coal-fired stations top emission league · 2017-04-02 · krivoy rog in ukraine, again a coal-fired...

NO. 4, DECEMBER 2004

A NEWSLETTER FROM THE SWEDISH NGO SECRETARIAT ON ACID RAIN

In this issue:

LARGE COMBUSTION PLANTS

Coal-fired stationstop emission league

Maritsa II, Bulgaria

332,000 tons SO2/year

Krivoy Rog, Ukraine


Puentes, Spain


TOPPING THE LIST of the greatestemitters of sulphur into the atmos-phere in Europe are two large coal-fired power stations in Bulgaria andSpain.

Together these two plants let outnearly 650 thousand tonnes of sul-phur dioxide (SO2) a year � as muchas the combined total from all thefollowing countries: Austria, Bel-gium, Denmark, Finland, Ireland,the Netherlands, Norway, Swedenand Switzerland. In third place comesKrivoy Rog in Ukraine, again a coal-fired power station.

The figures come from the latestsurvey of emissions from large pointsources, prepared by Mark Barrettof SENCO consultants on behalf of theSwedish NGO Secretariat on AcidRain.1 This is an updated version oftwo previous surveys carried out in1994 and 2000.

Although it is evident from a com-parison of the surveys that the emis-sions from large installations havedeclined markedly over the last dec-ade, it is also clear that they are stillfar from negligible. According to the

Continued on page 3

132

Far from targets 7Spanish emissions of air pollutantswill have to be reduced considerablyin the next few years if the country isto meet its international undertakings.

Implementation failures 9Several countries are sometimes sig-nificantly failing to comply with theprotocols of the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution.

Future emissions 10Scenarios showing expected trends inemissions of air pollutants up to 2020have now been revealed under theEU’s CAFE programme.

EU policy post-Kyoto 12The low-carbon scenario decribed bythe Commission, including emissionreductions of 60-80 per cent in devel-oped countries by 2050, is not sufficientto fulfil the EU’s long term target.

Vehicle emissions 15More and more member states arenow warming to the idea that the EU

should introduce compulsory rules toreduce emissions of carbon dioxidefrom new vehicles.

Lifelong lung deficits 16A new study provides the clearestevidence yet that exposure to air pol-lution during childhood harms lungdevelopment, leading to a perma-nently reduced ability to breathe.

Much more at risk 17Much wider areas of Europe are be-ing affected by acidification and eu-trophication than has previously beenestimated.

Break in trend? 20The steady reduction in acidifyingemissions in Europe is now startingto level out, according to new figures.

ACID NEWS NO. 4, DECEMBER 20042

A newsletter from the Swedish NGO Secre-tariat on Acid Rain, the primary aim ofwhich is to provide information on air pol-lution and its effects on health and the en-vironment.

Anyone interested in these matters is in-vited to contact the secretariat. All requestsfor information or material will be dealtwith to the best of our ability. Acid Newsis available free of charge.

In order to fullfill the purpose of AcidNews, we need information from every-where, so if you have read or heard aboutsomething that might be of general inter-est, please write or send a copy to:

The Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid RainBox 7005, 402 31 Göteborg, SwedenTel: +46-31-711 45 15. Fax: +46-31-711 46 20

E-mail: [email protected]

Internet: www.acidrain.org

Editor: Christer Ågren ([email protected])

Published by The Swedish Society for Na-ture Conservation.

Language consultant: Malcolm Berry, SevenG Translations, UK.

Printed by Trio Tryck AB, Örebro, Sweden.

ISSN 0281-5087.

THE SWEDISH NGOSECRETARIAT ON ACID RAIN

The Secretariat has a board consisting of onerepresentative from each of the followingorganizations: Friends of the Earth Sweden,the Swedish Anglers’ National Association,the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation,the Swedish Youth Association for Environ-mental Studies and Conservation, and theWorld Wide Fund for Nature Sweden.

The essential aim of the secretariat is to pro-mote awareness of the problems associatedwith air pollution, and thus, in part as aresult of public pressure, to bring about theneeded reductions in the emissions of airpollutants. The aim is to have those emissionseventually brought down to levels – the so-called critical loads – that the environmentcan tolerate without suffering damage.

In furtherance of these aims, the secretariat

• Keeps up observation of political trendsand scientific developments.

• Acts as an information centre, primarilyfor European environmentalist organiza-tions, but also for the media, authorities, andresearchers.

• Produces information material.

• Supports environmentalist bodies in othercountries in their work towards commonends.

• Participates in the lobbying and campaign-ing activities of European environmentalistorganizations concerning European policyrelating to air quality and climate change,as well as in meetings of the Convention onLong-range Transboundary Air Pollutionand the UN Framework Convention on Cli-mate Change.

EDITORIAL

Shipping emissionsin the spotlight

NEW SCENARIOS for future emissionsof air pollutants have recently beenproduced under the EU�s Clean AirFor Europe (CAFE) programme (seepage 10). The study also includes es-timates of some health and environ-mental impacts expected to resultfrom the projected levels of futureemissions. For fine particles (PM2.5)the study estimates changes in theloss of statistical life expectancy thatcan be attributed to changes in an-thropogenic emissions. The resultsare alarming, to say the least.

Using the pollution levels for theyear 2000, it is estimated that PM2.5will result in an average shorteningof life expectancy by approximatelynine months. As a result of expectedreductions in emissions from land-based sources (e.g. power plants androad vehicles), this figure comesdown to less than six months by2020.

It should be noted that there is asignificant variation between mem-ber states, and even by 2020 somecountries (notably Belgium and theNetherlands) will still have life ex-pectancy losses of about nine months.

Moreover, it is now clear that muchwider areas of Europe are being af-fected by acidification and eutroph-ication than was previously thought(see page 17). According to the newestimates, the area of sensitive eco-systems in Europe exposed to excessacid deposition is approximately dou-bled, and the new figures for eutroph-ication are some 30 to 40 per centhigher than predicted in earlier es-timates.

Consequently, the improvementsthat were expected to result from theGothenburg Protocol and the EU NECdirective will be much less than an-ticipated. To arrive at a situationwhere critical loads would no longerbe exceeded would thus require big-ger emission reductions than waspreviously assumed.

Concentrations and depositions ofair pollutants are significantly influ-enced by emissions from interna-

tional shipping in the sea areas sur-rounding Europe. In order to com-pare ships with land-based largecombustion plants on land, the Com-mission�s consultants, BMT, who con-ducted a study of ship emissions in2000, calculated the power consump-tion of the shipping in all Europeansea areas to be approximately equiva-lent to that of 390 fifty-megawattunits running continuously every dayof the year.

One crucial difference, however,is that emissions from land-basedpower plants � and from other land-based emission sources � have beenregulated by environmental legisla-tion for decades, while emissionsfrom international shipping are stilllargely unregulated and uncon-trolled. As a result, in contrast to theprogress in reducing emissions fromland-based sources, shipping emis-sions are expected to continue in-creasing.

Even after accounting for enforce-ment of MARPOL Annex VI, emissionsof SO2 from international shippingare expected to increase by more than42 per cent by 2020, and those of NOxby two-thirds. In both cases, by 2020the emissions from internationalshipping around Europe will havesurpassed the total from all land-based sources in the 25 EU memberstates combined.

In order to meet EU environmen-tal targets it will be necessary todrastically reduce emissions fromshipping. The European Parliamenthas proposed measures that couldreduce those emissions by 80 percent � but this proposal was rejectedby both the Commission and theCouncil.

The European Parliament hasshown the way � it is now high timefor the Commission and the mem-ber states to accept their responsi-bility and give joint backing to theParliament�s proposal.

CHRISTER ÅGREN

ACID NEWS NO. 4, DECEMBER 2004 3

Continued from front pagelatest figures, the 100 largest emit-ters were still pouring out 7.1 mil-lion tonnes of SO2 a year, correspond-ing to 43 per cent of the total of 16.7million tonnes from all land sourcesin Europe in 2001.

It can be noted that 89 of the 100largest point sources of SO2 are powerstations, and that 70 of these are coal-fired. Eleven stations are fuelled withoil, and two � the Balti and Eestiplants in Estonia � burn oil shale.

The remainder of the 100 largest aremainly refineries and metal produc-tion facilities.

One aspect that is of direct politi-cal importance is the age of theplants. It was found that around 90per cent of the emissions of SO2 fromthe largest coal-fired plants comefrom those that were commissionedbefore 1987. This is now relevant inview of the forthcoming review andrevision of the EU directive for largecombustion plants (LCP). If the reduc-

tions that are needed over the nextfive years to meet EU aims for airquality and acidification are to beachieved, something must obviouslybe done about the emissions fromthese plants.

The survey covers essentially thewhole of Europe, including Turkeyand the �European part� of Russia.The map above shows the 200 larg-est point sources of sulphur dioxidein the whole region. The table on

Continued on page 5

The EU LCP directiveEmissions from large point sources are regulated by EU leg-islation � primarily by Directive 1996/61/EC on IntegratedPollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), and Directive 2001/80/EC on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutantsinto the air from large combustion plants (LCP).

The latter sets emission limit values for sulphur dioxide,nitrogen oxides and dust, and article 7 of this directive statesthat by 31 December 2004, the Commission shall submit areport to the Parliament and the Council in which it shallassess among other things the need for further measures,

and the technical and economic feasibility of such measures,and that the report shall be accompanied by related proposals.

Consequently, proposals for the revision of the large com-bustion plants directive should be tabled before the end ofthis year. Any such proposals are however likely to be con-sidered in the context of the EU�s Clean Air For Europe (CAFE)programme (see pp. 10-11). Based on work under this pro-gramme, by July 2005 the Commission is to deliver a com-munication to the Parliament and the Council, presentingits �thematic strategy� on air pollution.

This is where the 200 largest emitters of sulphur dioxide are found in Europe. The size of the circles indicates relative emiss ions.


