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Clear andPresent Dangers

DAN CAID uWEI

The Soviets are not the only threat toour national security; equally perilous isour lack of knowledge about U.S.-Sovietrelations and our reluctance to discuss

the topic in school.

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n October 1962, President Kenne-dv announced on national televi-sion that the Soviet Union had

secretl' sent missiles to Cuba and thatthe U S demanded their immediateremoval With just cause. anyone whoheard President Kennedyvs speechfeared that war vwas imminent Follow-ing the crisis, Kennedy estimated thatthe chances of a Soviet American warresulting from the crisis had beenfrom one out of three to even-notvery reassuring odds given the highstakes involved (Kennedy. 1969)

Over 22 sears have passed since theCuban missile crisis. but the danger ofopen conflict herveen the world's twosuperpowers remains In fact, the dan-ger has increased significantly in onerespect: whereas the ' S and the Sovi-et U'nion possessed hundreds of nu-clear weapons in 1962, together they'possessed approximatel S.0O(X) bhthe end of 198,4 (International Institutefor Strategic studies, 1984)

The 1 S. laces clear and presentdangers both from tile Sov iet U'nionand from our failure to educate Ameri-calns about the single most importantbilateral relationship in contemiporaryinternational relations Fortunatelv.there are ways for concerned educa-tors to increase public knowx ledge (Totest vocir knowledge of I 'S -Soviet re-lations. see Figure )

The Past as Prologue forthe PresentAlthough there are a number of simi-larities bertween the Russian empireand the Soviet I ninn, historians usual-Is cle.arl- distinguish bet-xeen thetto--he formcer referring to pre 191-

/)tt (Caldlulfl is Atcucite Prqf~t'r Of /'Po-litical .Sc'ne.m l''lfp(,rdme I 'iersit'. tlalihu, Caleforna(optriRght c l'is bh l)rpi (.aldu'ell

and the latter to the government creat-ed as a result of the Bolshevik Revolu-tion (Gaddis, 19'8) Relations betweenthe United States and Russia were gen-erallv cordial. even though the twocompeted for control over Alaska andthe Pacific Northwvest The Russianscame as tar south as San Francisco Bay.where they established a trading cen-ter at Fort Ross

When the Bolsheviks, led bh Lenin,seized power and overthrew the Ro-manov dvnaristv in 191-. man- in theWest were hostile to the new commu-nist government. In 1918 the UnitedStates. Great Britaill. France, and Japaneven sent soldiers to Murmansk andArchangel in the Soviet Union. ostensi-bly to protect Western war material(Kennan. 1958) But this expeditionaryforce also had the not-so-hidden pur-pose of demonstrating Western oppo-sition to the new government FewAmericans know about this episode inSoviet-American relations: however.

all Soviet school children are taughtthat the Western capitalist powers at-tacked the new- Soviet state soon afterthe Revolution

To the surprise of manyr Bolshevikrevolutionaries. the new government.despite Western opposition, took holdand consolidated its power. SeveralAmericans played important roles inthe earl! days of the new Soviet gov-ernment. John Reed actively support-ed the Bolsheviks and was buried in aplace of honor in Red Square. Freshout of medical school. an idealisticyoung American doctor. Armand Ham-mer. went to the Soviet Union to helpprosvide adequate medical care for theSoviets Eventuallv. at the request ofLenin. Hammer helped to attractAmerican capital to the Soviet Unionand to set up some earls manufac-turing plants

Following Lenin's death in 1924.Stalin ruled the Soviet Union with aniron fist He ordered the reorganiza-

.At 1i9iS 1I

Figure 1. Test Your U.S.S.R. IQ.

