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© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryi

God’s People Through the Ages.

C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y II:

FromReformation

Presentto the the

L e c t u r e s b y D r . G a r t h R o s e l l

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryii

C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I

About the Ockenga Institute and Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary:Established in 1985, the Ockenga Institute exists to make the rich educational resources of Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary available to Christian leaders throughout the world. Through our various centers and programs, we serve as the research and continuing education arm of the school, seeking to build Christian leaders for the Church of Jesus Christ, present and future.

Contact us:Dimensions of the FaithOckenga Institute of Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary130 Essex StreetSouth Hamilton, MA 01982tel: 1-800-294-2774email: [email protected]: http://www.gordonconwell.edu/ockenga/dimensions/

Copyright:Copyright © 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without written permission from Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. Printed in the USA.

Acknowledgements:Curriculum Design and Developer: David HornProject Editor: Dana HessNotebook Writer: Gypsy FleischmanAudio Editor: Curt WannerGraphic Design: Ashli NewmanNotebook Format: Grace Bailey and Dénes House

About the author:Dr. Garth Rosell is professor of Church History at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary in South Hamilton, Massachusetts. He has a BA in Philosophy from Wheaton College, the M.Div and Th.M de-grees (in Philosophy and Church History, respectively) from Princeton Theological Seminary, and the Ph. D in American Religious History from the University of Minnesota.

Dr. Rosell has taught church history at Bethel Theological Seminary and at Gordon-Conwell, where he originally served as Dean of the Seminary and Vice-president for Academic Affairs and as Director of the Ockenga Institute and Chair of the Division of Christian Thought. Among his publications are eight books and a variety of articles, reviews, case studies and chapters in books, including the Mem-oirs of Charles G. Finney (Zondervan, co-edited with Richard A. G. Dupuis); Commending the Faith: The Preaching of D. L. Moody (Hendrickson); American Christianity (Eerdmans, edited with Ronald C. White, Jr., and Louis B. Weeks); and The Parables of a Country Parson (Hendrickson), co-written with William Flewelling.

Ordained in the Presbyterian Church (USA), Dr. Rosell has ministered in local congregations and served on the denominationʼs local and national committees. He lives in Wenham, Massachusetts with his wife, Jane. They have two children, Karen and Robert. He enjoys classical music, traveling and reading.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryiii

A S u r v e y o f C h u r c h H i s t o r y f r o m t h e R e f o r m a t i o n t o t h e P r e s e n t

Preface:

The Dimensions of the Faith series is developed with the firm conviction that a life of faith and obedience in Jesus Christ is based upon a working knowledge of Godʼs word. You cannot obey what you do not know.

For this reason, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary has developed the Dimensions of the Faith series for any Christian who desires foundational knowledge in the areas of Old and New Testament, Biblical Interpretation, Church History, Theology, and Missions. The goals of each course are the following:

1. To paint the big picture of what you are learning;2. To provide you with the basic content;3. To introduce you to key words that will enlarge your capacity for knowing;4. To guide you to understand how greater knowledge of Godʼs word can be applied naturally

to everyday life and service;5. To direct you to valuable resources as Godʼs word whets your appetite for further study.

The Dimensions of the Faith series is designed to be used in a variety of settings. You may wish to use the materials as a resource for your own spiritual growth and enrichment. You may also wish to study the materials as a group. The series may be used as a leadership tool for churches or as a training tool on the mission field. We encourage those of you who are pastors to use the series with your ruling boards or your volunteer teaching staffs. A certificate is available for those who complete all six subject areas of the Dimensions of the Faith series.

In addition to the notebook and tape/CD version you currently own, you may listen to the lectures on the Gordon-Conwell website: http://www.gordonconwell.edu/ockenga/dimensions/. The variety of formats will allow greater flexibility in the use of this material.

For more information about the Dimensions of the Faith series, please contact us by postal mail at the Ockenga Institute, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, South Hamilton, Massachusetts 01982, or email us at [email protected].

We pray that God will use this series as a powerful tool for expanding your knowledge of God and Godʼs word so that you may be able to share the good news throughout the world.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryiv

About the Study and Workbook Guide:

The following study guide is designed as a scratch notepad to be used as you listen to the accompanying taped lectures. You may have noticed that we have used the drawings of Leonardo Da Vinci as a motif for our materials. Just as Da Vinci sketched out his ideas in the process of creating a final painting, so we invite you to sketch out your own thoughts in the notebook while you listen to the lectures. Each chapter includes valuable information and questions for you to ponder while you listen. Use the designated blank spaces and margins as your opportunity to interact with what you are learning.

To guide you through the materials, we have provided you with a series of icons. We do so under the firm conviction that a fuller knowledge of God and his word requires expanding your horizons in all directions.

Breadth of Biblical Knowledge: Grasp the big picture, from A to Z.SCOPE

Width of Biblical Knowledge: Expand your understanding by enlarging your vocabulary.

DEFINITION

Height of Biblical Knowledge: Grow in your knowledge of the basic content of Scripture, theology, church history, and culture.

BASIC CONTENT

Length of Biblical Knowledge: Stretch yourself to obedience and service through correct understanding.

APPLICATION FOR SERVICE

Depth of Biblical Knowledge: Use these resources to grow deeper.QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryv

Reformation Patterns 1

The Lutheran Tradition 4

The Swiss Reformation 7

The Reformed Tradition 10

The Anglican Tradition 13

Modern Catholicism 16

Movements of Spiritual Renewal 19

The Pietists and the Wesleyans 22

The Rise of Fundamentalism 25

The Challenge of Modernity 28

The Controversies of the 1920ʼs 31

The Ecumenical Revolution 34

The Challenge of Ministry in a New Millennium 37

Appendix: Important Terms in Church History A-I

Appendix: Important People in Church History A-VIII

Table of Contents

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© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary1

Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e O n e

One of the most well-known figures in church history is Martin Luther, a man whose courage and conviction laid the foundation for the Protestant Reformation. The issue of Godʼs forgiveness was of great importance to Luther, as it should be to us. What does Godʼs forgiveness mean to us? What is the churchʼs role in our relationship to God? In this lesson, we will examine this issue of forgiveness and come to a better understanding of what Martin Luther came to believe and how his perspective contrasted with that of the Roman church. May we also refine our own understanding of what this forgiveness means in our own lives.

penance – The process of bringing about true repentance in a person who is undergoing church discipline, and restoring that person to usefulness in the church. This became a sacrament in the medieval church.

purgatory – The teaching of the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches set forth a place of temporary punishment in an intermediate realm for the purpose of purging away sin.

Indulgences – Written documents whereby all or part of the debt owed to God on account of one’s sin can be remitted.

How does Dr. Rosell use the metaphor of a tree to explain church history? Where are the roots? What supports the trunk? What are the branches?


Notes_____What four main branches of Protestantism are important to our study?

What prompted Martin Luther to post his theses on the church door in 1517?

What beliefs led to the practice of the church offering indulgences? What parts of the offering of indulgences did Martin Luther find problematic?

By whose merits can we find true forgiveness of sins?

How did the pope react to Lutherʼs 95 theses?

What were the topics of the three treatises Luther wrote after his excommunication?

What was Lutherʼs home life like after he married and had children?



Notes_____How can you incorporate some of Lutherʼs enthusiasm for teaching the faith into your own life?

Why is it important in your life that we find forgiveness by Christʼs merits, not our own? Do you find that this understanding brings a sense of freedom?

R e f o r m a t i o n P a t t e r n s

“You recall Luther’s own courageous stand on April 17, 1521, at the Diet of Worms, in which he proclaimed that he would rest his case on the scriptures alone: ‘Here I stand. I can do no other, so help me God.’”

Alister E. McGrath. Reformation Thought: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.

Timothy George. Theology of the Reformers. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1988.

A.G. Dickens and John M. Tonkin. The Reformation in Historical Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985.

Roland H. Bainton. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Boston: Beacon Press, 1953.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e T w o

Like a tripod on which you might balance your expensive new camera, the Reformation had three main legs to support it. These legs were, and continue to be, the great principles of church reform. They were common to all the branches of the Reformation, despite their other differences. It is no easy task to bring into focus those issues that unite the church, although they are simple. How did these uniting principles come about? What are their roots? Who was the first to put these principles into writing, and what impact did this have on the flow of church history?

sola scriptura – The Bible alone.sola gratia – By Grace alone.sola fide – By Faith alone.soli Deo gloria – For the Glory of God alone.

magisterial Reformation – A term used to refer to the Lutheran and Reformed wings of the Reformation.

What are the three great principles of church reform?

Describe Lutherʼs “circle of despair.” How did this lead to his understanding of justification by grace through faith?

What was Lutherʼs life-transforming insight about the meaning of Romans 1:17?


Notes_____What was Lutherʼs attitude toward the scriptures?

What does the principle of “a priesthood of all believers” mean in relation to a personʼs vocation?

How had the church moved away from this idea of theʼ“priesthood of all believers” by Lutherʼs time?

T h e L u t h e r a n T r a d i t i o n

“God’s call has two unchanging goals, true now just as they were true then: to bring glory to God and to serve the common good.”

What is your vocation? How can you serve God fully in your work?

How can your church better equip Christians to serve God in their workplaces?