tnalP-nuoC

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MPtk

1 IIastiraM RGB SP laoC 233 53 7 2.0

2 setneuP PSE SP laoC 513 02 01 4.0

3 silopolageM CRG SP laoC 161 4 5 1.0

4 leureT PSE SP laoC 251 02 5 3.0

5 wotahcleB LOP SP laoC 631 441 92 5.0

6 womadA LOP SP laoC 69 61 3 1.0

7 IastiraM RGB SP laoC 69 9 2 0.0

8 ynanlzsorO NUH SP laoC 18 01 2 0.0

9 woruT LOP SP laoC 97 86 41 3.0

01 avoiarC MOR SP laoC 57 9 2 2.0

11 elloTotroP ATI SP liO 37 01 8 0.0

21 amarieM PSE SP laoC 17 9 4 7.2

31 wontaP LOP SP laoC 17 04 8 1.0

41 mattoC RBG SP laoC 17 81 7 0.0

51 notruBtseW RBG SP laoC 96 61 7 2.0

61 tennagnoL RBG SP laoC 86 42 01 4.0

71 allitsopmoC PSE SP laoC 26 53 7 9.5

81 hguorobggE RBG SP laoC 06 41 6 2.0

91 ateborD MOR SP laoC 06 8 2 0.0

02 alboRaL PSE SP laoC 75 32 4 6.1

12 labuteS TRP SP liO 75 41 4 4.0

22 tseWtsafleB RBG SP laoC 35 2 1 4.0

32 inecruT MOR SP laoC 25 81 4 3.0

42 egdirbyrreF RBG SP laoC 84 61 7 2.0

52 lodvoboB RGB SP laoC 74 21 2 1.0

62 onallotreuP PSE feR - 44 0 3 0.0

72 ynazromoP LOP SP laoC 44 43 6 0.0

82 wokarK LOP SP laoC 44 22 5 0.2

92 artaM NUH SP laoC 34 62 5 1.0

03 tocdiD RBG SP laoC 14 61 6 0.0

13 itseE TSE SP .hsliO 04 91 3 0.0

23 seniS TRP SP laoC 93 12 9 3.0

33 itlaB TSE SP .hsliO 93 91 3 2.73

43 otnaraT ATI dnI - 83 52 8 5.2

53 ykavoN KVS SP laoC 83 31 3 3.0

63 anraV RGB SP laoC 73 51 3 1.0

73 otreblA PSE dnI - 63 1 4.0

83 xarD RBG SP laoC 53 05 61 2.0

93 yeleguR RBG SP laoC 43 51 4 1.0

04 mahnraMhgiH RBG SP laoC 33 6 3 1.0

14 htronsgniK RBG SP laoC 33 71 7 2.0

24 niarG RBG SP liO 33 1 2 8.0

34 tniopyenoM LRI SP laoC 23 22 6 2.0

44 kinbyR LOP SP laoC 23 62 8 2.0

54 egdirbnorI RBG SP laoC 23 11 4 1.0

64 wahtrebA RBG SP laoC 13 32 6 2.0

74 htuomenyL RBG SP laoC 82 8 3 1.0

84 yrreFsrelddiF RBG SP laoC 82 01 5 2.0

94 ahcucsE PSE dnI - 82 2 1 4.0

05 silopolageM CRG SP - 82 4 3 1.0

tnalP-nuoC

yrt epyTniaMleuf

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MPtk

15 arovoG MOR SP laoC 72 3 1 0.0

25 noitnuopO CRG dnI - 72 3 1 7.0

35 ecivdeL EZC SP laoC 72 41 3 9.62

45 oppiliFnaS ATI SP liO 72 6 5 4.0

55 nortacsE PSE SP laoC 62 0 0 1.0

65 oirvaL CRG SP saG 62 7 3 0.0

75 dosroB NUH SP laoC 52 6 1 0.3

85 vosarB MOR SP laoC 52 3 1 0.0

95 ratlarbiG PSE feR - 42 2 2 4.0

06 oiatnymA CRG SP laoC 42 6 5 1.31

16 zdoL LOP SP laoC 42 51 3 1.0

26 nitraMnaS PSE feR - 42 5 2

36 .rtimiD/.lassehT CRG SP laoC 42 02 41 2.0

46 arebiReDotoS PSE SP laoC 42 9 3 0.1

56 nohcnevarG ARF feR - 42 5 3 1.0

66 akelortsO LOP SP laoC 32 01 3 1.0

76 ianertkelE UTL SP liO 32 8 3 5.0

86 trebraT LRI SP liO 32 5 2 1.0

96 wolekarD RBG SP laoC 32 5 2 1.0

07 airemlA PSE SP laoC 32 51 7 2.0

17 tdewhcS UED feR - 22 4 4 2.0

27 IIIastiraM RGB SP laoC 22 02 4 5.4

37 avaecuS MOR SP laoC 22 0 0 0.0

47 feR/aleG ATI feR - 22 4 4 1.0

57 odrauG PSE SP laoC 22 21 2 1.0

67 itnemanuD NUH SP liO 22 8 3 0.0

77 serallnA PSE SP laoC 22 51 0 1.0

87 avosiT EZC SP laoC 22 9 2 3.21

97 onobA PSE SP laoC 22 71 8 2.0

08 nareZ LOP SP laoC 22 51 3 0.0

18 odagerraC TRP SP liO 02 5 2 3.0

28 .N.graGoloirP ATI feR - 02 4 3 2.0

38 aniwakS LOP SP laoC 02 41 2 1.0

48 eiznekcoC RBG SP laoC 02 11 3 1.0

58 feR/elliverfnoG ARF feR - 02 3 2 3.0

68 noinymaT CRG SP - 91 2 1

78 azsreiS LOP SP laoC 91 61 3 1.0

88 adihnaB NUH SP laoC 91 4 1 0.0

98 sceP NUH SP laoC 91 6 1 0.4

09 edlawhcsnäJ UED SP laoC 81 71 52 3.0

19 geLwokarK LOP SP laoC 81 11 2 0.0

29 allesaCaL ATI SP liO 81 3 2 4.0

39 polnuDtroF RBG SP saG 81 0 0 0.0

49 IacilbupeR RGB SP laoC 81 3 1 8.3

59 uigruiG MOR SP laoC 81 1 0 0.0

69 toorliK RBG SP laoC 71 8 3 3.0

79 aidraK CRG SP laoC 71 61 01 1.0

89 yrubliT RBG SP laoC 71 91 5 2.0

99 ailiciS ATI SP liO 71 7 3 4.0

001 feR/yelwaF RBG feR - 71 5 2 0.0

The 100 largest emitters of sulphur dioxide in EU25 and accession countries (Bulgaria and Romania).PS = Power station. Ind. = Industry. Ref. = Refinery. Oilsh. = Oil shale. For country codes, see map on previous page.


The “best” plantsfired with fossil fuels

page 4, however, only refers to thosecountries that are directly affectedby the EU�s LCP directive, i.e. the 25member states plus Bulgaria andRomania, which are both negotiat-ing for EU membership.

In total, SENCO�s database includessome 7,500 large point source emit-ters. These emit over 14 milliontonnes of SO2 a year, or about 88 percent of all the emissions from land-based sources in Europe. A completetable is given in the report.

Even though the list of the high-est emitting large point sourcesshows their ranking in respect of SO2emissions, the report also containsdata on each plant�s emissions of ni-trogen oxides, carbon dioxide andparticulate matter. The informationshows that many of the �worst� SO2emitters are significant point sourcesof these pollutants as well.

Consequently, there is a great po-tential for multiple benefits fromsmart emission abatement strategies,e.g. the introduction of strict tech-nology-forcing emission standardsthat are designed to promote bothenergy efficiency and a switch fromthe dirtiest fuels (e.g. coal) to cleaner,primarily renewable sources of en-ergy.

In revising the list, reference hasbeen made to several databases fromother institutions, including theEuropean Environment Agency�sEuropean pollution emission regis-ter (EPER), and the InternationalEnergy Agency�s Coal Research coalpower station database. It should bepointed out that differences in theage of the data, as well as operatingchanges, for instance in the sulphurcontent of the fuel and the numberof operating hours per year, can makethe ranking of the plants somewhatinexact.

CHRISTER ÅGREN

1 Atmospheric emissions from large pointsources in Europe. By Mark Barrett, SENCO,Sustainable Environment Consultants Ltd, UK.September 2004. Published by the SwedishNGO Secretariat on Acid Rain. Printed copiescan be ordered free of charge from the pub-lisher. Also available in pdf format at the sec-retariat’s website: www.acidrain.org.

Coal-fired stations top emission leagueContinued from page 3

The ten best power stations – flue gas concentrations of SO 2 and NOx.

Com. = Year of commissioning. Em. = Emissions. ELV = Emission limit values in the EU LCP directive (2001/80/EC).

THE STUDY by Mark Barrett alsoincludes an update to the list of the�best� plants fired with fossil fuels.This ranks the plants according totheir combined emissions of SO2and NOx in relation to their outputof useful energy (electricity and/orheat). Although this kind of assess-ment is somewhat unusual, it isbetter from the point of view of ef-fects on the environment in that itrewards plants that use energymost effectively.

These figures show that a verylarge number of the existing plantsthat burn fossil fuel � some of themcommissioned back in the 1980s� easily meet the emission limit val-ues set in the EU�s LCP directive fornew post-2003 installations. Therecan therefore be no doubt as to thepossibility of achieving emissionlevels, by the use of conventionaltechnology, that are considerablylower than the current EU stand-ards for SO2 and NOx emissionsfrom large combustion plants.

The best-performing plants usu-ally appear in the following orderaccording to fuel type: those firedwith natural gas (1), oil (2) and, coal(3). Emission control techniques,such as flue-gas desulphurizationor denitrification, may howeverchange the order of ranking, whichwill also be affected if plants onlyproduce electricity, or heat as well.In combined heat-and-power plants

the output of useful energy is typi-cally 100 to 200 per cent higher,with a subsequent reduction inemissions per output.

Some of the coal-fired plants onthe list have such low combinedemissions of SO2 and NOx as to becomparable with gas-fired plants.(If the emissions of the greenhousegas carbon dioxide are also takeninto consideration, coal-fired plantswill of course be worse than gas-fired from the point of view of theenvironment.)

All these coal-fired plants pro-duce both heat and power, and areequipped for desulphurization anddenitrification of the flue gases.Most of the best coal-fired plantsare located in Germany, but theycan also be found in Austria, Den-mark, and the Netherlands � inother words, those countries withthe strictest laws governing meas-ures to control emissions.

In the EU�s LCP directive, as wellas in many countries� legislation,emissions are expressed as milli-grams of pollutant per cubic me-tre of air (mg/m3) in the flue gases,and the report also gives a list ofthe best plants with emissions ex-pressed in this way. This list alsocompares plant performance asestimated according to the emis-sion limit values of the LCP direc-tive, see table below.

CHRISTER ÅGREN

OS 2 xON

N tnalP yrtnuoC .moC leuF .mEm/gm 3

VLEm/gm 3

.mEm/gm 3

VLEm/gm 3

1 tropriAasneplaM ylatI 7991 saG 1 53 25 051

2 teertSesuohretrahC KU 4991 saG 1 53 96 051

3 grebnednarB ynamreG 7991 saG 0 53 96 051

4 WKHrakceNniehRdroN ynamreG saG 0 53 47 051

5 hcalleM airtsuA 6891 laoC 44 002 29 002

6 frodnawhcS ynamreG 2791 laoC 011 002 931 002

7 kcotsoR ynamreG 4991 laoC 75 002 29 002

8 nefaH/grubmaH ynamreG 1891 laoC 75 002 29 002

9 erödevA kramneD 0991 laoC 56 002 29 002

01 tseWretueR/nilreB ynamreG 4891 laoC 28 002 29 002


AFTER YEARS OF DISCUSSION the Eu-ropean Community approved the so-called LCP directive1 in 1988. It regu-lated emission of sulphur dioxide,nitrogen oxides and dust from com-bustion plants with a rated thermalinput exceeding 50 megawatts (MW).

The directive distinguished be-tween �existing� (licensed before1987) and �new� plants. For the lat-ter category, emission standards wereset, that for most of the largest plantswould require the installation of ef-fective desulphurization systems, aswell as adequate devices that to someextent would reduce emissions of ni-trogen oxides (NOx). For the existingplants, member states were requiredto draw up programmes to reducetotal annual emissions to specifiedlevels (national ceilings), leaving it upto each member state to determinesuch plans.

The Spanish Government stronglyopposed this proposed directive, evenbefore it had become a full memberof the Community in 1986. After adifficult negotiation, the Spanish op-position resulted in the concession ofexceptionally weak environmentalconditions for new plants in Spainand to less stringent emission ceil-ings for existing plants.

Spain was allowed to use importedcoal with SO2 emission levels thatwere twice as high as the rest of theEC, and native coal with a desulph-urization rate of only 60 per cent (ascompared to 90 per cent for othermember states). Under these condi-tions, Spain was allowed to author-ize new plants with a generationcapacity of up to 2000 MW in the caseof plants burning native coal, and upto 50 per cent of the capacity of allauthorized new coal-burning plantsin the case of plants burning im-ported coal.

These exceptional conditions wereapplicable to plants authorized be-fore the end of 1999 and put intooperation before the end of 2005.

The Royal Decree 646/1991 for thetransposition of the LCP directive waspassed after the agreed deadline. Itis important to highlight that if Spainwas granted an exceptional treat-ment in the LCP directive, the afore-

mentioned Royal Decree extendedthe margin of tolerance even further.Article 3.4, for example, allowed theadministration to ignore domesticemission ceilings when substantialand unexpected changes in energydemand or in the availability of cer-tain fuels occurred.

The domestic ceilings provided inthe Royal Decree were based on 1980emissions and it considered differentmilestones for the reduction of eachpollutant. Three phases, ending in1993, 1998 and 2003, were estab-lished for SO2 reduction, whereas onlytwo phases, ending in 1993 and 1998,were required for NOx. These phasesare shown in the tables below.