True or False:1.The land area of the Soviet Union is two and one-half times that of the

U.S.2. A little over half of the people living in the'Soviet Union are Russians.3. In World War II, approximately 20,000,00M Soviet citizens died, com-

pared to about 500,000 Americans.4. There are about 20 times the number of automobiles in the U.S. as are

in the U.S.S.R.5. The membership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union cos

roughly 6 percent of the total population.6. The Soviet gross national product equals about 60 percent of the United

States' GNP.7. The U.S. sent troops to the Soviet Union to oppose the new communist

government soon after it took over in 1917.8. The U.S. and the Soviet Union combined possess about S0,000 muder

weapons.9. Since the end of World War II, Soviet leaders have been reluctant to

confront the U.S. with a direct military threat.10. The most serious U.S.-Soviet confrontation occurred in October 1902

-anjl aie siuawuares aotqe aqil #o In

"... whereas the U.S. and theSoviet Union possessed

hundreds of nuclearweapons in 1962,

together they possessedapproximately 50,000by the end of 1984."

tion of Soviet agriculture into collec-tives, and any Soviet peasants whoobjected were imprisoned or killedEstimates of the number of peasantskilled in the drive for collectivizationrange from several hundred thousandto 20 million More Soviets were imprisoned and killed during the purgesof the mid-to-late 1930s Stalin usedterror to maintain his power andshowed that there was not a great dealof difference betrween the radical left(communism) and thile radical right(the national socialism of ltitler) Inboth systems. the governmenl was iomnipotent

World War 1I swas a seminal eventfor both the Soviet I nion and SovietUS relations Twent- million Sovietcitizens died during the swar comparedto 400()00() Americans Even todav, 4)vears later, it is customary for Sovietwedding parties to g() clirecthl fromcity hall to the lkcal war memorial tolav a w-reath for all who) cdied in WoriclWar II

During the -ar, the I'S under theLend lease program provided the Soviet I nioin vith e11 billion worth ofmilitars equipment that *as absioluteltvital to the Sviet war effort In lune1942 I'resiclent Roosevelt promisedSoviet l:oreign Minister Miolotoi thatthe 1'5 Would iopen a seconcd front hsthe end of the sear to relieve thepressure on the Sovielt I /nitn on theEastern fr ont For vari()lus reasi(ns, thesecond front w-as n(it (opened untilJune 194'i, a fact that caused suspicionand deep resentment among mansSoviets

At the end iof X')rldl W\ar II theSoviet I nion maintained all enotrlmlousstanding arm-, wshile the I S clemobilized its forces on a scale unprecedented in aworld histiior' Within rvo ii earsafter the iwar, our milhtarn- swas reducedin size friom 12 milliot, to lnec and ahalf million Bs 19 i-, a coincernedPresident Truman ex(-l iimed Sio faras I was c( incerned, the prograntm uewere folliowing %x as no longer demobilization-it xas disintegration if t)our

armed forcesAlthough the rict(rilOius p )wers es

tablished the I nited Nati )ns in 1945 topreserve peace, the nen ( irganlizati)ll

Aetna~~~~~~~~~~~~~;;;-;I· _l·

was founded on the central assump-tion that the great powers could unani-mously agree on the definition andcombatting of international aggres-sion. This proved to be a mistakenassumption, and by 1947 the cooper-ation that had characterized Soviet-American relations during World WarII had been replaced by competitionand conflict over Eastern Europe,Greece, Turkey, and Iran. The coldwar had begun

From Cold War to Hot PeaceThe cold war was marked by S.-Soviet competition and confrontationsover various areas and issues. mostnotably Berlin in 1948 and 1961, andCuba in 1962. American policy duringthis period sought to contain the ex-pansion of communism (Caldwell,1981; Gaddis. :982)

The Cuban missile crisis marked themost serious U'.S.-Soviet confrontationof the post-World War II period BothKennedy and Khrushchev realizedduring the crisis that nuclear war hadbeen a real possibility (Abel. 1966). Inthe aftermath of the crisis, Kennedyand Khrushchev devised two agree-ments to lessen the danger of nuclearwar The first was the so-called "hotline." Although 1Holl!ywood invariablydepicts this as a red telephone sittingon the lPresident's desk. the hot line, inrealitn. is a teletvpe link that providesquick, secure, and secret communica-tions between the I S. and Soviet gov-ernments It has been used on a num-ber of occasions, including the 1967and 1973 Arab-Israeli wars, and follow-ing the Soviet invasion of Afghanistanin 19'9