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I

“Here you have the treasure of the Reformation: justification by grace through faith;“sola scriptura, the reliance upon this treasured word of God as our rule of faith and practice; and the priesthood of all believers, which gives us direct access to God, and for which Christ is the only mediator.”

Heiko A. Oberman. The Dawn of the Reformation. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1992.

Martin Luther. Three Treatises. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1970.

Martin Lurther. Table Talk. New York: HarperCollins, 1995.

Timothy F. Lull. Martin Luther’s Basic Theological Writings. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1989.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e T h r e e

Ask many people today what “separation of church and state” means, and theyʼll probably say that it means we shouldnʼt have religious activities in state-run places, such as schools or government buildings. But this phrase was originally intended to protect the church from state control, not the other way around. The roots of this idea stem back to differences of opinion during the Protestant Reformation, when some reformers thought that the church and the state should work together, while others thought that the church should be entirely free of state entanglements. The Anabaptists, whom we will study in this lesson, were one group that thought they could better live their Christian lives without state control, and who tried to serve God in a fresh way.

Reformed – A term used to refer to a tradition of theology which draws inspiration from the writings of John Calvin (1510-64) and his successors. The term is generally used in preference to “Calvinism.”

Anabaptist – A term derived from the Greek word for “re-baptizer,” and used to refer to the radical wing of the sixteenth-century Reformation.

What was sixteenth century humanism? How did the rallying cry of “ad fontes” relate to humanism?

What was the importance of Erasmusʼ Greek New Testament? How did this text help the Protestant Reformation?


Notes_____What event marks the beginning of Zwingliʼs reform in Zurich?

What are three differing views on the Lordʼs Supper? What was Zwingliʼs view?

What were the five views that Luther and Zwingli held in common?

What caused Zwingliʼs followers to separate from him eventually? What did they come to be called? Why?

What was the attitude of the Anabaptists toward the relationship between church and state?


Is the Lordʼs Supper a more important or less important part of your churchʼs worship service? What is your churchʼs perception of what takes place during communion?

How is sixteenth century humanism different fromʼ“humanism” as we perceive it today?


Notes_____T h e S w i s s R e f o r m a t i o n

G.R. Potter. Huldrych Zwingli. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

“Zwingli: Father of the Swiss Reformation.””Christian History magazine, vol. III, No. 1.

Geddes Macgregor. The Thundering Scot: A Portrait of John Knox. London: Macmillan, 1958.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e F o u r

Many of the people we will get to know in our study of church history caused controversy in their own times, but no one continues to cause so many heated discussions among Christians in our own time as does John Calvin. From discussions of his personality to arguments over his theology, opinions against and in favor of him are easily found in the church today. How can we get at the truth behind this manʼs life? What kind of life did he lead? As you learn more about Calvin, rest assured that youʼll be challenged in many ways, on many different levels. Though, in the end, you may or may not agree with everything he wrote and taught, your study of Godʼs word will have been greatly enriched by getting to know this extraordinary man.

Calvinism – An ambiguous term, used with two quite distinct meanings. First, it refers to the religious ideas of religious bodies (such as the Reformed church) and individuals (such as Theodore Beza) who were profoundly influenced by John Calvin, or by documents written by him. Second, it refers to the religious ideas of John Calvin himself..ecclesiology – The section of Christian theology dealing with the study of the church.

What are some of the differing opinions of John Calvin?

What kind of study did John Calvinʼs father want him to pursue? Why? What did Calvin choose to do instead? Why?


Notes_____At what age did Calvin publish his first book?

What was Calvinʼs idea of a happy, comfortable life? Did he get to lead this life?

What five roles did John Calvin have in Strasbourg?

What are the elements of the four-fold reformed ministry that developed in Geneva when John Calvin was there?

What are some of the topics that Calvin wrote about while he was in Geneva?

T h e R e f o r m e d T r a d i t i o n

Are any of the topics about which Calvin wrote about particularly relevant to your spiritual walk? About which ones might you want to read more?

Describe a time when you were on track to do one thing, but somehow God moved you onto another track. What was the result?


Notes_____John T. McNeill, ed. The Library of Christian Classics. Vols. XX and XXI, Institutes of Christian Religion. Ford Lewis Battles, trans. Philedelphia: The Westminster Press, 1960.

John C. Olin, ed. A Reformation Debate: John Calvin and Jacopo Sadoleto. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1991.

Mary Beaty and Benjamin W. Farley. Calvin’s Ecclesiastical Advice.ʼPhiladelphia: Westminster/ John Knox, 1991.

William J. Bouwsma. John Calvin: A Sixteenth-Century Portrait. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Alister E. McGrath. A Life of John Calvin. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990.

T.H.L. Parker. Portrait of John Calvin. London: SCM Press, 1954.

David Steinmetz. Calvin in Context. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.


“What a change would come in the life of the church if we could center once again on God, on the glory of God, and in God’s name serve one another.”


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e F i v e

One of the ironies of Christian history is that, while Jesus came to bring freedom, people continually use the gospel as a means of controlling governments as well as individuals. As weʼve seen, some groups in these church-controlled societies long for the freedom to worship God in their own way. Finding a balance between state and church politics is difficult, and many times the process is not carried out in a way that begins or ends with balance. As we look at this period in church history, we can be thankful for the lessons of the past, and we can take note of what needs to be avoided in the future.

Anglicanism – A branch of theology especially associated with the churches historically derived from the Church of England.

Book of Common Prayer – A collection of liturgy, creeds, prayers, and other “liturgical treasures” that draws together the rich heritage of medieval, eastern, and Lutheran traditions.

Elizabethan Settlement – A series of acts by which Queen Elizabeth achieved a compromise between the opposing religious groups in England and made herself the church’s governor.

Why did Henry VIII break with Rome?

Where in England did most of the discussion of Reformation ideas take place after Henry VIIIʼs break with Rome?


Notes_____Why is Queen Mary calledʼ“Bloody Mary”?

Why was Thomas Cranmer in such a difficult position when Mary came to power? What amazing thing did he do just before his death in 1556?

What was Queen Elizabethʼs approach to ruling her country? What was her main goal? How did she go about accomplishing this goal?

Who were the Puritans? What did they hope to accomplish?

What happened to religious freedom in England in the 1600s?


Can you imagine living through such religious and political upheaval? What freedoms do you take for granted that required a long process to produce?

Do you think you would have the courage to stand up for what you believe in the way Thomas Cranmer did?

With Henry VIII’s break from Rome, whatever his motivation might have been for making that break, you have the beginning of a movement that was like a mighty flood, sweeping across England and it was to change that wonderful nation profoundly.


Notes_____T h e A n g l i c a n T r a d i t i o n

Gerald Bray, ed. Documents of the English Reformation. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1994.

A.G. Dickens. The English Reformation. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991.

Eamon Duffy. The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.

Maurice Powicke. The Reformation in England. London: Oxford University Press, 1961.

Paul Ayris and David Selwyn. Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1993.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e S i x

One characteristic of human institutions, it seems, is resistance to change. Change is frightening, since it opens up the future to unforeseen possibilities, not all of which, we may rightly think, will be good. But society does change, sometimes slowly, and sometimes quickly. And in order to be able to speak the gospel of Christ to people in every time, some things about the church must change. But what things? What parts of our church experience are time and culture bound? What parts of it are timeless, and ought not to be changed? How can the church change those things that are passing, without changing the things that should be permanent?

transubstiation – The medieval doctrine according to which the bread and the wine are transformed into the body and blood of Christ in the eucharist, while retaining their outward appearance.

sacrament – A church service or rite which was held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ himself. Although Roman Catholic theology and church practice recognize seven such sacraments (baptism, confirmation, eucharist, marriage, ordination, penance, and unction), Protestant theologians generally argue that only two (baptism and eucharist) were to be found in the New Testament itself.

What prompted Pope Paul III to call the Council of Trent? What issues were discussed at the sessions of this council?

What main issues did Vatican I address?


Notes_____M o d e r n C a t h o l i c i s m

What did Pope John XXIII do that was such a surprise? What did he say the church needed to do?

What radical change did Vatican II bring to the liturgy? To the way the Catholic Church interacted with the world?

What were some of the negative reactions to Vatican II?

Since Vatican II, how has the relationship between Protestants and Catholics changed? What are the areas of agreement between them? What are areas of disagreement?

Do you know any Catholics? Have you ever talked to them about their faith? How might you become more comfortable talking to Catholics about what they believe?

What would be your reaction if the leaders of your church got together and changed the official teachings of your denomination?


Notes_____

“Roman Catholics are now studying the scriptures more vigorously than ever before, and they seem to have an insatiable hunger to learn the word. What a great opportunity this is for us all to open up the scriptures with our Roman Catholic friends and neighbors and to teach the faith as Christ has called us to do!”

Austin Flannery, ed. Vatican Council II. Northport, NY: Costello Publishing, 1995.

Catechism of the Catholic Church. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994.

Norman L. Geisler and Ralph E. MacKenzie. Roman Catholics and Evangelicals: Agreements and Differences. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1995.

John Tracy Ellis. American Catholicism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956.

Kevin and Dorothy Ranaghan. Catholic Pentecostals. New York: Paulist Press, 1969.

G.C. Berkouwer. The Second Vatican Council and the New Catholicism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965.



Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e S e v e n

The natural order of all life is that it begins, it declines, and it dies. Every living thing, every plant, animal, human, and even bacterium, must go through these stages. God, however, can interrupt these stages at any time, bringing life to the downward spiral of our existence. As Dr. Rosell explains in the lesson, our spiritual lives have a similar cycle. And likewise, God can interrupt the downward spiral of our spiritual lives by bringing renewal. Heʼs done it throughout history, and he can do it today.

“If you are discouraged, or perhaps even ready to throw in the towel, I want to bring you a message of hope, some good news: spiritual renewal is not only possible, but I am convinced that it is God’s gracious purpose for our lives and for our institutions.”

revival – Periods of spiritual renewal, often associated with the Great Awakenings that began in the eighteenth century.

What are some examples of spiritual renewal from the Bible and from church history?

What are the five stages in the life cycle? What can interrupt that cycle?

What must be present for genuine renewal to take place?


Notes_____How did Jonathan Edwards describe the five marks of genuine renewal?

What should we do if we are part of a spiritually declining church?

What does Dr. Rosell mean by “believing prayer”?

How does our study of the scriptures help bring about renewal?


Have you ever been discouraged? How can you be encouraged based on what you have learned about Ezekiel 37?

Have you ever experienced spiritual renewal? What part did the three principles of spiritual renewal play in your experience?


Notes_____W. R. Ward. The Protestant Evangelical Awakening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Richard Lovelace. Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1964.

Richard Carwardine. Transatlantic Revivalism. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1978.

M o v e m e n t s o f S p i r i t u a l R e n e w a l


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e E i g h t

Many people have questions about prayer. What is prayer? Is it just our way of communicating with God? Does he answer prayer? How can we know he has heard us, or that he will answer our prayers? Do our prayers really make a difference? While it is impossible for us to understand completely how prayer works, we can be certain of one thing: it does. Jesus himself prayed, and he told his followers to pray. In this lesson, we will discover how some of his followers prayed and what happened when they did. Through their testimony, we can be inspired to make prayer a daily part of our own lives, and we can pray in faith that God hears us and responds.

Pietism – This was a movement of spiritual renewal that began among Lutherans in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Led by August Hermann Francke (1663-1727) and Philipp Jacob Spener (1635-1705), pietism stressed the importance of personal conversion, transformation of life brought by God, holiness of living, Bible reading and prayer, social responsibility, and sanctification.

Moravianism – Essentially a branch of Continental pietism, Moravianism had its impetus from Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf (1700-1760), a Lutheran who founded in Germany a community for religious refugees called–Herrnhut. Under Zinzendorf’s leadership, Herrnhut became a model Christian community and a primary sending center for missionaries in the eighteenth century.

What are the three universal prerequisites for genuine renewal?


Notes_____T h e P i e t i s t s a n d t h e W e s l e y a n s

What was Philip Jacob Spenerʼs role in the Lutheran Church? What were some of his concerns about it? What did he desire for the church?

What were Spenerʼs six proposals for reforming the Lutheran Church?

Who was Zinzendorf? What was his education like? Of which branch of Pietism did he become the leader?

What took place at Herrnhut around the clock for one hundred years? What was the purpose of this?

What happened to the Wesley family when John Wesley was only five years old? What impact did this have on his life?

What happened to John Wesley at Aldersgate? What was being read aloud at that meeting?



“Renewal is, after all, the work of God, according to his time and according to his purposes. Again and again, however, across the centuries of church history, God has been pleased to renew his people, to bring new life to those dry bones and make of them once again a mighty army.”

Of Spenerʼs six proposals for the church, are there any that you could implement in your personal walk? What effect would this have?

Have you ever had a near-death experience? If so, how did this affect you?

F. Ernest Stoeffler. Continental Pietism and Early American Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1976.

Philipp Jakob Lewis. Zinzendorf the Ecumenical Pioneer. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962.

“Zinzendorf and the Moravians.” Christian History magazine. Vol. I, No. 1.

Timothy L. Smith. Whitefield and Wesley on the New Birth. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1986.

Albert C. Outler, ed. John Wesley. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.

Frederick A. Norwood. The Story of American Methodism. Nashville: Abingdon, 1974.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e N i n e

The ways in which a document is interpreted, like everything else, changes over time. Think about how the U.S. Constitution is interpreted. Should it be interpreted in light of what the authors intended? Should it be interpreted in the context of our present society? Christians have similar questions about the Bible, and throughout history, these questions have been answered in different ways. Although we would all say that the Bible is central to our faith, some Christians favor a symbolic interpretation of the text, while others prefer a literal reading. To many, these are core issues, essential to the living out of the faith. In this lesson, we will discover how one group, the fundamentalists, thought about the Bible, and how their beliefs influenced their role in society.

Dispensationalism ––The teaching that history is dividied into well-defined time periods (dispensations) in each of which God has particular purposes He wishes to accomplish.

Pre-millennialism –– A view of the end times in which the second coming of Christ and the bodily resurrection of the saints will precede the millennium.

A-millennialism –– A view of the end times that equates the millennial reign of Christ with the age of the Church - from the resurrection of Christ until His parousia (second coming).

Post-millennialsm –– A view of the end times that identifies the millennium of Revelation 20 with an age of the Spirit - a time of spiritual peace and prosperity for the Church on earth.

According to Sandeen, what was at the core of the fundamentalist movement?


Notes_____What are the seven “dispensations,” according to Chafer?

What was the dispensationalistsʼ view of the church? Of the Bible?

What are the five most well-known points of fundamentalism?

What social changes in American society contributed to the rise of fundamentalism?

Why did readers of the Scofield Bible react so strongly to changes in the sciences of geology and biology?

“And one can understand the tremendous concern that began to emerge in the life of the church, particularly within the fundamentalist wing of the church: They simply wanted to preserve the teaching of the Bible, to treasure the great traditions of theology. These, they believed, were coming under attack from every quarter--from the intellectual academics and also from the reality of change within the culture itself.”

With what aspects of fundamentalism do you identify? With what attitudes or teachings do you disagree?

How important do you think it is that science and religion agree? Do you think they can agree?



Notes_____T h e R i s e o f F u n d a m e n t a l i s m

George M. Marsden. Fundamentalism and American Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.

George M. Marsden. Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991.

Ernest R. Sandeen. The Roots of Fundamentalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.

William R. Hutchison. The Modernist Impulse in American Protestantism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976.

William Vance Trollinger, Jr. God’s Empire: William Bell Riley and Midwestern Fundamentalism. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.

Willard B. Gatewood, ed. Controversy in the Twenties. Nashville: Abingdon, 1969.

C. Allyn Russell. Voices of American Fundamentalism. Philedelphia: Westminster, 1976.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e T e n

Some of the architecturally most beautiful churches in America are in the inner cities. Built at the turn of the century, crafted with great attention to beauty and architectural style, many of them now stand empty. They were built at a time in our history when American churches had new prosperity and a desire to use that prosperity; a time when the shape of America was changing at a rapid pace, when the church had to face new challenges again. What was the church to do with its new-found prosperity? How should the church be involved in the greater society? What was the churchʼs role in the new America?

Social Darwinism – A theory of the origin and perpetuation of social relationships that emphasizes the individual’s role in society as being based upon the survival of the fittest.

Social Gospel – A term that describes an effort around 1900 of liberal and moderately reformist protestant efforts to apply biblical principles to the growing problems of urban-industrial America between the Civil War and World War I.

Describe how the forces of urbanization, industrialization, immigration, and migration were changing the shape and direction of America.

How did these changes affect Americansʼ sense of identity?


Notes_____What was the downside of this era of great growth in business and industry?

Who was Charles Sheldon? What was his approach to ministry?

What was the “Great Reversal”?

What were the two conflicting ways that churches reacted to all the changes taking place at this time?

T h e C h a l l e n g e o f M o d e r n i t y

Consider this quote from A.J. Gordon:“And when you put ability and opportunity together, you have obligation and responsibility.” What abilities do you have? What opportunities? What about your church? What about the church in this country?

As you think about your own life, do you find that you have an unhealthy attitude toward the accumulation of material possessions? What role do material things have in your life? How can you use your resources to serve God, rather than yourself?



“The modernists, for their part, of course, tended to welcome these changes--this new world order, this new structure of society. With optimism, almost blind, naive optimism, they opened their arms to all of the things that were new. So the changes brought, for them, glorious possibilities.”

Robert Handy, ed. The Social Gospel in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966.

D.G. Hart. Defending the Faith: J. Gresham Machen and the Crisis of Conservative Protestantism in Modern America. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1994.

William R. Hutchison, ed. American Protestant Thought: The Liberal Era. New York: Harper and Row, 1968.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e E l e v e n

Consider a marriage. Things are going smoothly, life is good...until one day, some new information is introduced. Maybe the couple finds out they are unable to have children, or one of them gets a high-paying new job. In an ideal situation, they are able to find a deeper bond and a greater love for one another. But all too often, they are unable to adjust to the new situation and grow apart, rather than together. Much the same situation happened in the church in the early 1900ʼs. New scientific theories caused some Christians to reject the new research, while others embraced it. The rift between fundamentalists and the modernists, grew into what seemed like irreconcilable differences.

“The task, then, is to joyously join the band of believers across the centuries, to do God’s work in this world today, to become salt and light, and to carry the gospel into a dark and very needy world.”

temperance – To partake of something in moderation.

abstinence – To refuse to partake of something altogether, even in small amounts.

What happened in the Presbyterian Church that became a pattern of conflict in other denominations?

What issue was raised in the Scopes trial in July, 1925? What was the result of the trial?


Notes_____How did fundamentalists handle what they perceived as a liberalization of American universities?

What are some examples of issues over which fundamentalists and modernists were divided?

How did World War I and the Great Depression affect each of these movements?

What brought about the collapse of each of these movements? What two movements arose out of the rubble?


Being a Christian in a diverse educational environment can present you with many challenges. How have you faced these challenges, as a student or as a parent?

Were you surprised by how much alcoholic beverages were part of everyday life for Christians before the Temperance Movement? What is your attitude toward the consumption of alcohol?


Notes_____T h e C o n t r o v e r s i e s o f t h e 1 9 2 0 s

“The Monkey Trial & the Rise of Fundamentalism.””Christian History magazine, Issue 55.

Sheldon N. Grebstein. The Monkey Trial: The State of Tennessee vs. John Thomas Scopes. New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 1960.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e T w e l v e

Unity is a tricky thing. We know that Christ wants his church to be unified, we know he prayed for unity among his followers, but we can argue endlessly about what that means in a practical sense. On what issues must we agree in order to have unity? In what areas is there supposed to be freedom? Many evangelicals have struggled with these, and similar, questions. As we study their lives and learn how they answered these difficult questions, maybe we can clarify in our own minds what it means to be “ecumenical” in the church. And as we strive for unity, may we keep those things that are essential to our faith uppermost in our minds, and keep our consciences clean.

Ecumenical – This term was originally applied to the early church councils that included representatives from throughout the Christian church and were intended to be normative for the church throughout the world. Today this term generally refers to the movement that seeks to join people from varying religious traditions and denominations into common fellowship or dialogue.

Syncretism – The combining of different religious beliefs or systems of thought.

What do most standard histories usually mean by the term “ecumenical movement”?

What are some examples of ecumenical efforts by evangelicals in the twentieth century?


Notes_____Why might some evangelicals dislike the term “ecumenical”?

What are the “three roads” that ecumenical Protestants in the early 20th century took to fulfill their desire to go beyond denominational differences? In what organization did these efforts finally converge?

Why did J.I. Packer leave the World Council of Churches?

What is the National Association of Evangelicals? Who is Billy Graham?

What was the theme of Harold John Ockengaʼs address on May 4, 1943?

T h e E c u m e n i c a l R e v o l u t i o n

Why do you think it is so difficult for Christians to have unity with one another, regardless of denomination? Why is it so important for the church to be unified?

If we are to have unity, what do we do about genuine differences in doctrine and biblical interpretation?


Notes_____

“As Evangelical Christians, we need to pick up the theme again today: Unity Without Compromise. We need to join hands whenever we can, so that the work of the gospel can be spread throughout the world, so that God’s kingdom can be built throughout this globe. May God enable us to do that by his power and through his grace.”


Robert McAfee Brown. The Ecumenical Revolution. Garden City: Doubleday, 1969.

Harold E. Fey. A History of the Ecumenical Movement. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970.

Martin E. Marty. Church Unity and Church Mission. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I I : L e c t u r e T h i r t e e n

As weʼve seen throughout this course, society changes, and the church either changes with it or resists the change. When we consider the role of the church in our society, and in the world today, we can use what weʼve learned from the past to get a better handle on the present. Some of the events of today will bear a striking similarity to past events. Some of the characteristics of the church are directly related to changes in education, economics, technology, and science. What are the factors that influence the church today? How do these societal factors present new challenges to the church? How can we best meet those challenges?

postmodernism – A general cultural development which resulted from the general collapse of the universal rational principles of the Enlightenment.

Enlightenment – A term used to refer to the emphasis upon human reason and autonomy during the eighteenth century.

How was Americaʼs cultural climate in the 1940ʼs and 1950ʼs similar to fourth century Christianity under Constantine?

What does Dr. Rosell mean by the term “post-Christendom era”?

What was the “death of God” theology that emerged in the 1960ʼs?


Notes_____What are some of the differences between “modernism” and “post-modernism”?

How is relativism apparent in our society? How does this relativism conflict with biblical Christianity?

What is the challenge of “individualization”?

What are some of the other challenges facing Christians in our society?


How does your church try to meet the needs and face the challenges of twenty-first century America?

How are elements of the post-modernist worldview a part of your thought process? Do you ever struggle with relativism? With individualism?


Notes_____

“Never hesitate to give yourself wholeheartedly to that task which God has called you to do—that He has gifted you to do by the Holy Spirit. Drawing upon the rich resources of the past, looking steadfastly toward the future, rooting yourself in the Scripture and in sound theology, empowered by the Holy Spirit, go forward to do the work God’s called you to accomplish. And may God bless you as you do it.

T h e C h a l l e n g e o f M i n i s t r y i n a N e w M i l l e n n i u m

Garth M. Rosell, ed. The Evangelical Landscape. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1996.

Alister McGrath. Evangelicalism and the Future of Christianity. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1995.

Robert Wuthnow. The Restructuring of the American Religion: Society and Faith since World War II. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.

Gene Edward Veith, Jr. Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture. Wheaton: Crossway Books, 1994.

Joel A. Carpenter. Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

George Marsden. Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-I

A p p e n d i xImportant Terms in Church History

A Quick Reference Guide

F r o m t h e R e f o r m a t i o n t o t h e P r e s e n t

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-II

Important Terms in Church History: A Quick Reference Guide

Many of these definition have been drawn with permission from: Alister McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction. 3rd edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2001.

abstinence – To refuse to partake of something altogether, even in small amounts.

adiaphora–– Literally, “matters of indifference.” Beliefs or practices which the sixteenth-century Reformers regarded as being tolerable, in that they were neither explicitly rejected nor stipulated by Scripture. For example, what ministers wore at church services was often regarded as a “matter of indifference.” They concept is of importance in that it allowed the sixteenth-century reformers to adopt a pragmatic approach to many beliefs and practices, thus avoiding unnecessary confrontation.

Alexandrian school – A patristic school of thought, especially associated with the city of Alexandria in Egypt, noted for its Christology (which placed emphasis upon the divinity of Christ) and its method of biblical interpretation (which employed allegorical methods of exegesis). A rival approach in both areas was associated with Antioch.

A-millennialism – A view of the end times that equates the millennial reign of Christ with the age of the Church - from the resurrection of Christ until His paousia (second coming).

Anglicanism – A branch of theology especially associated with the churches historically derived from the Church of England.

Antiochene school – A patristic school of thought, especailly associated with the city of Antioch in modern-day Turkey, noted for its Christology (which placed emphasis upon the humanity of Christ) and its method of biblical interpretation (which employed literal methods of exegesis). A rival approach in both areas was associated with Alexandria.

Apocrypha –– In Protestant terminology, apocrypha refers to those twelve or fourteen books (depending on how they are divided) composed primarily during the intertestamental period which are considered canonical by the Roman Catholic church but are not included in the Hebrew canon of Scripture nor in the Protestant canon. These books include late additions to Old Testament books, rearrangements of Old Testament material, wisdom literature, fictional stories, and historical material covering especially the Maccabean revolt and the subsequent period of Jewish rule in Palestine. Although not considered Scripture by Protestants, these books are important for understanding Jewish thought in the time leading up to Jesus.

Arianism–– A major early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as the supreme of Godʼs creatures, and denied his divine status. The Arian controversy was of major importance in the development of Christology during the fourth century.

Asceticism – Renunciation of the world and its practices, without withdrawal from the world.

Augustinianism – A term used in two major senses. First, it refers to the views of Augustine of Hippo concerning the doctrine of salvation, in which the need for divine grace is stressed. In this sense, the term is the antithesis of Pelagianism. Second, it is used to refer to the body of opinion within the Augustinian order during the Middle Ages, irrespective of whether these views derive from Augustine or not.

Book of Common Prayer – A collection of liturgy, creeds, prayers, and other–“liturgical treasures” that draws together the rich heritage of medieval, eastern, and Lutheran traditions.

Calvinism – An ambiguous term, used with two quite distinct meanings. First, it refers to the religious ideas of religious bodies (such as the Reformed church) and individuals (such as Theodore Beza) who were profoundly influenced by John Calvin, or by documents written by him. Second, it refers to the religious ideas of John Calvin himself.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-III

Cappadocian fathers – A term used to refer collectively to three major Greek-speaking writers of the patristic period: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzen, and Gregory of Nyssa, all of whom date from the late fourth century. “Cappadocia” designates an area in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), in which these writers were based.

catechism – A popular manual of Christian doctrine, usually in the form of question and answer, intended for religious instruction.

catechumens ––Those who were being instructed in the faith as a preparation for baptism and entry into full membership in the church

Chalcedonian definition – The formal declaration at the Council of Chalcedon that Jesus Christ was to be regarded as both human and divine.

charisma, charismatic – A set of terms especially associated with the gifts of the Holy Spirit. In medieval theology, the term “charisma” is used to designate a spiritual gift, conferred upon individuals by the grace of God. Since the early twentieth century, the term “charismatic” has come to refer to styles of theology and worship which place particular emphasis upon the immediate presence and experience of the Holy Spirit.