SPAIN

Slow transposition of the LCP directive

In order to comply with the regula-tions, it was agreed that the powerproducer ENDESA would be respon-sible for the emission reductions.ENDESA was mainly owned by thestate, but also by a significant numberof domestic coal companies.

A strategy was designed to installpost-combustion desulphurizationsystems at the most polluting plants,i.e. Andorra (Teruel) and the mostrecent plants in Compostilla (León).The desulphurization efficiency ofthese systems was set at around 90per cent. It was also decided to re-place native coal with foreign coalfor the As Pontes (La Coruña) plant,whose mine was about to run out oflignite with an acceptable level ofsulphur.

But the privatization of ENDESA,reductions in EU support for the useof native coal and the modificationof the electricity system�s legalframework (with the implementa-tion of Law 54/1997) aborted a greatproportion of the plan.

Only the measures planned forAndorra were implemented. The newelectricity legislation put an end tosubsidies associated with costs aris-ing from environmental improve-ments implemented at the power sta-tions. This led to a freely competi-tive supply that didn�t take into ac-count environmental efforts but onlyeconomic factors, i.e. who producedthe cheapest electricity.

Since Royal Decree 646/1991 waspassed, and especially since electric-ity demand rocketed due to strongeconomic growth as well as a policyof low electricity prices aimed atcombating inflation, a concern for theevolution of emissions from powerplants emerged.

Also, on 22 June 2000 the Councilof the EU approved a draft new di-rective on large combustion plantsthat replaced directive 88/609/EEC.Once more the Spanish Governmentwas the slowest to cooperate butcould not prevent the new LCP direc-tive from being approved by a quali-fied majority.

The new LCP directive (2001/80/EC)was eventually adopted in October2001. The deadline for transpositionwas 27 November 2002, but Spaindid not adhere to the agreed date. Thedirective was however transposedinto the Royal Decree 204/2004 of 12March 2004.2

It can be deduced from all this thatthe attitude of the successive Span-ish governments has not promotedprotection of the environment andpublic health. They have opposed theapproval of strict EU directives andtransposed them slowly and reluc-tantly. Even today the implementa-tion of these regulations is question-able, and this has implications for theenvironment and human health bothin Spain and in neighbouring coun-tries.

PABLO COTARELO

ECOLOGISTAS EN ACCIÓN, SPAIN.

TRANSLATED BY ELENA VALDEHITA.

1 Directive 88/609/EEC on the limitation ofemissions of certain pollutants into the airfrom large combustion plants.

2 BOE (official government bulletin) of 20March 2004.

Emissions from existing (pre-1987)large combustions plants in Spain.Estimated level of emissions in 1980and emission ceilings for 1993, 1998,and 2003 (thousand tonnes).

SO2 1980 1993 1998 2003

2290 2290 1730 1440

NOx 1980 1993 1998

366 368 277


SPAIN HAS TAKEN many steps to ad-dress air pollutant emissions andstrengthen its air quality manage-ment system, reports the OECD in itsenvironmental performance reviewpresented on 1 October. It mentions,for example, that emissions of sul-phur dioxide from the energy sectorhave been reduced since 1990. Mis-directed subsidies, such as the com-pulsory purchase of domestic coal byelectricity producers, are set to de-crease, and significant efforts havebeen made to develop cogenerationand renewable energy sources, inparticular wind power.

However, despite this and otheradvances, there is much left to do.

Spanish emissions of sulphur di-oxide have, admittedly, fallen by 35per cent over the period 1990�2001,but when measured per capita and

per unit of GDP they are still three tofive times as high as those of France,Germany and Italy.

The EU directive on national emis-sion ceilings (NEC) also requires thatemissions of SO2 are reduced by 66per cent over the period 1990�2010.Achieving this will require a halvingof the current level of emissions.According to the report the forthcom-ing implementation of the EU direc-tive on large combustion plants (LCP)will require substantial investmentsand lead to the closure of a numberof older power plants that burn coalor oil.

Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx)rose by 11 per cent between 1990 and2001, which is problematic since theNEC directive says that Spain mustreduce emissions by 24 per cent be-tween 1990 and 2010. Of the current

SPAIN

Most targets still a long way offMajor reductions in air pollutant emissions will be needed in thenext few years if Spain is to meet its international undertakings.

emissions, 56 per cent come frommobile sources. Power plants accountfor 23 per cent and emissions fromthis sector have risen most, by 21 percent since 1990.

Emissions of volatile organic com-pounds (VOCs) have remained rela-tively static since 1990, with risingemissions from solvent use balancedby falling emissions from transpor-tation. According to the OECD review,Spain faces a �considerable chal-lenge� to meet the NEC target of a59-per-cent reduction by 2010.

The OECD emphasizes the impor-tance of reining in emissions of NOxand VOCs in order to counter the highlevels of ground-level ozone that af-fect the country every summer, theseverity of which has increased inrecent years. Levels of nitrogen di-oxide and particulates (PM10) also

Spanish emissions 1990 to 2002, and targets for 2010.

Sources: Emissions data 1990-2002 from EMEP Technical report MSC-W 1/2004 (see p. 20), except for greenhouse gas data, which comes from EEATechnical report 2/2004. The 2010 targets refer to the EU NEC directive for SO2, NOx and VOCs, and directive 2002/358/EC for greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse gases

0

50

100

150

200

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EU NEWS IN BRIEF

Road pricing backon Dutch agendaThe Dutch government has launched anew debate on introducing nation-wideroad pricing for all vehicles. In a policypaper on transport policy up to the year2020, issued on 30 September, it calledroad pricing �inevitable� and pledged toavoid previous mistakes by working towin public support for the idea.

Road pricing has been high on theagenda in the Netherlands before. Theprevious government proposed such asystem in 2001, only for parliament toreject the idea the following year. Inde-pendent experts again recommendednational congestion charging in 2003.

The new policy paper avoids proposingspecific technologies for road pricing andfocuses instead on the need to generate�broad public support�. The transportministry is creating a stakeholder �plat-form� to start a public debate and tomake recommendations next spring.

Source: Car Lines, No.5, 2004.

Common position onflourinated gasesAt the Council meeting in October theEU environment ministers decided to banthe use of fluorinated gases (F gases) ina number of products, for example dou-ble glazing, fire extinguishers and rec-reational items. The legislation will alsooutlaw F gas leakage from cooling equip-ment, air conditioning systems, etc.

The use of F gases in air conditioningsystems in motor vehicles is regulatedseparately by amending the existing di-rective on EU vehicle type-approval (70/156/EEC). The text agreed by ministersin principle will phase out HFC134a, thecurrently used refrigerant, from 2011onwards for new vehicle models and from2017 for all new vehicles. Before thephase-out starts, vehicle air conditionersshould not leak more than 40 grams ofHFC134a per year.

The European Commission originallyproposed starting in 2009, leading to analmost total ban by 2013.

In May some 50 Greenpeace activistschained themselves to excavators andother equipment at the site of a newlignite power station in western Ger-many being built by the power com-pany RWE.

Lignite is the lowest grade of coal,used almost exclusively as fuel forsteam-electric power generation. RWEburns large quantities of lignite,which produces high levels of carbondioxide per kilowatt-hour of electric-ity produced. RWE is planning to up-grade existing lignite-fuelled powerstations and invest in new ones tomake up for capacity lost due to thegovernment�s abolition of nuclearpower. Greenpeace Germany is call-ing for a halt to all new brown coalpower stations.

Brown coal protests in Germany

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regularly exceed the EU standards forthe protection of people�s health thatwill come into force in a few years�time, primarily in urban areas.

A further challenge for Spain isto tackle emissions of greenhousegases, which have increased by 32per cent since 1990. The burden shar-ing agreement reached as part of theEU�s commitment to the Kyoto Pro-tocol permits Spanish emissions torise by a maximum of 15 per centover the period 1990�2010.

A key culprit in many of the nega-tive trends is, according to the report,transport growth. The road trafficvolume in Spain (in vehicle kilome-tres) has increased by 49 per centsince 1990. Increased energy demandis also a significant factor in the ex-tent of emissions. Total energy enduse has risen on average by 3.4 percent each year since 1990. Renew-able energy sources account for just6.5 per cent of the supply.

Current subsidies on domestic coalare estimated at 47 dollars per tonne(2001). Spanish coal production fellby 28 per cent during the 1990s andthis decline is expected to continueas the subsidies are reduced. The coalis of low quality and high costs meanthat extraction is not competitive.

The report states that environ-mental expenditure has gone up sincethe last OECD review in 1996, but stillremains below EU and OECD aver-ages. Moreover, Spain is one of the

EU countries with the greatestnumber of complaints concerningalleged poor implementation of EUenvironmental directives.

The report suggests that Spainshould consider �neutral fiscal re-form�, which could, for example, seea rise in energy tax compensated bya drop in labour tax. It notes thatSpain makes little use of environ-mental taxes or other economic in-struments.

It also suggests a general reviewof energy, transport and water prices�from the point of view of environ-mental and economic efficiency�. Therecommendations include phasingout environmental subsidies andmaking better use of economic in-struments to encourage the efficientmanagement of resources and re-ductions in pollutants.

At the international level the coun-try is urged to fulfil the agreementsit has signed and ratify the Gothen-burg Protocol under the Conventionon Long-range Transboundary AirPollution.

PER ELVINGSON

Environmental Performance Reviews: Spain.37.00 euros. 214 pp. ISBN 9264108637. Canbe ordered from OECD, www.oecd.org/book-shop (a read-only copy can be downloaded freeof charge). Printed copies are available fromnational distributors or from OECD, c/o TurpinDistribution Services Ltd., Stratton BusinessPark, Pegasus Drive, Biggleswade, Bedford-shire, SG18 8QB, UK.


THE LRTAP CONVENTION

Many countries defaulting onagreements to reduce emissions

SEVERAL COUNTRIES are sometimessignificantly failing to comply withthe protocols of the Convention onLong-range Transboundary Air Pol-lution. This is apparent from the lastreview conducted by its Implemen-tation Committee.1 The failure con-cerns not only the obligatory emis-sion targets but also the obligationto report.

Despite the sharp reprimands thatwere issued last year by the conven-tion�s Executive Body (which includesrepresentatives from all the membercountries), several countries havestill not reduced their emissions asrequired by the protocols.2 Amongthem are Greece, Ireland, Norwayand Spain. And despite repeated re-minders from the convention�s sec-retariat, some of these � notably Ire-land, Greece and Spain � have notcompiled or submitted the basic in-formation needed by the committeeto carry out its monitoring function.

The committee has examined thefollowing six countries for non-com-pliance with emission targets.

GREECE. The latest reported datashows emissions of nitrogen oxides(NOx) to have been higher in recentyears than they were in 1987, thebase year for the 1988 NOx protocol.In 2002 they rose to 331,000 tonnes,compared to 285,000 tonnes in 1987.In spite of several reminders, Greecehas not provided the information re-quested by the Executive Body. Grow-ing concern is expressed at the con-tinuing failure of Greece to take ef-fective measures to reduce its emis-sions so that they do not exceed the1987 levels. The committee is alsodeeply concerned at the prospect ofGreece failing to comply even by 2010,by which time it will have been innon-compliance for thirteen years,and at its not having indicated a yearby which it expects to achieve com-pliance.

ITALY. It was noted in the previ-ous review that Italy had failed tomake the 30-per-cent reduction involatile organic compounds (VOCs)

in relation to the base year of the VOCprotocol, for the target year 1999.The latest data does however showthat Italy complied with its obliga-tion in 2002.

IRELAND. Emission data showsthe country�s emissions of NOx to havebeen above the level for the base year1987 during all seven years from1996 to 2002. The committee con-cluded that Ireland had not demon-strated that it will be able to shortenthe period of nine years that it pre-viously anticipated it would remainin non-compliance.

LUXEMBOURG. Earlier data hadindicated that Luxembourg had been

in non-compliance with the VOC pro-tocol, but updated emissions datashows that this was not the case.

NORWAY. According to its own newdata and projections, Norway con-tinued to fail its obligation under theVOC protocol. The committee notedwith disappointment that Norway hasbeen in non-compliance since 1999,and that it has not demonstrated thatit will shorten the time period of sevenyears that it has anticipated it willremain in non-compliance.