The secondl agreement signed eightmonths after the Cuban missile crisis.was the limited Test Ban Treat-., whichprohibited the testing of nuclearweapons in the atmosphere and in theoceans Although both countries con-tinued testing nuclear veapons under-ground follow ing the signing and rati-fication of the treaty. it was. at least, animportant 'clean air act" It was alsothe first significant arms control agree-ment signed hb the superpowers dur-ing the post 19-4S period This treatsmarked the first of 2() hi- and multi-

lateral arms control agreementssigned by the U.S. and the SovietUnion during the 1960s and 70s.

Nixon, Kissinger, and DetenteIn 1968, American socient wasstretched taut. An average of 278Americans per week were being killedin Vietnam, and 30.000 men permonth were being drafted. In the 1968presidential campaign, Richard Nixonpromised to end the war in Vietnam.Once in office. President Nixon andhis assistant for national security af-fairs, Henry Kissinger, sought to im-prove relations with both the SovietUnion and the People's Republic ofChina, thereby increasing the proba-bilin that these countries would assistthe U'.S. in withdrawing from Vietnam

Nixon and Kissinger sought to en-gage the Soviet Union in a number ofnegotiations concerning different is-sue areas, including the control ofstrategic nuclear arms, trade. and sci-entific and cultural cooperation. Thehope was that agreements in theseareas would so intertwine the U S. andthe Soviet Union that neither sidewould break the relationship (Cald-well. 1981) This policy came to beknown as detente It was. in essence, acomplex strategy of behavior modifi-cation in which the U.S. would employboth positive and negative incentivesin order to mold Soviet internationalbehavior to America's liking. The hey-day of d&tente lasted from the Moscowsummit meeting between Nixon andBrezhnev in May 19-2-at which timethey signed the first two Strategic ArmsLimitation Talks agreements-to Octo-ber 19-3. s`hen Eg-pt and Svria at-tacked Israel with Soviet foreknowl-edge

Folloswing the October war, severalother events raised U S concern overthe Soviet lUnion's commitment to theprinciples of d6tente Likewise. Sovietleaders questioned whether the U S.was committed to these same princi-ples. Clearly,. the insvaion of Afghani-stan hb the Soviet Utnion in late 19'9marked the final demise of detente.

In 1980 Ronald Reagan campaignedon an anti-detente. pro-defense plat-form. He called for the strengthening

.. . relationsbetween the twocountries willcontinue to bethe single mostimportant bilateralrelationship inworld politics forthe rest of thiscentury."

of U .S defenses and. if necessar . con-fronting the Soviet Union and its allieswith l.S military might.

Once in office. President Reaganand his advisors embarked on a for-eign policy toward the Soviet Unionthat was characterized bv five ele-ments: (1) rhetorical assertiveness. (2)a desire to compete with the SovietUnion. (3) unilateralism. (4) linkage.and (5) a tendency to view regionalproblems in the overall context ofEast-W'est relations (Caldwell. 1985).These characteristics distinguished theReagan administration's policy towardthe U 'SS.R from previous administra-tions.

Relations between the U.S. and theSoviet Union are now at a turningpoint. The Reagan administration hasset and trimmed its sails for a secondterm. The Soviet government is endur-ing a prolonged period of transition,and it is unclear who will be the nextlong-term leader and what his policiestoward the US. S will he. What s5 certainis that relations between the two coun-tries will continue to be the singlemost important bilateral relationshipin world politics for the rest of thiscenturn