Chi-Rho – A type of cross formed by the first two Greek letters of Christʼs name—“Chi” and”“Rho”—often seen in paintings

Christology – The section of Christian theology dealing with the identity of Jesus Christ, particularly the question of the relation of his human and divine natures.

consubstantiation – A term used to refer to the theory of the real presence, especially associated with Martin Luther, which holds that the substance of the eucharist bread and wine are given together with the substance of the body and blood of Christ.

conversion – The act of radical person change in mind and heart through heartfelt repentance.

creed – A formal definition or summary of the Christian faith, held in common by all Christians. The most important are those generally known as the “Apostlesʼ creed” and the”“Nicene creed.”

Deism – A term used to refer to the views of a group of English writers, especially during the seventeenth century, the rationalism of which anticipated many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The term is often used to refer to a view of God that recognizes the divine creatorship, yet which rejects the notion of a continuing divine involvement with the world.

discipleship – To be a follower of Jesus Christ through changes resulting from consistent application of biblical principles to personal Christian living.

dispensationalism – The teaching that history is divided into well-defined time periods (dispensations) in each of which God has particular purposes He wishes to accomplish.

Docetism – An early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as a purely divine being who only had the “appearance” of being human.

Donatism – A movement, centering upon Roman North Africa in the fourth century, which developed a rigorist view of the church and sacraments.

Dualism – A belief that the world consists of two mutually hostile forces or beings; the one being the source of all good, the other the source of all evil.

Ebionitism – An early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as a purely human figure, although recognizing that he was endowed with particular charismatic gifts which distinguish him from other humans.

ecclesiology – The section of Christian theology dealing with the study of the church.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-IV

Ecumenical – This term was originally applied to the early church councils that included representatives from throughout the Christian church and were intended to be normative for the church throughout the world. Today this term generally refers to the movement that seeks to join people from varying religious traditions and denominations into common fellowship or dialogue.

Elizabethan Settlement – A series of acts by which Queen Elizabeth achieved a compromise between the opposing religious groups in England and made herself the churchʼs governor.

eucharist – From the Greek term for “thanksgiving,” another name for what is known as “communion” or “the Lordʼs Table”: a practice which involves passing the cup and the bread as Christ passed the cup and the bread at the Last Supper.

Enlightenment, The – A term used to refer to the emphasis upon human reason and autonomy during the eighteenth century.

eschatology – The section of Christian theology dealing with the “last things,” especially the ideas of resurrection, hell, and eternal life.

fundamentalism– A form of American Protestant Christianity which lays especial emphasis upon the authority of an inerrant Bible.

Gnosticism – A movement placing especial emphasis upon a contrast between the material and spiritual realms, which became of major importance during the second century. Its most characteristic doctrines include redemption apart from the material world, a dualist worldview which held that different gods were responsible for creation and redemption, and an emphasis upon the importance of–“knowledge” (gnosis) in salvation.

heresy – This term refers to any statement (or sometimes action) that denies or deviates from the accepted, orthodox view on an essential issue. Heresy has come to be equated with doctrinal or theological error that invites the censure of those who seek to defend orthodoxy.

homoousion – A Greek term, literally meaning–“of the same substance,” which came to be used etensively during the fourth century to designate the mainstream Christological belief that Jesus Christ was “of the same substance as God.” The term was polemical, being directed against the Arian view that Christ was “of similar substance” (homoiousion) to God.

hypostatic union – The doctrine of the union of divine and human natures in Jesus Christ, without confusion of their respective substances.

icon- A flat, painted picture of Christ, Mary, one of the saints of the church, or a character from a biblical story that is used in worship.

iconoclasts – “Image breakers.” That group which was opposed to the use of images or icons in worship.

Incarnation – A term used to refer to the assumption of human nature by God, in the person of Jesus Christ. The term “incarnationalism” is often used to refer to theological approaches (such as those of late nineteenth-century Anglicanism) which lay especial emphasis upon Godʼs becoming human.

Indulgences – Written documents whereby all or part of the debt owed to God on account of oneʼs sin can be remitted.

inquisition – Originating in the medieval church, the Inquisition initially employed secular authorities to enforce orthodox behavior and belief among the general populace and to punish heretics. Pope Gregory IX (c.1170-1241) is generally credited with officially having set up the Inquisition in response to concerns about heresy and schism in France, Italy, and Spain. The infamous Spanish Inquisition was authorized by Pope Sixtus IV in 1478. Usually administered by Dominicans and Franciscans, those accused of heresy were brought before a tribunal and could be tortured, imprisoned, have their property confiscated, and be put to death.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-V

justification by faith, doctrine of – The section of Christian theology dealing with how the individual sinner is able to enter into fellowship with God. The doctrine was to prove to be of major significance at the time of the Reformation.

liturgy – The written text of public service, especially of the eucharist.

magisterial Reformation – A term used to refer to the Lutheran and Reformed wings of the Reformation.

martyrs – A person who is put to death because he or she is a follower–of Jesus Christ.

modalism – A Trinitarian heresy, which treats the three person of the Trinity as different–“modes” of the Godhead. A typical modalist approach is to regard God as active as Father in creation, as Son in redemption, and as Spirit in sanctification.

Monasticism – Life in community under a rule.

monotheism – The belief that there exists one all-powerful God.

Moravianism – Essentially a branch of Continental pietism, Moravianism had its impetus from Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf (1700-1760), a Lutheran who founded in Germany a community for religious refugees called–Herrnhut. Under Zinzendorfʼs leadership, Herrnhut became a model Christian community and a primary sending center for missionaries in the eighteenth century.

mysticism – The teaching that a person obtains direct knowledge of God primarily through awareness and intuition rather than through logic or reason. Mysticism emphasizes personal experience of God, and proposes that such experience can be achieved through purgation of sin, illumination, and union.

neo-orthodoxy – A term used to designate the general position of Karl Barth (1886-1968), especially the manner in which he drew upon the theological concerns of the period of Reformed orthodoxy.

nominalism – Strictly speaking, the theory of knowledge opposed to realism. The term is, however, still used occasionally to refer to the via moderna.

orthodoxy – A term used in a number of senses, of which the following are the most important: Orthodoxy in the sense of–“right belief,” as opposed to heresy; orthodoxy in the sense of a movement within Protestantism, especially in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, which laid emphasis upon need for doctrinal definition.

patristic – An adjective used to refer to the first centuries in the history of the church, following the writing of the New Testament. For many writers, the period thus designated seems to be c.100-451 (in other word, the period between the completion of the last of the New Testament writings and the Council of Chalcedon).

Pelagianism – An understanding of how humans are able to merit their salvation which is diametrically oposed to that of Augustine of Hippo, placing considerable emphasis upon the role of human works and playing down the idea of divine grace.

penance ––The process of bringing about true repentance in a person who is undergoing church discipline, and restoring that person to usefulness in the church. This became a sacrament in the medieval church.

Pentecost – Church history begins here, with the empowerment of the Holy Spirit that occurred among Christians gathered in Jerusalem during Pentecost in the first century. The events are described in Acts 2.

Pietism – This was a movement of spiritual renewal that began among Lutherans in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Led by August Hermann Francke (1663-1727) and Philipp Jacob Spener (1635-1705), pietism stressed the importance of personal conversion, transformation of life brought by God, holiness of living, Bible reading and prayer, social responsibility, and sanctification.

Post-millennialism – A view of the end times that identifies the millennium of Revelation 20 with an age of the Spirit - a time of spiritual peace and prosperity for the Church on earth.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-VI

postmodernism – A general cultural development which resulted from the general collapse of the universal rational principles of the Enlightenment.

Pre-millennialism – A view of the end times in which the second coming of Christ and the bodily resurrection of the saints will precede the millennium.

Protestantism – A term used in the aftermath of the Diet of Speyer (1529) to designate those who “protested” against the practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic church. Prior to 1529, such individuals and groups had referred to themselves as “evangelicals.”

purgatory – The teachings of the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches set forth a place of temporary punishment in an intermediate realm for the purpose of purging away sin.

Reformed – A term used to refer to a tradition of theology which draws inspiration from the writers of John Calvin (1510-64) and his successors. The term is generally used in preference to “Calvinist.”

Renewal – The work of God to revitalize individuals, institutions, and movements, always linked to repentance, united and believing prayer, and obedient study of the word. Jonathan Edwards said that genuine renewal is marked by an increased esteem for Jesus, repentance and righteousness, increased regard for Scripture, promotion of sound doctrine, and genuine love toward God and other people.

revival – Periods of spiritual renewal, often associated with the Great Awakenings that began in the eighteenth century.

Sabellianism – An early trinitarian heresy, which treated the three persons of the Trinity as different historical manifestations of the one God.

sacrament – In purely historical terms, a church service or rite which was held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ himself. Although Roman Catholic theology and church practice recognize seven such sacraments (baptism, confirmation, eucharist, marriage, ordination, penance, and unction), Protestant theologians generally argue that only two (baptism and eucharist) were to be found in the New Testament itself.

schism – A deliberate break with the unity of the church, condemned vigorously by influential writers of the early church, such as Cyprian and Augustine.

scholasticism – A particular approach to Christian theology, associated especially with the Middle Ages, which lays emphasis upon the rational justification and systematic presentation of Christian theology.

Septuagint – The Greek translation of the Old Testament, dating from the third century BC. The abbreviation LXX is generally used to refer to this text.

Social Darwinism – A theory of the origin and perpetuation of social relationships that emphasizes the individualʼs role in society as being based upon the survival of the fittest.

Social Gospel – A term that describes an effort around 1900 of liberal and moderately reformist Protestant efforts to apply biblical principles to the growing problems of urban-industrial American between the Civial War and World War I.

sola scriptura – “The Bible alone.”

sola gratia – “Grace alone.” The principle emphasized by the sixteenth century Reformers that it is only by Godʼs grace in the work of Christ that one can receive eternal salvation.

sola fide – “Faith alone.” The principle emphasized by the sixteenth century Reformers that it is only by faith in Christ and his work that one can receive eternal salvation. Justification is received as a gift of God and is not obtained through works.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-VII

soli Deo gloria ––“Godʼs glory alone.” The idea that all glory belongs to God because it is he who created, wrought salvation, and is sovereign over all. This Reformation principle emphasizes that our lives are to be dedicated to the service of Godʼs glory.

Syncretism – The combining of different religious beliefs or systems of thought.

temperance–– To partake of something in moderation

Thomism, via Thomae – The scholastic philosophy associated with Thomas Aquinas.

Trinity – The distinctively Christian doctrine of God, which reflects the complexity of the Christian experience of God. The doctrine is usually summarized in maxims such as–“three persons, one God.”

Wesleyan Quadrilateral – A way of picturing the ways a person can know God by drawing on Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-VIII

A p p e n d i xImportant People in Church History

A Quick Reference Guide


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-IX

Important People in Church History: A Quick Reference Guide

For more information, see The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, E. A. Livingstone, ed., 3rd edition (Oxford University Press, 1997) and Dictionary of Christianity in America, Daniel G. Reid, et al., eds

(InterVarsity Press, 1990)

Abelard, Peter (1079-1142/3): Scholastic theologian who emphasized the use of reason and the scholastic method of beginning with a disputed question, raising and answering objections, and coming up with a solution.

Albigenses (11th-13th centuries): Heretical movement that emerged in France and Italy in the 11th century; also called “Cathari,” the Albigenses were dualistic in their theology and attempted to purify the church by strict discipline.

Allen, Richard (1760-1831): African-American who bought his freedom, became an important religious leader, and eventually founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1816.

Ambrose (c.339-97): Bishop of Milan whose preaching was instrumental in converting Augustine of Hippo to Christianity and who eventually baptized Augustine.

Anselm (c.1033-1109): Archbishop of Canterbury and scholastic theologian who attempted to use reason to defend and articulate the Christian faith; his influential book Cur Deus Homo contributed to the development of the substitutionary theory of the atonement.

Ansgar (801-65): Early missionary to Scandinavia, often called the “Apostle to the North.”

Antony (251?-356): Desert hermit in Egypt who attracted a large number of disciples and admirers and whose life was described by Athanasius in The Life of Antony.

Apollinarius (c.310-c.390): Bishop of Laodicea who denied that Christ had a human mind or soul; his teaching was condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 381.

Aquinas, Thomas (c.1225-74): Dominican theologian and the greatest of the medieval scholastic theologians; his masterpiece, the Summa Theologiae, attempted to integrate Christian theology and Aristotelian philosophy.

Arius (died 336): Heretic who denied the full deity of Christ; he was condemned by the Council of Nicea in 325.

Asbury, Francis (1745-1816): Methodist bishop sent to America by John Wesley in 1771 and given supervision of all Methodist work in the country. After 1784, he and Thomas Coke became joint superintendents of the Methodist church in America.

Athanasius (c.296-373): Bishop of Alexandria who defended orthodox christology against the heresy of Arianism; his “Festal Letter” was the first complete list of the Old Testament and New Testament canonical books.

Athenagoras (2nd century): Christian apologist whose “Apology” defended Christians against many false accusations such as atheism and incest; he also penned the first philosophical defense of Trinitarian theology.

Augustine of Canterbury (died between 604 and 609): Missionary to England sent by Pope Gregory the Great; converted King Ethelbert of Kent and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

Augustine of Hippo (354-430): Bishop of Hippo and one of the most important and influential theologians of the Christian church; in his writings against the Manichees, Donatists, and Pelagians, he developed a theology which emphasized original sin, predestination, and the necessity of divine grace for salvation.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-X

Barth, Karl (1886-1968): Protestant Swiss theologian who, along with the Neo-Orthodox movement, sought to bring theology back to the principles of the Reformation; he is widely considered to be the most important theologian of the 20th century.

Basil the Great (c.330-379): Bishop of Cappadocia who integrated monasticism more closely into the life of the church.

Baxter, Richard (1615-1691): Puritan preacher and educator at Kidderminster who wrote prolifically and focused upon the spiritual state of his individual parishioners in an attempt to bring about reform in the churches in England.

Beecher, Lyman (1775-1863): American Congregational and Presbyterian clergyman, revivalist, social reformer, and political observer; father of Harriet Beecher Stowe and Henry Ward Beecher.

Benedict of Nursia (c.480-c.550): Founder of a monastic community (the Benedictine order) whose Rule became the standard for Western monasticism.

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153): Abbot of a Cistercian monastery at Clairvaux and mystic who wrote a famous series of sermons on the Song of Songs and who was influential in persuading people to fight in the Second Crusade.

Beza, Theodore (1519-1605): Reformed leader and educator in Geneva who replaced John Calvin after his death in 1564.

Blackwell, Antionette Brown (1825-1921): First regularly ordained woman in America; graduated from Oberlin college in 1847 (in literature; was denied the earned degree in theology in 1850) and was ordained as a Congregational minister in 1853.

Bryan, William Jennings (1860-1925): American editor, politician and anti-evolutionary leader; was a three-time candidate for president of the U.S.; was the prosecuting attorney in the much-publicized “Scopes Trial” or “Monkey Trial” of 1925.

Bucer, Martin (1491-1551): German reformer who succeeded Zwingli as head of the Reformed churches in Switzerland and south Germany; he later went to England and taught at Cambridge and influenced the reformation there.

Bullinger, Heinrich (1504-1575): Swiss reformer who replaced Zwingli as the chief pastor at Zurich upon his death; also had his hand in the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566.

Calvin, John (1509-1564): French reformer and theologian who, after spending some time in Paris and Strasbourg, settled in Geneva and led the Reformed wing of the Reformation; fountainhead of later “Calvinism”; author of the Institutes of the Christian Religion; married to Idelette de Bure.

Campbell, Alexander (1788-1866): Irish immigrant to America who founded the Disciples of Christ in 1827; leader of the Restorationist movement, which attempted to return completely to N.T. teachings and practice.

Campbell, Thomas (1763-1854): Cofounder, with his son Alexander, of the Restorationist movement; his famous dictum governed his life and the Restorationist movement: “Where the Scriptures speak, we speak; where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent.”

Carey, William (1761-1834): English Baptist missionary pioneer whose passion for missions sparked the beginning of the Protestant missions movement; spent almost 40 years in India, translating the scriptures into 25 local languages; the “Father of Modern Missions.”†

Carnell, Edward John (1919-1967): American evangelical theologian and educator; earned two doctorates (Harvard and Boston University) and taught at Gordon College and Divinity School and at Fuller Theological Seminary.


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Cartwright, Thomas (1535-103): Puritan minister, scholar and Reformation leader; was an important promoter of Presbyterian and Reformed thought in England.

Cassian, John (c.360-after 430): Monk and biblical scholar who developed a fourfold method of interpreting scripture which was adapted from Origenʼs threefold method.

Chafer, Lewis Sperry (1871-1952): American Presbyterian minister, popular conference speaker, and founder of and professor at Dallas Theological Seminary; strong advocate of premillennial dispensationalism.

Charlemagne (c.742-814): First “Holy Roman Emperor”; encouraged education, ecclesiastical reform, and unity in the Empire.

Charles I (1600-1649): King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1625; supported the suppression of the Reformation in England but was deposed and eventually executed by the Puritan Revolution in the 1640s.

Charles II (1630-1685): King of Great Britain and Ireland (in exile) from 1649 but restored to the throne in England in 1660 after the Puritan Revolution; generally conformed to the Anglicanism founded under Elizabeth I.

Chauncy, Charles (1705-1787): Boston minister and Arminian theologian who cautioned strongly against the excesses of the Great Awakening.

Chrysostom, John (c.347-407): Bishop of Constantinople famous for his eloquent preaching; he is the most revered Christian theologian by the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Clement of Alexandria (c.150-c.215): Theologian who attempted to show the philosophical superiority of Christianity over paganism.

Clement of Rome (1st century): Early bishop of Rome who wrote the epistle to the Corinthians known as “1 Clement,” which dealt with ecclesiastical order and authority..

Columba (c.521-97): Irish missionary to Scotland, where he founded the monastery at Iona.

Constantine the Great (died 337): Roman emperor whose conversion to Christianity ushered in a new era of Christendom, during which Christianity eventually became the official religion of the empire; Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, giving religious freedom to all, and called the first ecumenical council of the church at Nicea.

