..9 A question edo notconsidern hispaperswhether i eaturesntered uandChatrhesameime rsequentially.'10 Kinshiperms nd ood lants/typesre woareasnwhichwe ound ome ccumulationfloans butourdata sno t omplete.lsohewordor'market'andtheour) ays f heweek.*11 Aswedo nothave omprehensiveata orsyntax,t s gnored..12 Wehave ome oubts boutheblanketalidityf his laim, smuch f heverb

inflectionalystem f Unguja/StSweemso resultroma transfer f featuresromnorthernSwwithout ny races f hephonologicaleaturesha t ughtoprecedet (Nurse 9gg).-13 lt might easkedwhyother arts f thephonemicnventoryerenotaffected.Vu,ChandDiall had5 short urfaceowels, o heywould othave ffered nyproblem.Large arts f heconsonantnventoriesf he hreeanguages,scarriedn nherited

items, ere dentical,nd orrespondedncognates. his tatementeliberatelyxcludesoanwords,whichmeanswordsromArabicorsw,andwordsromse for D|/MK.

Small arts f heconsonantnventoriesere ifferent.hiswould ave een ruemostobviouslyor l/ ([] and eronsw, ], ] n Di,alreadyiscussed),nd orMK,Did, rh,ts ,dz l= sw, Vu,ch /p, ,gc,gj/.Howeverw gc, j/would othave een otally lieno Dispeakers,s heydidhavegc,gj] n nheritedordsromother ources.*14 TheultimateransJeroVuandChof ^il andrh/would lsohaveead o moremarkedconsonanlystems:ph, , b,v, l and1, , rh/..15 Theexceptionsor*tareTikuu, iu , ndPate:ora discussion,eeNurse 985.For ptheonlyexceptions Makunduchi,n Zanzibaricf ootnote):seeWhiteley959, 960,Lambertndchum1goz3, ndNurse ndHinnebuschorthcoming.*16 Many oastal wahili ill dentifyhemselvesthnicallyi.e.orcensus urposes)s"Arab"while peakingittle rnoArabic.



REFERET{CES

1985 TheMorphophonologyf heKenyanw Diatects.erlin. .Reimer.1936/7 'sprachprobenausdem egedju',eitschriftue rEingeborenen-Sprachen7:228-233.

1953 'TheVumbaerb', EASC 3:14-35.1957 Ki-Vumba,Dialectf hesouthern enya oast.Kampala.ASO.1958 chi-chifundi,Dialectf hesouthern enya oast.Aspreceding.196213AvocabularyfKi-Kae',wahili3,151-68.1985 PatternsfSound. ambridge.Up.1975 A precolonialistoryf hes.Kenya oast. oston , phDthesis.1980 'Bantulanguages',n Heine Moehligeds.), anguagendDialect

Allas f Kenya,ol.1 Pp.11-58.1984/5 'Theswahili ialectsf Kenyanrelationo Mijikendand o he

Bantudioms f heTanaValley', UGIA : 253-308.1986 'Lesparlers antous otiers u nord-est',nGuarisma, /Moehlig(eds.), a M6thode ialectrom6triqueppliqu6e.. . Berlin.Reimer.

- /G. Philippson/M-F.ombi/J.C.inter 980'Classificationialectom6triqueequelquesparlerswahilis',nGuarisma,/S. latieleds),..paris. ELAF.

Nurse, . 1982 'SegejuandDaisu: case tudy f a discrepancynevidenceromoraltraditionnd omparativeinguislics',istorynAfrica :175-208

1982b 'A tentativelaasificationf heprimaryialectsfSwahili',SUGIA: 165-206.

1984/5 'Ahistoricaliew f hesouthern ialectsfsw',suclA 6:2zs-2s21985 'Dentality,arealeatures,ndphonologicalhangen Northeastern

Bantu', AL16,3:243-279.

- /T .Hinnebusch.orthcomingswahiliandabaki: Linguisticistory.- /T' Spear. 1985 TheSwahili: econstructingheHistoryndLanguagefanAfricanSociety,00-1500.hiladelphia..of Pennsylvaniaress.

Sperling, . 19?? (history,slamisation,.Kenyaoast). ofLondon, hD hesis.Thomason,.G./T. aufman988Languageontact, reolization,ndGenetic inguistics.

Berkeley.CPress.'Anintroductiono he ural ialects f Tanzibar,art1',Swahili30: 1-69.'dilto,Part ',St&ahjli1 200-218.'Spatialanalysisnd ettlementsn heEastAfricanoast',nAllen,J deVere, ndT.H.Wilsoneds.), rom in j o Zanzibar.aideuma28:201-220.

Bakari, .Dammann,.

Lambert, .E .

- /H.Chum.Maddieson,.McKay,W.F.Moehlig, .J.G.

Whiteley, .H.

Wilson,.H.

1959

19601982

chifundi and vumba: two heart attack patients who survived

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