MAY 198S

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Why Study U.S.-SovietRelations?Given the importance of U.S.-Sovietrelations, one might assume that thistopic would receive attention propor-tionate to, or at least reflecting, itsimportance at all levels of Americaneducation. Unfortunately, this is notthe case. During the past several years,universiy', foundation. and govern-ment officials have noted the ill healthof Russian and Soviet studies at thegraduate level, and a number of en-couraging efforts have been made toremechd this deficiency For example.the Rockefeller Foundation recentlyannounced major grants for the studyof Soviet international behavior tothree programs sponsored by Columbia Universirv, the University of Cali-fornia at Berkelev and Stanford. andUCLA and the Rand Corporation

Unfortunately, concern over thepoor state of health of Russian andSoviet studies has not been paralleledby similar concern over the almostnonexistent consideration of the Soviet Union and U'.S-Soviet relations atthe elementary and secondary levelsThe omission of these topics from thecurriculum is dangerous for severalreasons

First. if our educational systems donot provide the opportunirn for youngAmericans to study the history, cul-ture, and politics of the Soviet Unionand the realities of ' S.-Soviet rela-tions, students will turn elsewhere.During the past year, I have beenalarmed bv the number of adolescentswho, after learning that I am a special-ist on American-Soviet relations, ask ifthe ROssians could really invade theUS-as depicted in the recent boxoffice hit, but completely implausiblemovie. Red Daun. (An earlier boxoffice smash, The Russians Are Com-ing, the Russians Are Coming, alsoportrayed the Soviets in very differ-ent-and equally distorted-terms.)The Soviet Union has taken over anumber of countries since the end ofWorld War II, but it is unlikely to attackthe U.S for fear of retaliation. That isthe realitr. but how will this belearned if our scho(xls do not teachthis?

Second. todav's students are acutelyaware of the danger they face from apotential U S.-Soviet conflict. A recentpublic opinion survey revealed that 78percent of those under 30 believe thatif the U.S. and the Soviet Union keepbuilding missiles instead of negotiat-ing to eliminate them, its only a mat-ter of time before they are used (ThePublic Agenda Foundation, 1984).Nearlx half of those under 30 sav thatall-out nuclear war is likely within thenext decade These percentages aresignificantly higher than those of otherage groups in our society. Surely thereare real and profound reasons to fearthe threat posed by nuclear weapons.At the same time, the best way to copewith fear is through increased knowl-edge. Elementary and secondaryschools should provide students witha basic understanding of the SovietUnion and '.S.-Soviet relations so thatthey will be able to confront and dealwith anxieties and make informeddecisions as voters. In fact, since mostAmericans do not complete college,that mav be their only opportunity tolearn about this vital issue

Finally, there are all the traditionalreasons for studying any foreign cul-ture. Such study gives students a betterappreciation and understanding ofother cultures and societies, as well astheir own

What Educators Can DoSuppose that you accept the basic the-sis of this article-that both the SovietUnion itself and our lack of knowledgeabout I' S.-Soviet relations pose clearand present dangers to our nationalsecurity What can educators do tolessen these dangers'

The best place to begin is at home.that is, educators can start with themselves Learn something about the So-viet Union: read one of the excellentbooks b- correspondents once sta-tioned in the Soviet Union-for in-stance, Smith ( 19-'), Kaiser ( 19'6).and Shipler (1983) In additon,Ground Zer--the nonpartisan, non-advocacv organization devoted to nuclear war education-has sponsoredthe writing and publication of WXhatAhout the RKusiarns-and NuclearWar', which is an excellent general

Curriculum Materials Availablefrom Ground Zero

What About the Russians- And Nuclear War? An excellent introduc-tion to the historical, cultural, economic, and political factors thatinfluence Soviet-American relations, as well as a consideration ofSoviet nuclear weapons policy. Suitable for high school students andolder. $3.95 per copy with a 25 percent discount for 20 or more copies.

Secondary School Educational Package on the Soviet Union andU.S.-Soviet Relations. Contains the book described above plus acurriculum guide for using it in high school classes. In addition, thepackage contains materials on religion in the U.S.S.R., Soviet teenagelife, the Russian alphabet and language, a statistical comparison of theU.S. and U.S.S.R., and an excellent, concise bibliography. $9.95.