SPAIN. Emissions of NOx were re-ported to have been above the level ofthe base year (1987) in all nine yearsfrom 1994 to 2002. In that last yearthey were 26 per cent higher than inthe base year. Spain also failed tocomply with the VOC protocol � it isfar from achieving the required 30-per-cent reduction. In 2002 its emis-sions were only three per cent lowerthan in the base-year. The commit-tee noted with disappointment thatSpain has not answered its requestfor information, and expressed con-cern that there was no indication

when Spain would achieve compli-ance with either of the protocols.

The committee also followed upSlovenia�s non-compliance with re-gard to the 1994 Sulphur Protocol.The problem relates to excessiveemissions from the 360 MW Trbovjlepower plant, which uses brown coalwith a sulphur content of up to threeper cent. Slovenia plans to retrofit theplant with flue-gas desulphurization,effective as of October 2005, but theemission standards were to beachieved from 1 July 2004.

As to the obligation to report onemission data, the committee notedthat despite a general improvementthere are still some notable failures;Luxembourg, the European Commu-nity and France being pointed out fornot having submitted any informa-tion in response to the ExecutiveBody�s decision from last year.

Parties to the convention are alsorequired to report strategies and poli-cies for abating air pollution gener-ally, and seventeen were found to bestill not complying.

This inadequate reporting is a se-rious matter, as the information thatis being asked for is essential not onlyfor tracking compliance with agreedcommitments, but also to provide in-formation for the forthcoming re-views and possible revisions of theprotocols under the Convention.

The report, with its conclusionsand recommendations, will be con-sidered by the Executive Body of theConvention at its coming meeting inGeneva on 29 November to 3 Decem-ber.

CHRISTER ÅGREN

1 The seventh report of the CLRTAP Im-plementation Committee (EB.AIR/2004/6and Add.1). Can be downloaded fromwww.unece.org/env/eb/welcome.html2 Under the 1988 NOx Protocol, countriesagreed to restrict their NOx emissions to 1987levels after 1994. The obligation of the 1991VOC Protocol is for most countries to reducetheir VOC emissions by 30 per cent by 1999,as compared to a base year, which in mostcases is 1988.

Inadequatereporting is

a serious matter


CAFE PROGRAMME

Scenarios to illustratefuture emissions

Current air quality legislation inadequate to protect health and the environment.

THE FIRST SCENARIOS showing theexpected trends in emissions of airpollutants up to 2020 have now beenrevealed under the EU�s Clean Air ForEurope programme (CAFE).

The CAFE programme concentratesprimarily on those air pollutants thatare already covered by EU air qual-ity standards, of which the Commis-sion has mentioned two as needingespecial attention: particulates andground-level ozone.

One of the main items of the pro-gramme is integrated assessmentmodelling, which is done with the aidof the RAINS computer model � inother words, essentially the same asthat used a few years ago in puttingtogether the NEC directive. This modelis now being used to develop sce-narios for likely trends in emissionsfor the target years 2010, 2015 and2020, from the base year 2000.

There is still a great deal of uncer-tainty as to how the member stateswill fulfil their commitments underthe Kyoto Protocol to reduce emis-sions of greenhouse gases. Their ac-tions will greatly affect the extent towhich fossil fuels will be used in theEU, and thus the emissions of air pol-lutants covered by the CAFE pro-gramme. To be on the safe side, vari-ous so-called baseline scenarios aretherefore being used, illustrating theimpacts of different assumptions re-garding future use of fossil fuelswithin the EU.

Consequently, three energy sce-narios are being investigated.

The main scenario provides a con-sistent EU-wide view of energy devel-opments, including certain measuresneeded for implementation of theKyoto Protocol.

There is also a similar scenario, butwithout any climate policy measures.(These first two scenarios have bothbeen developed using the PRIMES en-ergy model.)

The third scenario consists of a

compilation of the member countries�own official national energy projec-tions.

The first results of the computermodelling were revealed at a semi-nar in Brussels on 27 September.

Based on the main energy scenario,and assuming full implementation ofcurrent air quality legislation, emis-sions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the25 EU member countries will fall by

55 per cent by 2010 and by two-thirdsby 2020, as compared to the base year2000.

Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx)and volatile organic compounds(VOCs) will be reduced by about one-third by 2010 and by nearly half by2020, while those of ammonia (NH3)are expected to remain more or lessthe same up to 2020. (See figures onnext page.)

While there still remain some un-certainties as regards the emissionsof primary particulate matter (PM),the RAINS model estimates that be-tween 2000 and 2020, emissions ofthe coarse fraction (PM10) will comedown by about 40 per cent and thoseof the fine fraction (PM2.5) by 44 percent.

Concentrations and depositions ofair pollutants are also influenced byemissions from international ship-ping in the sea areas surroundingEurope. In contrast to the progressin reducing emissions from land-based sources, shipping emissionsare expected to continue increasing.

Even after accounting for enforce-

ment of MARPOL Annex VI, which setslimits on the sulphur content of ma-rine fuels for the Baltic Sea, theNorth Sea and the English Channel,emissions of SO2 from internationalshipping are expected to increase bymore than 42 per cent by 2020, andthose of NOx by two-thirds. In bothcases, by 2020 the emissions frominternational shipping around Eur-ope will have surpassed the totalfrom all land-based sources in the 25EU member states combined.

The scenarios presented also in-cluded preliminary estimates of somehealth and environmental impactsexpected to result from the projectedlevels of future emissions.

For PM2.5 the RAINS model estimateschanges in the loss of statistical lifeexpectancy that can be attributed tochanges in anthropogenic emissions.It should be noted that these calcu-lations only refer to impact on thepopulation over 30 years of age, thusunderestimating the total impact.

Using the pollution levels for theyear 2000, it is estimated that PM2.5will result in an average shorteningof life expectancy by approximatelynine months in the EU25. This figurecomes down to less than six monthsby 2020. There is however a signifi-cant variation between countries,and even by 2020 some of them (no-tably Belgium and the Netherlands)will still have life expectancy lossesof about nine months.

When it comes to the impact onhealth from ground-level ozone, theRAINS model estimates the numberof premature deaths associated withozone levels above a cut-off level of35 parts per billion (ppb). Since thereis medical evidence of health impacteven below 35 ppb, the use of this cut-off level results in an underestima-tion of the impact. The number ofpremature deaths estimated as abovewill also gradually decrease up to2020 as a result of decreased emis-

Even by 2020 somecountries still have life

expectancy losses ofabout nine months


sions of the ozone precursors NOxand VOCs.

The analysis of environmental im-pact includes ozone damage to veg-etation, and acidification and eutroph-ication of various types of sensitiveecosystems. (See article on page 17.)

Following the publication of thebaseline scenarios, a number of policyoptions for the further abatement ofemissions will now be studied, forexample in respect of cost-effective-ness. Some selected main scenarioswill also be subjected to more detailedanalyses for costs and benefits.

CHRISTER ÅGREN

The full presentations of the baseline scenariosand the estimated health and environmentalimpacts are available as PowerPoint files fromthe website of IIASA: www.iiasa.ac.at/rains/index.html

More information on the CAFE programmecan be found on the website of the Commis-sion’s environment directorate: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/index.htm

Launched in May 2001, CAFE is a programmefor technical analysis and policy develop-ment leading to the adoption of a thematicstrategy for air pollution under the EU’s SixthEnvironmental Action Programme. The aimis to develop a long-term, strategic, integratedpolicy to protect against negative effects ofair pollution on health and the environment.The Commission is to present its proposalfor a thematic strategy before 22 July 2005,in which it will outline the environmental ob-jectives for air quality and the measures itdeems necessary to achieve the above aims.

The activities of the programme include:

1. Developing, collecting and validating sci-entific information relating to the effects ofoutdoor air pollution, making inventories andprojections of emissions and air quality, as-sessing air quality, doing studies of cost ef-fectiveness and carrying out integrated as-sessment modelling – all leading to new and/or revised objectives in respect of air qualityand pollutant deposition, and identifying themeasures required for reducing emissions.

Clean Air for Europe – the CAFE programme2. Supporting the implementation of exist-ing legislation and reviewing its effectiveness,especially in view of the daughter directiveson air quality and the directive on nationalemission ceilings, and developing new pro-posals for measures to abate emissions.

3. Ensuring that the measures are taken thatwill be needed to achieve the objectives forair quality and pollutant deposition cost-ef-fectively.

4. Determining at regular intervals an inte-grated strategy to define appropriate air-qual-ity objectives for the future and cost-effec-tive measures for meeting those objectives.

5. Disseminating the technical and policyinformation emerging from implementationof the programme.

A steering group comprising representativesof the member states and stakeholders meetstwo or three times a year to advise the Com-mission on the strategic direction of the pro-gramme.

Projected emissions up to 2020 based on the main energy scenario,and assuming full implementation of current air quality legislation.

Emissions of SO2 in EU25 (yellow columns) will fall by two-thirds by 2020, as compared to the base year 2000. Those of NOx and VOCs willbe reduced by nearly half, while those of NH3 are expected to remain more or less the same. In contrast, emissions of SO2 from internationalshipping (dark red columns) are expected to increase by more than 42 per cent by 2020, and those of NOx by two-thirds. (Unit: kilotonnes)

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EU CLIMATE POLICY

Major emission reductionsneeded in the coming decades

The �low-carbon scenario� presented by the Commission, with reductions of 60�80 per cent indeveloped countries by 2050, is unlikely to meet the EU�s climate targets, however.

IN MARCH the European Council � theheads of government of the EU mem-ber states � agreed that it would con-sider �medium and longer term emis-sion reduction strategies, includingtargets� at its meeting in spring 2005.

As part of its remit to provide back-ground information for decisions bythe European Council, the Commis-sion conducted a web-based stake-holder consultation this autumn onthe climate policy of the EU after 2012,when the Kyoto Protocol expires.

In its discussion paper1 the Com-mission states that the EU�s target isto limit average global temperatureincreases to no more than 2°C of pre-industrial levels. This will requiremajor reductions in emissions ofgreenhouse gases, particularly in de-veloped countries, which accordingto the climate convention bear thelargest responsibility for rectifyingthe problem.

The Commission describes a so-called low-carbon scenario in whichindustrialized regions would need toreduce emissions between by 20 and45 per cent in 2025 with respect to1990, depending on the region andthe effort sharing principles of dif-ferent commitment schemes. In 2050,the world�s developed countries wouldneed to cut emissions of greenhousegases by 60 to 80 per cent.

According to this scenario it wouldbe possible to stabilize the level ofgreenhouse gases in the atmosphereat around 550 ppm CO2-equivalents.However, more recent researchshows that this level is far too highto meet the target of 2°C maximum.Climate Action Network Europe, theumbrella organization of the envi-ronmental movement, considers thatthere would be a risk of failing toachieve the target even with a CO2-equivalent value of 450 ppm.2

CAN Europe believes that the emis-sion target for the EU should be tocut emissions by 80 per cent by 2050,and that this reduction needs to be

divided into several medium-termlegally binding targets with absolutereductions in EU domestic emissionsof at least 30 per cent by 2020.

The Commission also considers theissue of climate commitments fromdeveloping countries.

Emissions from these countriesare still relatively small, measuredper capita, but are growing. TheCommission argues for a staged ap-proach, in which the timing and levelof their involvement will need tovary in accordance with their sustain-able development needs, capacityand level of development.

CAN Europe wants to see a similarstrategy, in which developing coun-

tries are successively set bindingcommitments, in parallel with thereductions in emissions by the richnations. The level and the characterof the mitigation actions for a singlecountry would be determined by ref-erence to an agreed level of per capitaemissions, ability or capacity to act(including measures such as percapita income) and historical respon-sibility.

When it comes to possible meas-ures within the European Union,CAN Europe presents a long list, in-cluding the need to see binding re-ductions of at least one per cent peryear in energy use and increased sup-port for renewable energy. Nuclearpower is not regarded as an optionfor a sustainable energy system.