Cotton, John (1584-1652): Eminent Puritan minister; considered to be the father of New England Congregationalism; emigrated to America in 1633, where he spent the rest of his life ministering and defending Congregationalism.

Cranmer, Thomas (1489-1556): Archbishop of Canterbury; attempted to promote Reformation principles in England while pleasing royalty; had his hand in the Ten Articles, Forty-Two Articles and the Common Book of Prayer; he was burned as a heretic under Queen Mary Tudor.

Cromwell, Oliver (1599-1658): Head of the revolutionary army during the Puritan Revolution; was made Lord Protector (instead of king) of England in 1653 but died before the Restoration in 1660.

Cyprian (died 258): Bishop of Carthage who allowed those who lapsed under persecution to rejoin the church after a period of penance.

Cyril of Alexandria (died 444): Patriarch of Constantinople and important theologian of the Alexandrian school.

Darby, John Nelson (1800-1882): Plymouth Brethren minister and theologian; vigorously espoused a particular brand of eschatology known as “dispensationalism.”

Decius (249-251): Roman emperor who led the first large-scale imperial persecution of Christians.


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Diocletian (245-313): Roman emperor who established himself as an absolute, semi-divine monarch, divided the empire into a Tetrarchy ruled by two Augusti and two Caesars, and began the “Great Persecution” against the Christians.

Donatists (4th century): Faction within the African church who believed that those Christians who had renounced their faith during the Diocletian persecution could no longer be a part of the church and that sacraments administered by such ministers were invalid.

Douglass, Frederick (c. 1817-1895): Ex-slave, orator, journalist, and abolitionist who escaped to freedom in 1838 and had an influential career as an advocate for abolition, temperance, and womenʼs rights.

Dwight, Timothy (1752-1817): Congregational clergyman, theologian, poet, and educator; was the grandson of Jonathan Edwards and president of Yale College from 1795.

Dyer, Mary (c. 1605-1660): Quaker martyr in Boston who repeatedly returned to Boston to spread the Quaker faith.

Edward VI (1537-1553): King of England from 1547; son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour who inherited the throne at a young age and promoted the Reformation.

Edwards, Jonathan (1703-1758): American Calvinist theologian and philosopher; the Great Awakening affected his church in Northampton, Mass., in the 1730s; he wrote prolifically, defending Calvinism, orthodoxy, and the revivals; is considered to be Americaʼs greatest theologian.

Eliot, John (1604-1690): Puritan minister, missionary, linguist and Bible translator; commonly called the “Apostle to the Indians” for his pioneering missionary work among the American Indians.

Elizabeth I (1533-1603): Queen of England from 1558; daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn who crafted a theological compromise (Anglicanism) between the Reformation and Catholic factions in an attempt to unify England and standardize worship.

Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1469-1636): Extremely influential Roman Catholic humanist and church critic; produced the first Greek N.T. in 1516 that became the basis for much of the work of the later Protestant reformers.

Erigena, John Scotus (c.810-c.877): Irish scholastic theologian.

Ethelbert (died 616): King of Kent in Anglo-Saxon England who converted to Christianity under the influence of his wife Bertha and the Roman mission led by Augustine.

Eusebius (c.260-c.340): Bishop of Caesarea whose Ecclesiastical History has earned him the title “Father of Church History.”

Eutyches (c.378-454): Heretic who taught that Christ had only one nature after the Incarnation; he was exiled by the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

Farel, Guillaume (1489-1565): Genevan reformer who initially detained Calvin in Geneva; he and Calvin were important leaders of the reform measures directed from Geneva.

Finney, Charles (1792-1875): Leading revivalist of the 19th century, often called the “Father of Modern Revivalism” for his “new measures” and ardent revivalism; later in life he became an avid educator, becoming a professor and president at Oberlin College.

Fosdick, Harry Emerson (1878-1969): American Presbyterian minister who withdrew from the Presbyterian denomination over fundamentalist issues and became pastor at Riverside Baptist Church in New York City.

Francke, Auguste Hermann (1663-1727): German pietist and educator; from 1692 he was a professor at the University of Halle and promoted pietist thinking and reform.


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Frelinguysen, Theodore (1691-c.1747): Dutch Reformed minister in New Jersey whose evangelical fervor and itinerancy contributed to the onset of the Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies.

Galerius (died 311): Roman emperor who ruled with Diocletian as the Caesar in the East and who inspired the persecution of the Christians.

Gordon, Adoniram Judson (1836-1895): Baptist minister and missions leader; founded the Boston Missionary Training School (1889), the forerunner of Gordon College and Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary.

Graham, Billy (1918- ): Most well-known 20th century American evangelist whose simple messages and direct call for a decision to follow Christ has connected with millions of listeners worldwide.

Gregory the Great (c.540-604): Pope who helped bring peace to a political tumultuous society, sent the first missionary force to England (led by Augustine), wrote a book on pastoral care, and whose name is linked with the development of Gregorian chant.

Henry VIII (1491-1547): King of England from 1509; broke with Rome in 1533, thus triggering the Reformation in England; his infamous six wives were Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr.

Henry, Carl F.H. (1913- ): Evangelical theologian; articulate defender of orthodoxy and promoter of new-evangelical thought; founding editor of Christianity Today and professor at Fuller Theological Seminary and Gordon College.

Herod Antipas (1st century): Son of Herod the Great; tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea; married his sister-in-law Herodias and beheaded John the Baptist.

Herod Archelaus (1st century): Son of Herod the Great; ethnarch of Judaea, Idumaea, and Samaria; deposed in A.D. 6.

Herod the Great (ruled 37-4 B.C.): Roman King of the Jews.

Herod Philip (1st century): Son of Herod the Great; tetrarch in the northeast.

Hippolytus (c.170-c.236): Most important Roman theologian of the 3rd century; significant writings include “Refutation of All Heresies” and “Apostolic Tradition.”

Hodge, Charles (1797-1878): American Presbyterian theologian; was a long-time

professor at Princeton and remained a staunch defender of orthodoxy and Calvinism; his Systematic Theology and What is Darwinism? are perhaps his most influential works.

Hubmaier, Balthasar (c. 1485-1528): German Anabaptist; came under Zwingliʼs reformation teaching in Zurich but soon left to join the Anabaptist movement; was burned at the stake in Vienna.

Huss, John (c.1372-1415): Pastor and professor in Prague who propagated John Wycliffeʼs teachings and who was eventually burned at the stake as a heretic; his name is connected with the Hussite movement or “United Brethren.”

Hutchinson, Anne (1591-1643): Puritan religious dissenter whose accusations of “works-righteousness” preaching against the Boston clergy (along with her claim of direct revelation) earned her banishment to Rhode Island in 1638.

Ignatius (c.35-c.107): Bishop of Antioch who wrote letters to the churches at Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Rome, Philadelphia, and Smyrna and to the bishop Polycarp on his way to martyrdom in Rome; his letters are important both for their theological content and for their emphasis on ecclesiastical authority.

Ignatius Loyola (c. 1491-1556): Catholic monk who founded the Jesuits (Society of Jesus) and led much of the so-called “Counter Reformation” in Roman Catholicism.


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Irenaeus (c.130-c.200): Bishop of Lyons who wrote “Against Heresies“ as an attack on Gnosticism; emphasized the authority of scripture.

James I (1566-1625): King of England from 1603 and Scotland as James VI from 1578; authorized a new translation of the Bible (King James Version); was generally lenient toward Catholicism but intolerant toward Puritan dissenters.

Jerome (c.345-420): One of the greatest biblical scholars of the Western Church; translated the Bible into Latin (called the “Vulgate”).

John XXIII, Pope (1881-1963): Pope from 1958; called for the Second Vatican Council that was responsible for much of the modernization of Roman Catholic dogma and practice.

John of Damascus (c.655-c.750): Greek theologian who defended the churchʼs use of images during the Iconoclastic Controversy.

Judaizers: Early Jewish Christians who tried to enforce Old Testament laws (such as circumcision) on all Christians in the church.

Judson, Adoniram (1788-1850): American Baptist missionary to Burma; was ordained a Congregational minister in 1812 but became convinced of Baptist beliefs on the journey to India; was instrumental in founding a lasting mission in Burma.

Justin Martyr (c.100-c.165): Most important early Christian apologist, who defended Christians against false charges and who argued that Christianity was the only true philosophy.

Kahler, Martin (1835-1921): German theologian and long-time professor at Halle; wrote a book that ignited questions surrounding the historical Jesus, especially with regard to historie vs. geschichte.

Latimer, Hugh (c. 1485-1555): English Protestant reformer and Bishop of Worcester; was burned at the stake under Queen Mary in 1555.

Laud, William (1573-1645): Archbishop of Canterbury and scholar; attempted to reform England and promote Anglican/Church of England uniformity.

Leo X (1475-1521): Pope from 1513; excommunicated Martin Luther in 1520.

Leo the Great (died 461): Pope from 440 to 461; his Tome (449) upheld orthodox Christology during the Eutychean controversy and was affirmed by the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

Lucian of Antioch (died 312): Founder of the Antiochene school of exegesis.

Luther, Martin(1483-1546): German Augustinian monk who sparked the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses and other teachings; after his excommunication he went into hiding, translated the N.T, into German, and emerged as a leader of the Lutheran Reformation in Germany; married to Katherine von Bora.

Machen, John Greschem (1881-1937): Presbyterian clergyman, N.T. scholar, and educator; split from Princeton and the Presbyterians to found Westminster Theological Seminary and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church.

Mani (c.216-276): Founder of Manichaeism, a Gnostic system of thought which was based on a dualism between light and darkness and which emphasized severe asceticism.

Marcion (died c.160): Heretical thinker who rejected the Old Testament but whose influence encouraged the church to differentiate carefully between canonical and non-canonical writings.

Mary Tudor (1516-1558): Queen of England from 1553; daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon; was notoriously vicious in her extermination of Protestants in England during her rule, earning her the name “Bloody Mary.”


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McGready, James (c. 1758-1817): Presbyterian revivalist and father of the frontier camp meeting; his revivals were part of the Second Great Awakening.

McPherson, Aimee Semple (1890-1944): Pentecostal evangelist and founder of the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel.

Melanchthon, Philipp (1497-1560): Protestant reformer who helped Luther in his reform measures in Wittenberg and was largely responsible for the Augsburg Confession.

Miller, William (1782-1849): Baptist lay preacher who predicted the second coming of Christ around the year 1843; his teaching formed the basis for much of the later Adventist movements.

Mills, Samuel (1783-1818): American Congregational minister and missions promoter; led the Haystack Prayer Meeting (1809) and helped form the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1810).

Mohammed (c.570-632): Founder of Islam.

Montanists (2nd century): Dissenting movement which emphasized rigorous ascetic discipline and ecstatic prophecy.

Moody, Dwight L. (1837-1899): American evangelist whose frankness and urgency drew huge crowds in both the U.S. and England.

Nestorius (late 4th-5th century): Patriarch of Constantinople whose name is associated with the heresy that there were two persons in the incarnate Christ, one human and one divine; he was deposed by the Council of Ephesus in 431.

Newton, John (1725-1807): Evangelical English minister and hymn-writer who greatly aided the campaign against slavery (spearheaded by William Wilberforce) after his conversion from the slave trade itself.

Niebuhr, H. Richard (1894-1962): American theologian and younger brother of Reinhold Niebuhr; professor at Yale University from 1938 to 1962; writings include Christ and Culture and The Social Sources of Denominationalism.

Niebuhr, Reinhold (1892-1971): American theologian and ethicist; professor at Union Theological Seminary from 1928 until 1960; primary work is The Nature and Destiny of Man.

Novatians (3rd century): Schismatic movement that believed that Christians who had left the faith under the Decian persecution should not be welcomed back into the fellowship of the church.

Ockenga, Harold John (1905-1985): Congregational minister and new-evangelical organizational leader; pastor of Bostonʼs Park Street Church, founder and president of the National Association of Evangelicals, founding president of Fuller Theological Seminary, founder of Christianity Today and president of the newly formed Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary.

Origen (c.185-c.254): Theologian and biblical scholar from Alexandria; one of the greatest exegetes of the early church who developed a very influential theory of biblical interpretation (the threefold sense of scripture).

Pachomius (c.290-346): Founder of communal monasticism.

Parham, Charles F. (1873-1929): Founder of the Apostolic Faith movement and one of the founders of the modern Pentecostal movement.

Parker, Matthew (1504-1575): Archbishop of Canterbury under Elizabeth I; had his hand in the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Bishopsʼ Bible; promoted Anglican theology but resisted Puritan ideas.

Patrick (5th century): British missionary to Ireland, called the “Apostle of the Irish.”

Paul III, Pope (1468-1549): Pope from 1534; a typical Renaissance Pope in his personal life, he attempted to reform the RCC in various ways, including calling the Council of Trent (first convened in 1545).


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Pelagius (late 4th-early 5th century): British theologian who taught that humans are free to do good and choose God without the help of divine grace; his teaching (called Pelagianism”) was attacked by Augustine and officially condemned by the church.

Perpetua (died 203): Young African catechumen who was martyred in the arena at Carthage and whose imprisonment and death are described in “The Passion of St. Perpetua and St. Felicity.”

Polycarp (c.69-c.155): Bishop of Smyrna and widely respected Christian leader in the 2nd century; his martyrdom at the age of 86 is described in “The Martyrdom of Polycarp.”

Rancke, Leopold von (1795-1886): Prolific German historian; stressed the objectivity of historical inquiry and the necessity of primary materials in the process.

Rauschenbusch, Walter (1861-1918): Baptist minister and theologian of the Social Gospel who urged the Christian church to give the gospel a distinctive social emphasis.

Robinson, John (c. 1575-1625): English pastor to the Pilgrim/Puritan fathers; helped his congregation at Leyden to emigrate to America in 1620, although he was unable to journey with them.

Sadoleto, Jacob (1477-1547): Roman Catholic cardinal who attempted to win Geneva back to the RC fold; had a series of famous debates with John Calvin over RC/Protestant differences.

Schweitzer, Albert (1875-1965): German theologian, physician, and organist; wrote The Quest for the Historical Jesus (1910), further fueling the search for the Jesus of history; later in life he became a medical doctor and missionary to Africa and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1952.

Scofield, C. I. (1843-1921): Bible conference speaker and defender of dispensational premillennialism; his Scofield Bible and the accompanying notes did much to spread the dispensational view within popular conservative Christian culture.

Seymour, William J. (1870-1922): Pentecostal leader who studied under Charles Parham in Texas; his revival meetings in Los Angeles in 1906 and the subsequent outbreak of speaking in tongues marked the beginning of the Pentecostal movement.

Simons, Menno (1496-1561): Anabaptist and Mennonite leader; Roman Catholic priest who became convinced of Reformation doctrine but differed from the mainline reformers on baptism, the use of arms and force, the Lordʼs Supper, and the nature of the church.

Simplicianus (died 400): Bishop of Milan after the death of Ambrose; played an important role in the conversion of Augustine of Hippo.

Spener, Philip Jacob (1635-1705): German Lutheran whose book, Pia Desideria, became the foundation for the Pietist movement; founded the University of Halle in 1694 as a center for Pietism and missionary training

Stoddard, Solomon (1643-1729): Colonial minister in Northampton, Mass.; grandfather of Jonathan Edwards and supporter of the “Half-Way Covenant.”

Sunday, Billy (1862-1935): American Presbyterian minister, evangelist, and revivalist; known as the “baseball evangelist”; was amazingly popular and influential in his revivals and reforms; helped pass the Prohibition Amendment.

Tertullian (c.160-c.225): African theologian and apologist; important aspects of his theology include an articulation of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, a strict separation between Christianity and pagan philosophy and culture, and a rejection of infant baptism.

Theodore of Tarsus (c.602-90): Archbishop of Canterbury who established a diocesian structure in England and helped to unify the English church.


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Theodosius (4th century): Roman emperor from 379 to 395 who made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed non-Christian religious practices and heretical ideas.

Tyndale, William (c. 1494-1536): English reformer who translated the Bible into English (1525); after a short but productive career of translation and writing he was burnt at the stake near Brussels.

Waldenses (12th century): Dissenting church founded by Peter Waldo of Valdez, who criticized many of the practices and the hierarchy of the medieval church and believed that the Bible should be the ultimate authority for Christians.

Warfield, Benjamin B. (1851-1921): Princeton theologian and apologist; staunch defender of Calvinistic orthodoxy and opponent of modernism.

Weld, Theodore Dwight (1803-1895): Revivalist, abolitionist, and temperance reformer whose writing and speaking did much to promote the abolitionist cause in the North and influence other writers and leaders.

Wesley, Charles (1707-1788): 18th child of Samuel Wesley and brother of John Wesley; prolific English hymn-writer (over 5,500 hymns), including such favorites as “Jesus, Lover of My Soul.”

Wesley, John (1703-1791): 15th child of Samuel Wesley; English theologian, churchman, and founder of the Methodist movement;

White, Ellen (1827-1915): Cofounder of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church; later in life became an active health reformer, promoting a strict vegetarian diet.

Whitefield, George (1714-1770): English Methodist evangelist whose fervent and popular revivals in both America and England did much to foster spiritual renewal and stir up controversy.

Wilberforce, William (1759-1833): English philanthropist and member of Parliament who labored arduously for over 30 years to pass legislation against the slave trade; the bill was finally passed in 1833.

Willibrord (658-739): English missionary to Frisia.

Winfred (Boniface) (c. 675-754): English missionary to Germany.

Winthrop, John (1588-1649): First governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony whose sermon “A Model of Christian Charity” served as a sort of charter for the Bay Colony: it was to be a “city on a hill.”

Wolsey, Thomas (c. 1474-1530): English cardinal and statesman who unsuccessfully attempted to procure permission from Rome for Henry VIIIʼs divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

Wycliffe, John (c.1330-84): English theologian and early reformer who argued for the supreme authority of scripture in the life of the church, the priesthood of all believers, and the translation of the Bible into the language of the people; he was condemned as a heretic after his death.

Zinzendorf, Count Nicolaus Ludwig von (1700-1760): Leader of the Moravians at Herrnhut; was primarily concerned with evangelism and a genuine religion of the heart; was influential in the worldwide missions movement.

Zwingli, Ulrich (1484-1531): Swiss Protestant reformer; instituted reform measures in Zurich as early as 1519 but differed with the other reformers, especially with Luther on the issue of the Lordʼs Supper.