Educational Packae for Elementary Schools. Contains materials onchildren's art in the U.S.S.R., Russian fairy tales and children's stories,and people and geography of the Soviet Union; does not contain anymaterial on Soviet politics or U.S.-Soviet relations. $9.95.

Russian Fairy Tales and Growing Up in Russia. A 60-minute audio-tape narrated by a native of Moscow. $5.95.

Global Ladder. A package designed to enable American schoolchildren to communicate with Soviet children through letter writing.Included are a sample letter, a brief Russian-English dictionary, andaddresses of a school and city in the Soviet Union to which letters maybe sent. $9.95.

Write to: Ground Zero Resource Center, P.O. Box 19329, Portland,OR 97219.

introduction to bhoth the Soviet l 'nionand the nuclear war issue

If one agrees that American-Sovietrelations are vitall! important. it flol-lows that school and ctommunif v li-braries should be stocked with resources tha;t will enable students andcitizens to educate themsel es aboutthe issue The books an..d articles listedat the end Of this article constitute agood basic collection on U S-Sovietrelations fo r sect clanr ald collmauni-ts libraries

Almost a;ll elermentar;x and second-anr schools hold assemblies slhereguest speakers present their vie wsThe (Committe lo- Nationtal Securiwr12(X)O I' t . N , Suite 515. Wiashing-on, DC )(: 20()3) has recentlh organizeda speakers bure;au oL ceperts Oin theSovielt Il ion l po l reqluJest, the Com-

mittee w1ll pro-ide an\ ecducationalinstitution with a1 list of these speakersThe I S l)epartment of State alsospons rs lecturers ( c)nt;act tile Bureauof Public Affairs. t.S Dlepanrtment ofState. Washingtoln, )( 20520)

Educators might even want to exam-ine the possibilities oi tra el to tile

SS Opportullnities are Ser, limitedunder the Fulbright 'rogram I owev-

er. several private organizations regu-larly arrange visits to the Soviet Unionfor groups of Americans w ith special-ized interests The largest of these isthe Citizen Exchange Council (18 E41st St. Ness York. N' 100l1- ) Forvears, the (enter for the Stud- ofSocialist Education at Kent State lni-versin- (406 White Hall. Kent. OH44242 ) has conducted tours of schoolsin the U S S R and other countries.The Forum itor I S-Soviet Dialogue(22 Itemllock Hill. Amherst. NH 03031 )sponsors annual meetings for soungprofessionals from the Utnited Statesand Soviet l'nion

The Citizen Exchange Cocuncil. aswell a. other groups. also sponsorsvisits h\ So tiet citizens to the L'S SAs apractical matter. So icet visitors to theIl.S always reflect the Soviet government s position on issues. ; he in -it-ing a Soviet visitor to speak at a schtooxl.educators mavx varlt it balanlce the

program hb inviting a speaker fromthle l S )epal-tment of State or aSoviet specialist fronm a local collegeor universit,

I stronghl believe that material onthe Soviet I lnit in d I. S.-So\'iet rela-tinlls shcould be introduced into the

curriculums of elementarn and sec-ondanr schools ortunatehl. there areseveral superior curriculumn resourceguides. (;round Zero has publishedexcellent materials for htth elemen-taln- and secondanr schCtkls (see bx,p 54) In addition. Educators for So-cial Responsihilir- (23 Garden St.,Cambridge. NtA 0213 8 ) has publishedPepectn i .4s A Teilacintg Guide to Con-cpt. o/ Peace. wxhichl corntains activi-ties for K-12 students (revieswed inFdurcatiowal Leader.hiq. \April 1984.pp 81-82)

"Nearly half of thoseunder 30 say thatall-out nuclear waris likely within thenext decade."