Fair pricing is also considered tobe important. EU should adopt full-pricing for non-renewables in a pro-gressive schedule and remove allsubsidies from fossil fuels and intro-duce a common EU tax on aviationkerosene.

PER ELVINGSON

1 Action on Climate Change Post-2012. AStakeholder Consultation on the EU’s Con-tribution to Shaping the Future Global ClimateChange Regime. Can be downloaded, togetherwith other background information, from http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/climat/future_action.htm

2 EU Public Consultation on Future Commit-ments Post 2012 on Climate Change – CANEurope. Available at www.climnet.org

FACTSEmission targets after 2012 will be an important issue at COP10, the tenth con-ference of the parties to the UN climate convention, which will take place inBuenos Aires in December.

The Kyoto Protocol is generally regarded as being just the first step in ad-dressing the serious global threat of climate change. Under the Protocol, theEU has committed itself to reducing its emissions of greenhouse gases by 8 percent between 1990 and 2012.

A new website has been launched to gather reports, news and opinions onforthcoming climate targets: Future international action on climate changenetwork: www.fiacc.net


CLIMATE CONVENTION

Russian Kyoto ratificationtriggers new negotiations

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

EU needsto raiseambitionsA RECENT REPORT1 reveals that Cen-tral and Eastern European countriesare using at least twice the energyused by the previous 15 EU memberstates for each unit of economic out-put.

Slovakia is the worst performer inthe study, with an energy spendingof more than five times (5.2) theEU15 average. The Czech Republiccomes second, using nearly fivetimes as much, while Poland andHungary scored 3.7 and 3.0, respec-tively. Best among the five countriesanalyzed was Slovenia, with an en-ergy use 1.9 times the EU15 average.

The report � which has been pro-duced by WWF along with six otherenvironmentalist NGOs � highlightsthe fact that in the EU accessionprocess, negotiations have focusedmainly on market liberalization andnew investment in power generationand transmission infrastructure,with insufficient attention given tothe huge and cost-effective opportu-nities to increase energy efficiency.

In some cases, existing policies forenergy efficiency were scrapped asa result of accession to the EU. TheCzech Republic, for example, abol-ished a tax reduction scheme meantto encourage the purchase of themost efficient appliances on themarket.

The report also points out that de-spite massive financial resources fromstructural funds there is little indi-cation that energy efficiency will beprioritized. To date, structural fundshave largely been used for invest-ments in new infrastructure, elec-tricity and gas interconnections,rather than energy efficiency pro-grammes.

WWF wants to see the annual one-per-cent energy efficiency target ofthe draft Directive on End-Use Effi-ciency and Energy Services increasedto at least two per cent in order toexplore the huge cost-effective poten-tial of energy saving even further.

1 Ending Wasteful Energy Use in Centraland Eastern Europe. Can be downloadedin pdf format from www.panda.org/epo.

EU EMISSIONS TRADING

Eight new plans approvedON 20 OCTOBER the EU Commissionapproved eight national allocationplans (NAPs) for trading in carbondioxide emissions within the union,which means that 16 out of 25 coun-tries have now been given the greenlight for their plans.

Under the trading system, whichwill start on 1 January, the memberstates must allocate how much car-bon dioxide companies may emit, andthose plans must be approved by theCommission. The scheme involvessome 12,000 installations in total,including power stations and energy-intensive industries.

The first round of eight NAPs wasapproved by the Commission in July(see AN 3/04). The eight that receivedthe go-ahead in the second roundwere Belgium, Estonia, Latvia, Lux-embourg, Portugal, Slovakia, Franceand Finland. The last two plans musthowever be modified before they canbe applied.

The assessment of the plans fromCyprus, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania,Malta, Czech Republic, Poland andSpain is in progress. Of the 25 nationsin the union, only Greece has failedto turn in its plan so far.

The most important criteria of theCommission�s examination are de-signed to ensure that each plan fits inwith the respective country�s over-

all strategy to reach its Kyoto tar-get. In total, the Commission reportsthat it has forced cuts of 48 milliontonnes of allowances from the 16 ap-proved plans � around one per centof the total amount proposed. How-ever, many critics consider that theCommission has accepted excessivelyhigh allowances, which could meanthat trading has a limited effect onemissions.

Further information: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/climat/emission_plans.htm

UK increases numberof allowancesOn 27 October the UK government an-nounced that it had decided on an upwardrevision in the number of allowances itintends to distribute for the first tradingperiod. This, despite the fact that the UK

has criticized other countries for beingtoo free with their allowances and thefact that the country�s NAP had alreadybeen approved by the EU Commission.

The explanation given was that thetrading sector�s projected business-as-usual emissions have been increased by56 million tonnes. The allowances willnow be raised by 20 million tonnes to 756million tonnes. It is not yet clear whetherthe UK�s NAP will be subjected to a newexamination by the Commission.

Source: www.defra.gov.uk/news/2004/041027a.htm

THE KYOTO PROTOCOL will come intoforce early next year. This becameclear when it was ratified by Russiain November. Once the Russian rati-fication has been formally acceptedthere is a waiting period of 90 daysbefore the protocol comes into effect.

Avoiding serious climate changewill, however, require reductions inglobal emissions that are muchgreater than those prescribed by theKyoto Protocol. The protocol includesvarious flexible mechanisms and al-lows credits to be given for so-calledcarbon sinks. This, combined with the

fact that the US has pulled out of theagreement, means that the net resultcould be zero change in emissionsfrom the industrialized countries overthe period 1990�2012, or even an in-crease, instead of the reduction of 5.2per cent that was predicted when theprotocol was signed in 1997.

The Kyoto Protocol rules that ne-gotiations on the next period of un-dertaking should begin by 2005 atthe latest. The discussion will startat COP10, the tenth conference of theparties to the climate convention,which will be held in December.


WHEN TRANSPORT MINISTERS fromthe EU member states met in Octo-ber they failed for the third time toreach agreement on revision of the�Eurovignette� directive. Until arevised directive is in place the mem-ber states are prevented from intro-ducing effective distance-relatedroad taxes on heavy vehicles.

The review proposal that theCommission put forward in June lastyear contained several new elements,including the opportunity for themember states to charge a kilometretax on large parts of their road net-works, and setting the lower vehicleweight limit for the tax at 3.5 tonnes.However, the Commission alsowanted the revenues to be ear-marked for the building of new in-frastructure, and in particular roadsforming part of the trans-Europeannetwork, TEN. (See AN 3/03, p. 21.)

The main objection among theministers in the Council was to theearmarking of tax revenues. Most ofthe states situated on the periphery

THE EU has stated that the new mem-ber states ��have the opportunityto make progress towards an eco-nomic development that is sustain-able and avoids the type or scale ofenvironmental problems now facedin western Europe�.

However, a recent study by Bank-watch (a coalition of environmentalorganizations) shows that the newmember states are at risk of repeat-ing the same mistakes as in the west,and with the support of the EU. In-stead of promoting environmentallysound transport alternatives, grantsand loans from EU funds and theEuropean Investment Bank are be-ing used to create car-dependent so-cieties in the new member states.

The Bankwatch study indicatesthat heavy investments from the EUfunding mechanisms in the newmember states are being directed

EU KILOMETRE TAXES

Still no agreement by Councilof the EU want the tax to be basedon road investments in each countryand want revenues to be earmarkedsolely for road investment.

The more centrally located states,and those with a stronger environ-mental interest, would rather avoidearmarking and instead link the taxlevel to the external marginal costsof road traffic. Earmarking has alsoattracted strong criticism from T&E,the European Federation for Trans-port and Environment, which saysthat the proposal favours road trans-port and is economically illogical.

Markus Liechti at T&E believesthat the proposed directive has suchsevere shortcomings that the Com-mission should draw up a new one:

�Several states clearly support truepricing and want to see more progress.This sends a clear signal to the newtransport commissioner, JacquesBarrot, who said in the EuropeanParliament that transport should payfor all its costs to create a level play-ing field between transport modes.�

mainly at the trans-European corri-dors, while the allocation of publicresources for the basic maintenanceand safety of domestic infrastructurefalls far below required levels.

According to Bankwatch it will becrucial to give high priority to sus-tainable transport options during theforthcoming 2007�2013 program-ming period for Structural and Co-hesion Funds. The study sets outeighteen recommendations for theEuropean institutions to help ensurethat their transport investments inthe region are in line with the EU�sSustainable Development Strategy.

Source: Heading down dead ends: Transportsector financing in central and eastern Eu-rope. Available at www.bankwatch.org/pub-lications/studies/2004/dead_ends-transport_study_09-04.pdf. For hard copies, send a re-quest to [email protected]

BANKWATCH

Unsustainable lendingto new member states

EU TEST STANDARDS

Air pollutionfrom carsunderstatedCURRENT TEST CYCLES for new vehi-cles do not reflect how cars are usedunder real driving conditions and sounderestimate their actual emis-sions. This may help to explain whyurban air quality is not improving asfast as vehicle data suggest it should,says a report1 from the EuropeanEnvironment Agency (EEA).

The problem is compounded by thefact that many diesel car owners aremodifying their engines to increasepower (so-called chip-tuning), whichincreases fuel consumption andseems to boost particulate emissionsby a factor of three. A recent reportestimates that as many as half of newdiesel cars may have been modifiedin this way.

According to the EEA the statisticson greenhouse gas emissions for newcars are also misleading. The down-ward trend appears greater than itreally is � emissions from air condi-tioning and other in-car equipmentnot covered in testing could in real-ity cancel out around half of the im-provement. The growing use ofheated seats, air conditioning and thelike could be adding an extra 16 to 28g/km to new car CO2 emissions, theagency says.

Other key messages from the re-port include:o Aviation is the fastest-growingtransport mode and its impacts onthe climate will soon exceed those ofpassenger vehicles.o Rail and bus fares are rising fasterthan the cost of private car use, giv-ing cars an advantage over publictransport.o Transport infrastructure, espe-cially road and high-speed rail net-works, is continuing to expand andthus further fragmenting the land-scape.

1 Ten key transport and environment issuesfor policy-makers. TERM 2004: Indicatorstracking transport and environment inte-gration in the European Union. EEA Re-port 3/2004. Published by EEA, KongensNytorv 6, 1050 Copenhagen K, Denmark.Available in pdf format at http://reports.eea.eu.int/TERM2004


California regulatesCO2 from vehiclesIn September the California Air Re-sources Board adopted new rules thatwill require automotive makers to cutaverage emissions of carbon dioxide andother greenhouse gases from new carsand trucks by 34 and 25 per cent respec-tively by 2016 (see AN 3/04, p.19). Theregulation is also expected to cut smog-forming pollution by about five tonnesper day by 2020.

The California Legislature will nowreview the rules, which could come intoeffect in 2006. The auto industry is ex-pected to challenge the standards in thecourts.

At least seven other states, includingNew York, Massachusetts, New Jersey,Vermont, Connecticut, Rhode Island andMaine, as well as the nation of Canada,are expected to consider adopting theregulation for their own use. If all thesestates and Canada adopt the rule it willtriple the number of cars required tocomply.

Further information: The California Air ResourcesBoard, www.arb.ca.gov.

Austria brings infilter subsidies tooAustria is the latest country to introducetax incentives to reduce emissions ofparticulates from diesel passenger cars.From January 2005 it will offer a taxbonus of 300 euros for cars emitting lessthan 5 mg/km, while cars emitting morewill have to pay a 150-euro penalty, ris-ing to 300 euros in 2006. The EU stand-ard that comes into force in 2005 (Euro4) permits diesel vehicles to emit up to25 mg/km of particulates.

Two out of every three new cars soldin Austria today are diesels, the highestproportion in the EU. The Netherlandsand Germany are planning to introducesimilar tax incentives from next year.

Increase in Swedishtransport taxationTaxes on road vehicles in Sweden are torise next year as part of the country�sdrive to make Sweden an �ecologicallysustainable society�. The annual road taxfor cars will rise by an average of 35 eurosfor petrol- and 10 euros for diesel-drivenvehicles, while taxes on petrol will riseby 0.015 euros per litre and 0.030 eurosper litre on diesel. The increases will beoffset by reductions in the basic rate ofSwedish income tax.

NEWS IN BRIEFVEHICLE EMISSIONS

Growing support forstricter requirements

Many countries were in favour of compulsory regulation of CO2emissions from cars when environment ministers met recently.

MORE AND MORE member states arenow warming to the idea that the EUshould introduce compulsory rulesto reduce emissions of carbon diox-ide from new cars. This became ap-parent when ministers of the envi-ronment discussed sustainable roadtransport at the council meeting on14 October. The ministers also wantto see a prompt stiffening of thestandards governing emissions of ni-trogen oxides and particulates fromroad vehicles.

The use of standards to compelvehicle manufacturers to limit emis-sions of carbon dioxide from new ve-hicles has been discussed increas-ingly often in the EU over the pastyear. This follows growing indicationsthat the automotive industry has dif-ficulty in fulfilling the undertakinggiven in an agreement with the Com-mission � that average emissionsfrom new cars sold in the EU shouldnot exceed 140 grams of carbon di-oxide per kilometre by 2008�2009.

Moreover, the industry has notshown any interest in discussing anew undertaking after 2008. TheCommission has proposed a ceiling

of 120 g/km as a target for 2012 (theEU still has 120 g/km by 2010 as itsofficial target).

The environment ministers sug-gested that the Commission shouldnegotiate new covenants with theautomotive industry setting a morestringent ceiling of 120 g/km. But alot of ministers said a voluntary ba-sis was perhaps not enough � theCommission should also be preparedto legislate on this if the industryproves recalcitrant. Light duty com-mercial vehicles may also be coveredby the agreement and/or rules, whichonly apply to passenger cars atpresent.

To reduce pollution from road traf-fic, the environment ministers dis-cussed the next round of EU emissionlimits for light and heavy road vehi-cles. They were in favour of morestringent standards for particulatematter and nitrogen oxides, howeverneither a timetable nor levels werespecified in council conclusions. Themeeting also revealed growing sup-port for a general introduction ofparticulate filters on diesel vehicles.

PER ELVINGSON

It is perfectly possible to build fuel-efficient cars. The hybrid Toyota Prius HSD uses 4.3 litresof petrol per 100 km, which is equivalent to 104 g of carbon dioxide per kilometre.


BY THE AGE OF 18, the lungs of manychildren who grow up in polluted ar-eas are underdeveloped and are un-likely ever to recover, according to theresults of the Southern CaliforniaChildren�s Health Study, the long-est investigation ever into air pollu-tion and children�s health.1

The study provides the most de-finitive evidence yet that routine ex-posure to dirty air during childhoodactually harms lung development,leading to a permanently reduced abil-ity to breathe. Underpowered lungsare known to cause a wide range ofhealth problems.

Between 1993 and 2001, scientistshave tracked levels of major pollut-ants in twelve Southern Californiacommunities while monitoring thepulmonary health of 1,759 childrenas they progressed from 4th grade to12th grade (10 to 18 years old).

The twelve communities includedsome of the most polluted areas inthe greater Los Angeles basin, as wellas several low-pollution sites outsidethe area.

The team from the University ofSouthern California Keck School ofMedicine had previously found thatchildren who were exposed to airpollution scored more poorly on res-piratory tests.

In the latest study, they tested thesame children at the age of 18 whenthe lungs have almost completelymatured.

Children breathing dirty air werenearly five times more likely thanchildren in less polluted communitiesto grow up with weak lungs, theyfound. In the highest pollution areas7.9 per cent of the 18-year-olds hadlung capacities that were less than80 per cent of what they should havebeen. Among teenagers subjected tothe least-polluted air, only 1.6 percent had underperforming lungs.

�This is some of the most convinc-ing evidence that air pollution haschronic effects,� said W. James Gau-

derman, associate professor of pre-ventive medicine and lead author ofthe study. One surprise for the re-searchers was that the damage ap-peared even at low pollution levelsand that such a large proportion of

children were affected � not just riskgroups such as asthma sufferers.

The pollutants for which a corre-lation was found between concentra-tion and deficits in lung developmentwere nitrogen dioxide, acid vapour,particulate matter with a diameterof less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) andelemental carbon. The strongest cor-relation was observed with smallparticulates.

�These are pollutants that all de-rive from vehicle emissions and thecombustion of fossil fuels,� Gauder-man said.

The definition of clinically low lungfunction is when a person has lessthan 80 per cent of the lung functionexpected for his or her age. This is

viewed as a significant deficit withboth short and long-term implica-tions.

�If a child or young adult with lowlung function were to have a cold,they might have more severe lungsymptoms, or wheezing,� Gauder-man said. �They may have a longerdisease course, while a child withbetter lung function may weather itmuch better.�

Potential long-term effects aremore alarming. �Low lung functionhas been shown to be second only tosmoking as a risk factor for all-causemortality,� Gauderman said.

Lung function increases steadilyas children grow, peaking at aboutage 18 in women and sometime in theearly twenties in men. Lung functionstays steady for a short time and thendeclines by 1 per cent a year through-out adulthood. As lung function de-creases to low levels in later adult-hood, the risk of respiratory diseasesand heart attacks increases.

Researchers are unsure how airpollution may retard lung develop-ment. Gauderman believes chronicinflammation may play a role, withair pollutants irritating small air-ways on a daily basis. Scientists alsosuspect that pollutants might inhibitthe growth of alveoli, the tiny air sacswithin the lungs where the exchangeof oxygen and carbon dioxide takesplace.

The research team will continueto follow the study participants intotheir early twenties, when their lungswill mature and stop developing en-tirely. The team aims to find out if theparticipants begin to experience res-piratory symptoms and if those whomoved away from a polluted environ-ment show benefits.

PER ELVINGSON

1 New England Journal of Medicine. Volume351:1057-1067, 9 September 2004. Number11. See also press release from the Universityof Southern California, 8 September 2004.

HEALTH EFFECTS

Air pollution may causelifelong lung deficits

A new study provides the most definitive evidence yet that routine exposure to dirty air duringchildhood actually harms lung development, leading to a permanently reduced ability to breathe.

Low lung function is second only to smoking

as a risk factor forall-cause mortality


MUCH WIDER AREAS of Europe arebeing affected by acidification andeutrophication than has previouslybeen thought. According to a recentreport1 from EMEP2, the areas wherecritical loads are still being exceededare actually much larger.

Wherever the fallout of pollutantsexceeds the critical loads, there is ahigh risk that damage will sooner orlater occur to the environment.Awareness of this is what has guidedinternational agreements for cuttingemissions of air pollutants under theConvention on Long-range Trans-boundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), thelatest being the Gothenburg Proto-col of 1999. This kind of informationhas also served as a basis for the EUdirective on national emission ceil-

CRITICAL LOADS

Larger areas at riskAcidification problems in Europe have been underestimated. The new figures are approximatelytwice those that were used in international negotiations a few year ago.

ings (NEC) for four air pollutants thatwas adopted in 2001.

The calculations for both the Goth-enburg protocol and the EU NEC di-rective are derived from maps drawnto a relatively coarse scale (on a gridsystem made up of 150 x 150 kilome-tre squares). Estimates of depositionlevels were calculated by EMEP, usingtheir �old� computer model, and noaccount was taken of the fact thatdepositions of acidifying and eutroph-ying pollutants will vary accordingto the way in which the ground isbeing utilized � the fallout is greaterfor instance over forest areas thanover open ground.

One important factor influencingthe new estimates of exceedance isthe switch to a new European model

for calculating air pollutant concen-tration and deposition levels, the so-called Unified EMEP model.

Calculations based on this im-proved model result in higher levelsof deposition generally, as comparedto the �old� model. Moreover, thenew model applies land-cover specificdeposition figures, which are moreappropriate for comparison with theecosystem-specific critical loads data,since this accounts for enhanceddeposition on forests.

For the last few years the mappingof critical loads has been carried outusing a spatial resolution of 50 x 50instead of 150 x 150 km squares (thelatter being nine times as large as thenew ones). This has resulted in theemergence of areas with higher sen-sitivity that had previously beensuppressed because of their insig-nificance in a larger square.

The new Unified EMEP model alsoprovides data with a grid resolutionof 50 x 50 kilometres. Better resolu-tion has not only made it possible topick out sensitive areas, it has alsomeant that the areas of ecosystemwhere the critical load is being ex-ceeded can be better shown.

Additionally, many countries haveupdated their critical loads data, andin some cases this improved data in-dicates a higher level of sensitivitythan the older data. Finally, estimatesof emissions have become betterwith time. This is true for both his-toric (e.g. 1990) values and projec-tions of future (e.g. 2010) emissions.

According to the new estimates,the area of sensitive ecosystems inEurope where the critical load foracidification has been exceededshrank from 34 per cent in 1990 to11 per cent in 2000. Assuming thatthe European emissions of sulphurand nitrogen compounds fall off asenvisaged in the Gothenburg Proto-col, the figure can be expected to dropto 9 per cent by 2010.

These new figures are approxi-mately twice those that were usedin international negotiations � where

© P

ER

ELV

ING

SO

N


critical loads were assumed to havebeen exceeded on 17 per cent of thetotal area in 1990, falling to 4 percent in 2010.

The area of ecosystems in Europewhere the critical loads for eutroph-ication were being exceeded is nowestimated to have been 44 per centin 1990 and 33 per cent in 2000. By2010, the figure is still expected tobe 33 per cent. The new figures foreutrophication are some 30 to 40 percent higher than previously assumed.

International efforts to stem theemissions of air pollutants haveclearly yielded results in the form ofa gradual reduction in the exceedanceof critical loads. The fact that theimprovement has been slower as re-gards eutrophication than it has beenfor acidification is due to the rela-tive lack of success in dealing withemissions of the nitrogen compounds(nitrogen oxides and ammonia).

It appears from the new estimatesby EMEP that environmental im-provements due to the Gothenburg

THE EFFORTS of the last few decadesto reduce air pollutant fallout in Eur-ope, which have resulted in a numberof important international agree-ments as well as EU legislation, havedepended to a large extent on themapping of critical loads.

Critical loads are scientific esti-mates of the amounts of pollutantsthat various ecosystems can toler-ate without being harmed � some-times also referred to as the limitson what �nature can tolerate�.

Based on reports from the variouscountries, the Coordination Centerfor Effects (CCE) under the Conven-tion on Long-range TransboundaryAir Pollution produces Europe-widecritical load maps, and in a new re-port1 the CCE provides updated Euro-pean such maps for acidity and nu-trient nitrogen (see figures 1 and 2).

The report also contains prelimi-nary maps and tables showing theextent to which the critical loads fordeposition of acidity and eutrophica-tion were exceeded in the year 2000(see figures 3 and 4), and what canbe expected in 2010 if every countryfulfils its undertakings in accordancewith the Gothenburg protocol.

Due to a number of developments,including improvements in the sci-entific input, the estimate of ecosys-tems� exposure to depositions exceed-ing their critical loads have changedsignificantly over the last few years.It appears from these changes inmethodology and input data that thereal extent of the problem had previ-ously been underestimated. (See ar-ticle on previous page.)

Moreover, the CCE can now pro-duce maps showing the sensitivity ofvarious ecosystems to acid deposi-tion. In the past, all ecosystems werelumped together in a single map.

By using so-called dynamic mod-elling it is possible to illustrate notonly where ecosystems are at risk,but also the time that will be neededfor recovery. In order to improve such

CRITICAL LOADS

Mapping ofecosystemsensitivity

Larger areas at riskContinued from previous page

Protocol and the EU NEC directive willbe much less than anticipated. Toarrive at a situation where criticalloads would no longer be exceededwould consequently require biggeremission reductions than was previ-ously assumed.

It should also be noted that thesecalculations result in maps showingonly the general extent by which thecritical loads are being exceeded at agiven time. The data gives no infor-mation as to the state of the environ-ment in each area � in fact soil andwater have become so acidified inplaces that it will take decades, insome cases centuries, before they arefully restored.

CHRISTER ÅGREN

1 Transboundary acidification, eutrophica-tion and ground level ozone in Europe.EMEP Status report 1/2004. Available atwww.emep.int

2 EMEP stands for the “Co-operative pro-gramme for monitoring and evaluation of thelong-range transmission of air pollutants inEurope”, under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution.

Old and new figures for the p ercentage of ecosystem area in Europe wherecritical loads for acidification and eutrophication were being exceeded in1990 and 2000, with projections for 2010.

Acidification

17%

2%

34%

9%11%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1990 2000 2010

per

cen

t

“old”“new”

Eutrophication

25%

35%33%

35%

44%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

1990 2000 2010

per

cent

“old”“new”


Figure 4. Areas where the critical loads for nitrogeneutrophication were exceeded in 2000.

Figure 1. Critical loads for acidity in Europe. The darkerthe shade, the greater the sensitivity. The map shows thedeposition of hydrogen ions that sensitive ecosystems (e.g.forest soils and surface waters) can tolerate without beingacidified. At each load level 95 per cent of the ecosystems inthe relevant square are protected.

Figure 3. Areas where the critical loads for acidity wereexceeded in 2000.

Figure 2. Critical loads for nutrient nitrogen in Europe. Thedarker the shade, the greater the sensitivity. The map shows thedeposition of nitrogen equivalents that sensitive ecosystems (e.g.forest soils and heathlands) can tolerate. At each load level 95per cent of the ecosystems in the relevant square are protected.

analyses, countries have been re-quested to produce and deliver ad-ditional data. The CCE report pro-vides a description of the develop-ments regarding dynamic modelling,including comparisons of the na-tional data.

CHRISTER ÅGREN

1 Critical Loads and Dynamic Modelling results. CCE Progress Report 2004. By J-P.Hettelingh, J. Slootweg and M. Posch. Coordination Center for Effects under the Working Groupon Effects of the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. RIVM Report259101014/2004. Published by RIVM, Bilthoven, Netherlands.

CCE has a website, from which all its status reports can be downloaded: www.rivm.nl/cce. Forexample, an overview of the way the critical load maps are produced was described by thecenter in its 2003 Status Report: Modelling and Mapping of Critical Thresholds in Europe.

eq ha-1a-1

no exceedance0 - 200200 - 400400 - 600600 - 800> 800

AAE of acidity CLs 2000 ave/for dep

Dep-data: EMEP/MSC-WRIVM/CCE eq ha< 200200 -5400400 -5700700 -510001000 -51500>51500 eq ha -1a-1 < 200200 -5400400 -5700700 -510001000 -51500>51500 CLnut(N) (5th percentile)RIVM/CCEeq ha-1a-1no exceedance0 - 200200 - 400400 - 600600 - 800> 800AAE of nutrient CLs 2000 ave/for depDep-data: EMEP/MSC-WRIVM/CCE


THE STEADY REDUCTION in acidify-ing emissions in Europe is now start-ing to level out. At least this appearsto be the case judging by the figuresfor the last two years.1

Since the early 1980s the totalEuropean emissions of sulphur di-oxide (SO2), the most significant acidi-fying pollutant, from land-basedemissions sources have fallen by justover 70 per cent, from around 53million tonnes in 1980 to 15 milliontonnes in 2000.

Reports for the period 2000 to 2002,however, show largely unchangedemissions from land-based sources,with minor reductions in some coun-tries and increases in others. Thecountries where emissions have riseninclude Poland, Spain, Russia andUkraine � the latter by a full 29 percent (300,000 tonnes) between 1999and 2002.

Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx),volatile organic compounds (VOCs)and ammonia also fell in Europe inthe 1990s, although not by as muchas emissions of SO2. While the firsttwo had dropped by about a thirdsince 1990, emissions of ammoniaonly fell by a quarter.

As with SO2, the downward trendhas also flattened out for these threepollutants. Reports for the period2000 to 2002 show largely unchangedtotal emissions from land-based

sources. In the case of NOx and VOCs,small reductions in most countrieswere negated by respective increasesin Russian emissions of 200,000 and

300,000 tonnes over the same period.The Convention�s EMEP program-

me is not confined to keeping trackof emissions. Its main task is to modelthe ways in which emissions fromone country are affecting the envi-

EUROPEAN EMISSIONS

Break in downward trends?

Since 1980 the emissionsof sulphur dioxide havefallen by over 70 per cent

ronment in others.In the eighties and nineties the

calculations were based on gridsquares measuring 150 x 150 kilo-metres, but over the last few yearsa model has been developed for 50 x50 km squares. This new, so-called,Unified EMEP model is the one nowin use, and it has been further modi-fied and improved since last year.

An overview of calculations forsource-receptor relationships, cover-ing acidifying, eutrophying andphoto-oxidant pollution is presentedin another recent EMEP report.2

PER ELVINGSON

CHRISTER ÅGREN

1 The data reported by individual countries tothe Convention on Long-range Transbound-ary Air Pollution is compiled by EMEP (thecooperative programme for monitoring andevaluating the long-range transmissions of airpollutants in Europe), and published both inprinted form and on the EMEP website. Fig-ures for other pollutants, such as particulatesand POPs (persistent organic pollutants), arealso given. The title of this year’s report isInventory Review 2004: Emission data re-ported to CLRTAP and under the NEC Dir-ective. Technical Report MSC-W 1/2004. ByV. Vestreng et al. Available at the EMEPwebsite: www.emep.int2 Transboundary acidification, eutrophica-tion and ground-level ozone in Europe.EMEP Status Report 1/2004. Also availableat the EMEP website (see above).

Shipping emissionsnot updatedIt is important to note that EMEP hasstill not updated information regard-ing emissions from internationalshipping. The report uses estimatesmade by Lloyd�s Register during thenineties, and the levels are assumedto have remained constant from 1980onwards. More recent estimates in-dicate however that ships� emissionshave increased considerably since1990, and are likely to go on doing so(see AN 3/02, p.8 and p.10 in this issue).


European emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides (as NO 2), ammonia,and volatile organic compounds. Thousands of tonnes a year.

edixoidruhpluS ON(sedixonegortiN 2) sdnuopmoC.grO.loV ainommA

0891 0991 2002 0891 0991 2002 0891 0991 2002 0891 0991 2002

airtsuA 063 08 63 642 212 402 734 892 391 25 75 35

muigleB 828 263 351 244 433 482 472 472 462 98 99 38

surpyC 82 64 15 31 81 22 41 41 61 8 8 6

cilbupeRhcezC 7522 1881 732 739 445 813 572 144 302 651 651 27

kramneD 254 771 52 703 382 002 491 461 421 831 331 101

ainotsE 782 252 88 07 86 04 18 88 83 42 42 9

dnalniF 485 062 28 592 003 802 012 422 151 93 83 33

ecnarF 4123 6231 735 4202 7981 2531 4372 9942 2451 597 977 877

ynamreG 4157 6235 116 4333 5482 9941 4223 1953 8741 538 537 416

eceerG 004 394 584 1 603 092 133 1 552 552 862 1 97 97 37

yragnuH 3361 0101 953 372 832 081 512 502 551 751 421 56

dnalerI 222 681 69 37 811 521 111 111 18 211 211 911

ylatI 0443 8471 907 1 5851 9191 7131 1 2302 1402 7641 1 144 824 244 1

aivtaL 69 69 21 38 38 14 251 251 98 83 83 11

ainauhtiL 113 222 34 251 851 15 001 801 27 58 48 15

gruobmexuL 42 51 32 32 32 71 2 51 91 51 2 7 7 72

sdnalrehteN 094 191 17 385 975 604 975 094 342 432 232 631

dnaloP 0014 0123 4651 9221 0821 508 1 6301 138 675 1 055 805 823 1

lagutroP 352 922 502 851 222 562 981 552 172 69 69 39

aikavolS 087 245 201 791 612 201 252 252 78 36 36 92

ainevolS 432 691 17 15 36 85 93 44 94 42 42 91

niapS 3192 8902 7051 8601 6021 9331 2931 1951 9541 582 723 973

nedewS 194 601 85 404 423 242 825 305 592 45 45 55

modgniKdetinU 2584 1273 2001 0852 1772 2851 0012 9142 6811 163 163 692

52UEmuS 36753 37732 7018 33461 19951 88901 83461 96861 22301 2274 6654 2583

ainablA 27 27 85 42 42 92 13 13 43 23 23 23

suraleB 047 736 341 432 582 731 945 335 922 241 241 821

anivogezreH&ainsoB 284 284 914 97 97 55 15 15 24 13 13 32

airagluB 0502 8002 049 1 614 163 881 1 903 712 321 1 441 441 65 1

aitaorC 051 081 85 2 06 88 77 2 501 501 08 2 73 73 32 2

dnalecI 81 42 72 12 62 82 8 31 01 3 3 3

yawroN 631 25 22 191 422 312 371 492 543 02 02 22

ainodecaM 701 701 661 93 93 73 91 91 71 71 71 61

avodloM 803 562 51 511 001 52 501 751 82 35 94 72

ainamoR 5501 1131 219 325 645 913 928 277 836 043 003 122

aissuR 3237 1764 0312 4363 0063 6652 0143 8663 7772 9811 1911 006

orgenetnoM&aibreS 604 805 283 291 112 851 241 241 921 09 09 97

dnalreztiwS 611 24 91 071 451 49 323 972 341 77 27 76

eniarkU 9483 3872 9231 5411 7901 785 6261 9631 282 927 927 873 1

UE-noNmuS 21861 24131 0266 3486 4386 3154 0867 0567 7784 4092 7582 5761

eporuEmuS 57525 51963 72741 67232 52822 10551 81142 91542 99151 6267 3247 7255

aeScitlaB:pihs.tnI 822 822 822 253 253 253 8 8 8 - - -

aeSkcalB:pihs.tnI 75 75 75 68 68 68 2 2 2 - - -

.narretideM:pihs.tnI 9811 9811 9811 9361 9361 9361 43 43 43 - - -

aeShtroN:pihs.tnI 454 454 454 846 846 846 51 51 51 - - -

citnaltA.E.N:pihs.tnI 109 109 109 6621 6621 6621 52 52 52 - - -

gnippihs.tanretnimuS 9282 9282 9282 1993 1993 1993 48 48 48 - - -

spihs+eporuEmuS 40455 44793 65571 76272 61862 29491 20242 30642 38251 6267 3247 7255

yekruT 0301 0951 2112 463 446 159 2 953 364 627 2 123 123 1231 .atad1002 2 .atad0002 scilatI .setamitsetrepxE=


EUROPEAN FORESTS

Climate-related damage increasingThe warm, dry summer of 2003 increased defoliation among broadleaf trees.

AN INVESTIGATION of forest damagein Europe in 20031 showed that theaverage degree of crown thinning wason a par with previous years, al-though there were differences be-tween regions and species of tree.Many countries pointed the finger atextremes of climate, particularlysummer drought, as the cause of thedamage.

The pan-European programme formonitoring forest condition in Eur-ope has been in progress since 1986and has involved an increasingnumber of participating countries. In2003 crown condition was assessedon 5,915 plots forming part of the16 x 16 kilometre transnational gridthat covers 33 countries all overEurope.

Of the trees investigated, 22.7 percent had lost more than 25 per centof their leaves or needles, a figurethat is close to the mean values forthe previous years. The mean defo-liation for all species was 19.8 percent.2

Of the main species, European oak(Quercus robur) and Sessile oak (Q.petraea) had by far the highest meandefoliation, at 25.9 per cent, followedby beech (Fagus sylvatica), 20.3 percent, Norwegian spruce (Picea abies),19.6 per cent, and Scots pine (Pinussylvestris), 18.7 per cent.

During the period 1990�2003 the

largest increase in mean defoliationoccurred on Holm oak (Quercus ilexand Q. rotundifolia), from 13.8 to22.3 per cent. The mean defoliation

of beech has also increased since1990. The broadleaf trees reveal asharp increase in defoliation from2002 to 2003, which presumably re-flects the summer heat and droughtof the last year.

In contrast, Scots pine showed arecovery since the mid 1990s, particu-larly in Belarus, Poland and parts ofthe Baltic states. The crown condi-tion of this species was better in 2003than at the beginning of the timeperiod.

Norwegian spruce had also shownsome recovery since the mid 1990s,but to a lesser extent. It now hasapproximately the same mean defo-liation as in 1990.

The main causes for changes indefoliation reported by the countriesare biotic stressors and weather ex-tremes, including exceptionally high

summer temperatures and drought.Defoliation was rarely attributed

to deposition of air pollutants by thecountries concerned. Measurementof the ozone concentrations over Eur-ope in summer, however, show thatlarge areas of the continent are ex-posed to levels that exceed the limitat which damage can occur to foresttrees. The critical load for acid depo-sition is also exceeded over large ar-eas (see article on p. 17).

The report also presents the re-sults of national surveys. Some ofthese were, however, carried outusing different methods, so compari-sons between different countriesshould be made with great care.

PER ELVINGSON

1 Forest Condition in Europe – 2004 Tech-nical Report. By M. Lorenz et al. Availablein pdf format at www.icp-forests.org/pdf/trLI2004.pdf. Printed copies can be orderedfrom the Programme Coordinating Centre(PCC), c/o Federal Research Centre for For-estry and Forest Products (BFH), Leuschner-str. 91, D-21031 Hamburg, Germany.

2 The threshold for damage due to defolia-tion was previously set at over 25 per cent.There is a gradual move away from this as-sessment now on the basis that the 25 per centthreshold for defoliation does not necessar-ily identify trees damaged in a physiologicalsense. Mean defoliation is instead used as ameasure of the health of the forest.

Large areas are exposedto ozone levels thatexceed the limit at

which damage can occur


CLIMATE NEWS IN BRIEF

Recent publicationsSharp CO2 riseIn recent years, the amount of atmos-pheric carbon dioxide has increased byan average of 1.5 parts per million (ppm)each year. But measurements at theMauna Loa observatory in Hawaii haveshown that in 2002 and 2003 the increasewas more than two ppm. Most climateresearchers who have commented be-lieve that two years of observations can-not be considered to represent a newtrend � natural events are known to causethe level to fluctuate. However, there arealso those who see this as a sign that theEarth�s systems are becoming less ableto absorb carbon dioxide, which couldlead to imminent, rapid global warming.

Source: BBC News, 11 October 2004.

Large and rapidchanges in the ArcticThe thickness of the Arctic ice sheet hasdecreased by 25 per cent in the last 40years and the temperature has risen byroughly twice as much as the global meantemperature. Melting permafrost hasmeant that oil pipelines, roads and build-ings in Alaska and Canada have becomeunstable and some buildings have had tobe abandoned. The thinning ice sheet hasalso led to severe erosion of shorelines.

According to a research report1 fromthe Arctic Climate Impact Assessment(ACIA), continuing warming will result ina dramatic reduction in snow cover andsea ice. The summer ice cover may havealmost disappeared by the end of thiscentury. Polar bears are at risk of dyingout since they are dependent on huntingseals out on the ice. Inuit seal huntinghas already suffered. Less ice and snow,melt water run-off and increasing flowsof greenhouse gases from melting per-mafrost could further influence the glo-bal climate.1 Impacts of a Warming Arctic. Available in pdfformat at http://amap.no/acia/.

Less to eat for whalesThe disappearance of Antarctic ice in thewinter has resulted in an 80 per cent dropin the number of krill, a shrimp-likecrustacean that is a major source of foodfor whales, seals and penguins. Krill feedon algae under the ice sheet in the oceanbut warmer temperatures over the last50 years have meant there is less ice andfewer krill. Krill numbers are now onlyabout one-fifth of what they were in themid-70s, according to new findings.

Source: Planet Ark (Reuters), 5 November 2004.

Gletscher im Treibhaus (2204)By W. Zängl and S. Hamberger. A pho-tographic journey through time, in whichthe authors revisited old postcard scenesin the Alps and took new photos that re-veal the extent of melting of the glaciersin recent decades. The text, which alsotakes up the climate issue, is entirely inGerman, but the visual material, com-prising 460 photographs, tells its ownclear story.

39.80 euros. 272 pp. ISBN 3-934427-41-3. Published by Tecklenborg Verlag, Sie-mensstraße 4, 48565 Steinfurt, Germany.Internet: www.tecklenborg-verlag.de

A Guide to European Union Funding forNGOs: “Accessing Europe’s LargestDonor” (2004)10th Edition. A guidebook for organiza-tions seeking to learn more about EU

funding. 39.00 euros. 250 pp. Publishedby the European Citizen Action Service(ECAS), rue de la Concorde 53, B-1050Brussels, Belgium. Website: www.ecas.org

Renewable Energy in Europe – Build-ing Markets and Capacity (2004)Compiled by EREC, the European Renew-able Energy Council. The book presentsan overview of the latest technological,financial and economic information onrenewable energy technologies. It ex-plains how renewable energy sourcescould play a more significant role in theEU�s future energy balance.

£35.00. 176 pp. ISBN 1-84407-124-3.Available from Earthscan/J&J, 8-12Camden High Street, London NW1 0JH,UK. E-mail: [email protected].

World in Transition – Towards Sustain-able Energy Systems (2004)A book that underscores the urgent needto transform global energy systems so thatthe world�s population has access to en-ergy based on renewable sources. Thisis necessary to protect the global climateand to free those in developing countrieswho are trapped by energy poverty. Suchan approach would also yield a peace divi-dend by reducing dependence uponregionally concentrated oil reserves.

£60.00. 264 pp. ISBN 1-85383-882-9.

Published by Earthscan/J&J, in associa-tion with the German Advisory Councilon Global Change. Order address as above.

Making Sense of Hydrogen: The Poten-tial Role of Hydrogen in Achieving aClean, Sustainable Transportation Sys-tem (2004)The promise of the hydrogen economyis far from reality and in danger of be-ing hijacked by energy interests keen tokeep consumers reliant on fossil fuels,according to this report, published by theNational Association of State Public In-terest Research Groups (PIRGs) in the US.It specifically focuses on the potential useof hydrogen in cars and trucks, which hasbeen touted as a �zero-emission� replace-ment for the petrol-powered internalcombustion engine.

The study can be downloaded (500 kB)from http://newenergyfuture.com/reports/Hydrogen10_04.pdf

Biomass and Agriculture: Sustain-ability, Markets and Policies (2004)Proceedings of an OECD Workshop heldin June 2003, which covered two broadthemes: the contribution of agriculturalbiomass to sustainability, and the policyapproaches for developing this sector.According to the report a significantshift could take place this century froma fossil fuel to a biomass-based economy.To aid this process it suggests creatingcarbon markets which would providecredits to biomass producers for displac-ing fossil fuels.

75.00 euros. 568 pp. ISBN 9264105557.Can be ordered from OECD, www.oecd.org/bookshop. Printed copies are availablefrom national distributors or from OECD,c/o Turpin Distribution Services Ltd,Stratton Business Park, Pegasus Drive,Biggleswade, Bedfordshire, SG18 8QB,United Kingdom.

European Integration of Rail FreightTransport – Round Table 125 (2004)While the expanding long-distance ex-port market is favourable to rail trans-port, railways have been steadily losingmarket share to road hauliers. The rea-sons for this are numerous and rangefrom a lack of sophisticated computertechnology to a shortage of commercialknow-how. This report from the Euro-pean Ministers of Transport (ECMT) takesa look at how the European railwaylandscape is being reshaped as the railnetworks now open up to competition.

40.00 euros. 118 pp. ISBN 92-821-1319-1. Can be ordered from the OECD, see above.


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Coming eventsFor the latest news and direct links, pleasevisit www.acidrain.org (choose “Comingevents” in the left-hand column).

COP10 – Tenth Conference of the Par-ties to the Climate Convention. Bue-nos Aires, Argentina. 6-17 December2004. Information: unfccc.int/cop10

Energy and Development. Noordwijk,The Netherlands. 12-15 December. Info:www.energyfordevelopment.org

Monitoring Ambient Air: Implicationsand Implementation of the New Direc-tives and Standards. London, UK, 15-16 December. Info: www.aamg-rsc.org

EU Environment Council. Brussels, Bel-gium, 20 December 2004.

Integrated Assessment Modelling forAir Pollution. A seminar on the RAINSmethodology. Laxenburg, Austria, 20-21January 2005. Information: www.iiasa.ac.at/rains/meetings.htm

CAFE Steering Group: Thematic Strat-egy on Air Pollution. Brussels, Belgium,21-22 February 2005. Info: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/.

European Pellets Conference, 2-3March. Innovative Public and Commer-cial Buildings, 3 March. Both in Wels,Austria, forming part of the World Sus-tainable Energy Days. Information:www.esv.or.at

Environment Council. Brussels, Bel-gium, 10 March 2005.

5th International Conference on UrbanAir Quality . Valencia, Spain. 29-31March. Info: www.urbanairquality.org

Mondial Bioenergie Conference andExhibition. Paris, France. 31 March – 3April. Info: www.itebe-expo.com

CAFE Steering Group: Implementa-tion issues. Brussels, Belgium, 11 April2005. Information: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/.

CAFE Steering Group: Thematic Strat-egy on Air Pollution. Brussels, Belgium,10-11 May. Information: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/air/cafe/.

Acid Rain 2005. 7th InternationalConference. Prague, Czech Republic. 12-17 June 2005. Info: Acid Rain, CHMI,Na Sabatce 17, 143 06 Prague, CzechRep. Website: www. acidrain2005.cz.

Environment Council. Luxembourg, 24June 2005.

Air and the EnvironmentThis book is about the pollutants that are infecting ourair. Seeing that they amount to no more than a few hun-dredths per cent of the atmosphere, they might seem tobe of no consequence, yet their effects on humans and theenvironment are considerable � causing changes in theworld�s climate, damaging health, threatening rare animalsand plants with extinction, acidifying lakes, acceleratingthe weathering of ancient monuments, to mention onlysome of the more obvious effects.

The identities of these pollutants, how they arise, andwhat they are doing to us and our environment, as wellas what can be done to counteract their spread, are de-scribed in detail in this book, which also underlines the

fact that it will actually pay to cut down the emissions from various sources thatgive rise to them. Especially important but often overlooked are the connectionsbetween aspects of the matter that tend to be treated separately, their effects, causesand what can be done about them.

174 pp. By Per Elvingson and Christer Ågren, published by the Swedish NGO

Secretariat on Acid Rain, 2004.

Atmospheric emissions fromlarge point sources in EuropeThis report identifies and lists the 200 largest emitters ofsulphur dioxide and the 200 �best� fossil-fuelled powerstations, in terms of SO2 and NOx emissions per usefuloutput. Topping the list of the greatest emitters of sulphurto the atmosphere in Europe are two large coal-fired powerstations in Bulgaria and Spain, respectively.

By Mark Barrett, SENCO. Published by the Swedish NGO

Secretariat on Acid Rain, October 2004. (Summarized onpp. 1-5 in this issue of Acid News.)

To phase out coalIt would not only be quite possible to do away with the useof coal in Europe, but it would also be the least expensiveand simplest way to drastically cut emissions of green-house gases as well as other harmful pollutants, accord-ing to this study made by Fredrik Lundberg on commis-sion from the Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain, 2003.

To Phase Out

CoalThe structure of the coal industry,

its environmental effects,and the possibilities of

phasing out the use of coal.

By Fredrik Lundberg

The Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain

RECENT PUBLICATIONS FROM THE SECRETARIAT

HOW TO ORDER. Single copies of the above mentioned material can be obtained from theSecretariat (free of charge within Europe). Please call for quotation if more copies arerequired. Can also be downloaded in pdf format from www.acidrain.org

coal-fired stations top emission league · 2017-04-02 · krivoy rog in ukraine, again a coal-fired...

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