Xi 19XS, S

Reducing the DangersWe FaceWe face a twofold danger from theSoviet Union. one external and oneinternal I believe that for various rea-sons--historical, cultural, political -

the United States and the Soviet Unionwill continue to compete with oneanother in the foreseeable future.Whether this competition will remainlimited. however. is uncertain. TheUnited States must defend its interestsand those of its allies against Sovietencroachment. At the same time, theUnited States should seek through ne-gotiations to reduce the danger it facesfrom the Soviet Union and nuclearweapons. An informed citizenry is cru-cial to this task, and the education ofour citizens is one of the principaltasks of American educational

References

Able, E. The.tlcsile Crsisi Philadelphia IB l.ippincott, 19f66

Caldwell, D) Anierican-Soviet RekttionFrmcx 1947 to the Visorn-KiLsinger (,randDesign \Westpo,n. Conn (;reenwoodPress, 1981

Caldwell, D) ,merican-Soviet P(liticalRelations: A Regional Xssessment In AR.IDefenrLe and Foreign P/oliO' PReieu' XaLaShington D C: American Enterprise Institute.Januanr 1985

Gaddis,J I, RtLsia, tIhe Soviet I nion andthe C'nrited States An Intt7pretiv'e litstorNew York John Wiles, 19'8

Gaddis,j 1. Strategies of Containment ACritical Appraisal of Prostt'ar AmiericanNational Security Po/ido New YSork: Oxford tniversir- Press, 1982

Hlalle. L. T/i Cold War as Ilsinri NeuYork: Harper and Row. 196-

Ground Zero Nuclear War Wlat i it ifor }Yu' New York Pocket B)oks, 1982

Ground Zero Wixat Abourt thle Kuissians--and vtclear War' Net- Y, )rk Pt ck-et B(x)ks. 1983

"flow- to, D)eal with Mi,scox ,IhAeit eek,November 29, 1982, pp 30-38

"Inside the t SSR' 7ime. ( Special Issue),June 23, 1980, pp 20-88

International Institute fi)r Strategic Stud-ies The .ilitan, Balance 1984-HS l.on-don: IISS, 198-i

Kaiser, R G Rtucsia 7The People and thePouer New Yo)rk Pocke BHooks, 19"h

Kennan, G F The l)ecLSioui to InteroenePrinceton Princeton I niwersirs Press1958

Kennan, (, F [. ,VNtclero- I)eltusio,Soriiet-Amnericatl Relatriofn, in tlhe AltomiAge New York Pantheon Books. 1982

Kenned, R. F Thlirteenl I)ays A .liemortof the Cu;min .1licule CO'si_ Nov. YorkNonon, 1909

Public Agenda F()und.cla n with the (enter for Foreign Poli- Dexvelopment Vote-Optiols on Nvuclear Anrs l'olic' NesxYork: The Public Agenda Foundal iin 198-t

Shipler, ) RDt'sia Brokeni Idols, Solenmnl)reans Nexst S ork Nc. Yo'rk l inlisB(xoks, 1983

Smith. II 77/Rt R ztlsan, Nes YSiirk Iaillantine Books, 19t--

Sovi¥et li/e hiuis is i1 rilnilihll , Si,\iet

published periodical. wshich is, roughlsspeaking, the Soiviet equlalenl o flrite mragazine )

Tlhbonl, S Reagan anld t/lt Rlussiast.New York Vintage Books. 1984-

l lam, A IDanlgeto'us Relantioa.i i' .,'oiel lnion in World l'olit'cs. 1970U /982New Y'ork Oxford I niversir I'ress. 1983

". . . school andcommunity librariesshould be stocked withresources that will enablestudents and citizens toeducate themselves aboutthe issue."

Future Topics inThis Series

Future Contemporary Issues willinclude "Economic Inequality"(September) and "Human Rights"(December/January). Readers whohave suggestions for other socialissues affecting education shouldwrite to: Alex Molnar, Contem-porary Issues, c/o EducationalLeadership, 225 N. WashingtonSt., Alexandria, VA 22314.

54 ii(A 1\dLAIFb11

Copyright © 1985 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved.