communication theory[1]

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CCOMMUNICATIONOMMUNICATION TTHEORYHEORY

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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Halavaishttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Halavaishttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Joe_Petrickhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Joe_Petrickhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ashley_Anker&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Ashley_Ankerhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Carolyn_Hurley&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Carolyn_Hurleyhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Albertin&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Albertinhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Derek&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Derek&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Derekhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Kyounghee&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Kyoungheehttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Youling_Liu&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Youling_Liu&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Youling_Liu&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Youling_Liuhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ryankozey&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Ryankozeyhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Ryankozeyhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theoryhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Halavaishttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Halavaishttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Joe_Petrickhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Joe_Petrickhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ashley_Anker&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Ashley_Ankerhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Carolyn_Hurley&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Carolyn_Hurleyhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Albertin&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Albertinhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Derek&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Derekhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Kyounghee&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Kyoungheehttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Youling_Liu&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Youling_Liuhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ryankozey&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Ryankozeyhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory


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Contents

Wh#t is Communic#tionA...................................................................................................................... 6

"B>"BC1+B ' 7B>=....................................................................................................... D

1ntro!uction........................................................................................................................................... D

7B>1B E 3"">3C7B C('1C31'........................................................................(ncert#inty >e!uction........................................................................................................................."rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic.................................................................................................................. 2G

(ses #n! &r#ti%ic#tions....................................................................................................................... G4

he Fr#nk%urt chool...........................................................................................................................42

emiotics #n! yth.............................................................................................................................H0r#lity #n! *iter#cy.............................................................................................................................6

)i%%usion o% 1nno#tions..................................................................................................................... D0

ociologic#l ystems...........................................................................................................................D6 'et/ork ociety..................................................................................................................................IG

3( 7B


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Ch#pter

1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?ome h#e suggeste! th#t the ery common pr#ctice o% beginning # communic#tion theory cl#ss

/ith #n #ttempt to !e%ine communic#tion #n! theory is %l#/e! pe!#gogy. 'onetheless, it is !i%%icult

to begin # stu!y o% the theories o% communic#tion /ithout %irst h#ing some gr#sp, ho/eer tempor#ry

#n! tenuous, o% /h#t sorts o% phenomen# count #s communic#tion, #n! /h#t kin!s o% i!e#s #boutthose phenomen# constitute theory, or, more speci%ic#lly, goo! theory.

Communication is # slippery concept, #n! /hile /e m#y c#su#lly use the /or! /ith some

%reKuency, it is !i%%icult to #rrie #t # precise !e%inition th#t is #gree#ble to most o% those /ho consi!erthemseles communic#tion schol#rs. Communic#tion is so !eeply roote! in hum#n beh#iors #n! the

structures o% society th#t it is !i%%icult to think o% soci#l or beh#ior#l eents th#t #re #bsent

communic#tion.

We might s#y th#t communic#tion consists o% tr#nsmitting in%orm#tion %rom one person to #nother.

1n %#ct, m#ny schol#rs o% communic#tion t#ke this #s # /orking !e%inition, #n! use *#ss/ellLs m#xim8/ho s#ys /h#t to /hom to /h#t e%%ect9 #s # me#ns o% circumscribing the %iel! o% communic#tion.

thers suggest th#t there is # ritu#l process o% communic#tion th#t c#nnot be #rti%ici#lly #bstr#cte! %rom

# p#rticul#r historic#l #n! soci#l context. 3s # rel#tiely young %iel! o% inKuiry, it is prob#bly prem#tureto expect # conceptu#li?#tion o% communic#tion th#t is sh#re! #mong #ll or most o% those /ho /ork in

the #re#. Furthermore, communic#tion theory itsel% is, in m#ny /#ys, #n #ttempt to !escribe #n!

expl#in precisely /h#t communic#tion is.

1n!ee!, # theory is some %orm o% expl#n#tion o% # cl#ss o% obsere! phenomen#.


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1ntro!uction

2 INTRODUCTIONlie ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

Evaluating theory

h#t m#kes # theory goo!A ix criteri# might be s#i! to be properties o% # strong theory. 8he

terminology presente! here is !r#/n %rom *ittleOohn, Theories of Human Communication, but #simil#r set o% criteri# #re /i!ely #ccepte! both /ithin #n! outsi!e the %iel! o% communic#tion.9

W

Theoetica! Sco"e

7o/ gener#l is the theoryA h#t is, ho/ /i!ely #pplic#ble is itA 1n most c#ses, # theory th#t m#y

only be #pplie! /ithin # %#irly n#rro/ set o% circumst#nces is not consi!ere! #s use%ul #s # theory

th#t encomp#sses # ery /i!e r#nge o% communic#tie inter#ctions. he i!e#l, o% course, is #theory th#t succinctly expl#ins the n#ture o% hum#n communic#tion #s # /hole.

A""o"iateness

heories #re o%ten e#lu#te! b#se! upon ho/ /ell their epistemologic#l, ontologic#l, #n!#xiologic#l #ssumptions rel#te to the issue or Kuestion being expl#ine!. 1% # theory rec#pitul#tes

its #ssumptions 8i% it is t#utologic#l9, it is not #n e%%ectie theory.

Heuistic #a!ue

ome theories suggest the /#ys in /hich %urther rese#rch m#y be con!ucte!. y presenting #n

expl#n#tory mo!el, the theory gener#tes Kuestions or hypotheses th#t c#n be oper#tion#li?e!

rel#tiely e#sily. 1n pr#ctic#l terms, the success o% # theory m#y rest on ho/ re#!ily otherrese#rchers m#y continue to !o %ruit%ul /ork in re#ction or support.

$a!i%it&

1t m#y seem obious th#t %or # theory to be goo!, it must #lso be #li!. +#li!ity re%ers to the!egree to /hich the theory #ccur#tely represents the true st#te o% the /orl!. 3re the #rguments

intern#lly consistent #n! #re its pre!ictions #n! cl#ims !erie! logic#lly %rom its #ssumptionsA

#ny #lso reKuire th#t theories be %#lsi%i#ble th#t is, theories th#t present pre!ictions th#t--i% they proe to be incorrect--in#li!#te the theory. he #bsence o% such Kuestions signi%ic#ntly re!uces

the #lue o% the theory, since # theory th#t c#nnot be proen %#lse 8perh#ps9 c#nnot be sho/n to

be #ccur#te, either.

'asimon&

he l#/ o% p#rsimony 8cc#mLs r#?or 9 !ict#tes th#t # theory shoul! proi!e the simplest possible8i#ble9 expl#n#tion %or # phenomenon. thers suggest th#t goo! theory exhibits #n #esthetic

Ku#lity, th#t # goo! theory is be#uti%ul or n#tur#l. h#t it le#!s to #n 3h#P moment in /hich #n

expl#n#tion %eels #s i% it %its.

O"enness

heories, perh#ps p#r#!oxic#lly, shoul! not exist to the #bsolute exclusion o% other theories.

heory shoul! not be !ogm# it shoul! encour#ge #n! proi!e both %or skepticism #n! shoul!--to

/h#teer !egree possible--be comp#tible /ith other #ccepte! theory.

Wikibook s M (

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory/Introductionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory/Introductionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Communication_Theory/Introductionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Communication_Theory/Introductionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Introduction&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Introduction&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Communication_Theory/Introduction&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Communication_Theory/Introduction&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:epistemologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:ontologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:axiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:axiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:tautologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:operationalizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:validity_(psychometric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:falsifyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Occam's_razorhttp://wikibooks.org/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory/Introductionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Communication_Theory/Introductionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Introduction&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Communication_Theory/Introduction&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Communication_Theory/Introduction&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:epistemologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:ontologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:axiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:tautologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:operationalizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:validity_(psychometric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:falsifyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Occam's_razorhttp://wikibooks.org/


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Ch#pter 2

1t is import#nt to note th#t # theory is not true, or %#lse 8!espite the #boe !iscussion o%

%#lsi%i#bility9, but r#ther better or /orse #t expl#ining the c#uses o% # p#rticul#r eent. Bspeci#lly /ithinthe soci#l sciences, /e m#y %in! seer#l !i%%erent theories th#t e#ch expl#in # phenomenon in use%ul

/#ys. here is #lue in being #ble to use theories #s lenses through /hich you c#n un!erst#n!

communic#tion, #n! through /hich you c#n un!erst#n! the /orl! together /ith other schol#rs.

Theories and Models

#ny suggest th#t there is no such thing #s # success%ul bo!y o% communic#tion theory, but th#t

/e h#e been rel#tiely more success%ul in gener#ting mo!els o% communic#tion. 3 mo!el, #ccor!ingto # semin#l JH2 #rticle by


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1ntro!uction

Laws and Rules

he #im in the n#tur#l sciences is to cre#te /h#t, since 7empel #t le#st, h#s been c#lle! coeringl#/. Coering l#/ reKuires the explicit rel#tionship o% # c#us#l con!ition to #n e%%ect /ithin cert#in

boun!eries. 1t h#s been obsere! th#t soci#l rel#tionships #re ery !i%%icult to c#pture /ithin the

structure o% coering l#/. "erh#ps this is bec#use people h#e the #nnoying h#bit o% iol#ting n#tur#l

l#/s. WittgensteinLs l#ter /ork in p#rticul#r put %or/#r! the possibility th#t rules-b#se! systems m#y proi!e # more e%%ectie !escriptie mo!el o% /enhum#n communic#tion. his m#y #ccount %or the

propensity o% communic#tion theorists to !eelop mo!els more o%ten th#n theory. >ules-b#se!#ppro#ches #re p#rticul#rly popul#r /ithin speech communic#tion, /here hum#n inter#ction is seen to

procee! #long structur#l, though not necess#rily c#us#l, lines.

Mapping the Theoretial Landsape

3 !iscipline is !e%ine! in l#rge p#rt by its theoretic#l structure. 1nste#! communic#tion, #t its

present st#te, might be consi!ere! # %iel! o% inKuiry. heory is o%ten borro/e! %rom other /ensoci#l

sciences, /hile communic#tion proi!es %e/ ex#mples o% theories th#t h#e been exporte! to other!isciplines. Wh#t is t#ught #s communic#tion theory #t one institution is unlikely to be #t #ll simil#r to

/h#t is t#ught /ithin other communic#tion schools. his theoretic#l #rieg#tion m#kes it !i%%icult to

come to terms /ith the %iel! #s # /hole. h#t s#i!, there #re some common t#xonomies th#t #re use! to

!ii!e up the r#nge o% communic#tion rese#rch. /o common m#ppings /ill be brie%ly presente! here.

#ny #uthors #n! rese#rchers !ii!e communic#tion by /h#t #re sometimes c#lle! *conte+ts* o

*!e#e!s,* but more o%ten represent institution#l histories. he stu!y o% communic#tion in the (, /hile

occurring /ithin !ep#rtments o% psychology, sociology, linguistics, #n! #nthropology #mong others,gener#lly !eelope! %rom schools o% rhetoric #n! schools o% Oourn#lism. While m#ny o% these h#e

become !ep#rtments o% communic#tion, they o%ten ret#in their historic#l roots, #!hering l#rgely to

theories %rom speech communic#tion in the %ormer c#se, #n! m#ss me!i# in the l#tter. he gre#t !ii!e bet/een speech communic#tion #n! m#ss communic#tion is Ooine! by # number o% sm#ller sub-#re#s o%

communic#tion rese#rch, inclu!ing intercultur#l #n! intern#tion#l communic#tion, sm#ll group

communic#tion, communic#tion technology, policy #n! leg#l stu!ies o% communic#tion,telecommunic#tion, #n! /ork !one un!er # #riety o% other l#bels. ome o% these !ep#rtments t#ke #

l#rgely soci#l science perspectie, others ten! more he#ily to/#r! the hum#nities, #n! still others #re

ge#re! more to/#r! pro!uction #n! pro%ession#l prep#r#tion.

hese leels o% communic#tion proi!e some /#y o% grouping communic#tion theories, but

ineit#bly, there #re theories #n! concepts th#t le#k %rom one #re# to #nother, or th#t %#il to %in! # home

#t #ll. 1% communic#tion is # cohesie %iel! o% stu!y, one /oul! expect to see # cohesie set o% theories,

or #t le#st # common un!erst#n!ing o% the structure o% the %iel!, #n! this #ppe#rs to still be !eeloping.

3nother /#y o% !ii!ing up the communic#tion %iel! emph#si?es the #ssumptions th#t un!ergir!

p#rticul#r theories, mo!els, #n! #ppro#ches. While this ten!s #lso to be b#se! on institution#l !iisions,theories /ithin e#ch o% the se#en *ta%itions* o% communic#tion theory th#t >obert Cr#ig suggests

ten! to rein%orce one #nother, #n! ret#in the s#me groun! epistemologic#l #n! #xiologic#l #ssumptions.

7is tr#!itions inclu!e the rhetoric#l, semiotic, phenomenologic#l, cybernetic, sociopsychologic#l, #n!sociocultur#l tr#!itions. B#ch o% these #re, %or Cr#ig, cle#rly !e%ine! #g#inst the others #n! rem#in

cohesie #ppro#ches to !escribing communic#tie beh#ior. 3s # t#xonomic #i!, these l#bels help to

Wikibook s M -

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Carl_Hempelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Carl_Hempelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:covering_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:covering_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Ludwig_Wittgensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Ludwig_Wittgensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:human_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:journalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:mass_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:mass_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:mass_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:communication_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:telecommunicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:semioticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:phenomenologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:sociopsychologyhttp://wikibooks.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Carl_Hempelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:covering_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:covering_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Ludwig_Wittgensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:human_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:journalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:mass_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:communication_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:telecommunicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:semioticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:phenomenologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:sociopsychologyhttp://wikibooks.org/


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Ch#pter 2

org#ni?e theory by its #ssumptions, #n! help rese#rchers to un!erst#n! the re#sons some theories m#y

be incommensur#ble.

While these t/o #ppro#ches #re ery commonly use!, it seems th#t they !ecentr#li?e the pl#ce o%

l#ngu#ge #n! m#chines #s communic#tie technologies. he i!e# th#t communic#tion is 8#s +ygotsky #rgues9 the prim#ry tool o% # species th#t is !e%ine! by its tools rem#ins #t the outskirts o%

communic#tion theory. 1t is represente! some/h#t in the Toonto Schoo! o. communication theo&

8#ltern#tiely sometimes c#lle! me!ium theory9 #s represente! by the /ork o% 1nnis, c*uh#n, #n!others. 1t seems th#t the /#ys in /hich in!ii!u#ls #n! groups use the technologies o% communic#tion--#n! in some c#ses #re use! by them--rem#ins centr#l to /h#t communic#tion rese#rchers !o, #n! the

i!e#s th#t surroun! this, #n! in p#rticul#r the pl#ce o% persu#sion, #re const#nts #cross both the

tr#!itions #n! leels o% communic#tion theory.

/ M Communic#tion heory

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:lev_Vygotskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:medium_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:medium_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Harold_Innishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Marshall_McLuhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Marshall_McLuhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:persuasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:persuasionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:lev_Vygotskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:medium_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Harold_Innishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Marshall_McLuhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:persuasionhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory


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(ncert#inty >e!uction

0 UNCRTAINT R DUCTION

Charles Berger, Richard Calabrese

lie ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

Advanes in Interpersonal Co!!uniation" Charles#erger$ Rihard Cala%rese and &ey Unertainty Theorists

ince the mi!-t/entieth century, the concept o% in%orm#tion h#s been # strong %oun!#tion %orcommunic#tion rese#rch #n! the !eelopment communic#tion theory. 1n%orm#tion exch#nge is #

b#sic hum#n %unction in /hich in!ii!u#ls reKuest, proi!e, #n! exch#nge in%orm#tion /ith the go#l o%

re!ucing uncert#inty. (ncert#inty >e!uction theory 8(>9, #ccre!ite! to Ch#rles >. erger #n!>ich#r! ;. C#l#brese 8JDH9, recogni?e! th#t re!ucing uncert#inty /#s # centr#l motie o%

communic#tion. hrough the !eelopment o% (>, these schol#rs pioneere! the %iel! o% interperson#l

communic#tion by ex#mining this signi%ic#nt rel#tionship in uncert#inty rese#rch.

7e#lth #n! ry#nt 820009 st#te Qne o% the moti#tions un!erpinning interperson#l

communic#tion is the #cKuisition o% in%orm#tion /ith /hich to re!uce uncert#intyR 8p. HG9. he stu!yo% in%orm#tion is b#sic to #ll %iel!s o% communic#tion, but its rel#tion to the stu!y o% uncert#inty in

p#rticul#r #!#nce! theoretic#l rese#rch in the %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion. (> pl#ces the

role o% communic#tion into the centr#l %ocus /hich /#s # key step in the !eelopment o% the %iel! o%

interperson#l communic#tion. erger #n! C#l#brese 8JDH9 note QWhen communic#tion rese#rchersh#e con!ucte! empiric#l rese#rch on the interperson#l communic#tion process, they h#e ten!e! to

employ soci#l psychologic#l theories #s st#rting pointsR 8p. JJ9. he rese#rch un!erlying the theory #n!

e%%orts m#!e by other contempor#ries m#rke! the emergence o% interperson#l communic#tion rese#rch/ith the !eelopment o% (>, communic#tion rese#rchers beg#n to look to communic#tion %or theories

o% gre#ter un!erst#n!ing r#ther th#n theoretic#l #ppro#ches %oun!e! in other soci#l sciences.

The History o' Interpersonal Co!!uniation Researh" A#rie' Overview

r#!ition#lly, communic#tion h#s been ie/e! #s #n inter!isciplin#ry %iel!. 1nterperson#l

communic#tion is most o%ten linke! to stu!ies into l#ngu#ge, soci#l cognition, #n! soci#l psychology."rior to the J60s, only # mo!est #mount o% rese#rch /#s complete! un!er the l#bel o% interperson#l

communic#tion. 7e#th #n! ry#nt 820009 m#rke! this time #s the origin o% the %iel! o% interperson#lcommunic#tion Q"#rticul#rly since J60, schol#rs #!opte! communic#tion #s the centr#l term bec#usethey /#nte! to stu!y it #s # signi%ic#nt #n! uniKue #spect o% hum#n beh#iorR 8p. HJ9.

he J60s pro!uce! rese#rch th#t imp#cte! the !eelopment o% #n interperson#l %iel!. >ese#rch in

psychi#try ex#mine! person#lity #n! the in%luence o% rel#tionships, %in!ing th#t psychi#tric problems/ere not only # result o% sel% problems, but # result o% rel#tion#l problems #s /ell. >ese#rch tren!s in

hum#nistic psychology #n! existenti#lism inspire! the i!e# th#t rel#tionships coul! be improe!

through e%%ectie communic#tion 87e#th E ry#nt, 20009.

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Ch#pter G

>ese#rch con!ucte! un!er the title o% interperson#l communic#tion initi#lly %ocuse! on persu#sion,

soci#l in%luence, #n! sm#ll group processes. heories explore! the role o% le#rning, !isson#nce, b#l#nce, soci#l Ou!gment, #n! re#ct#nce 8erger, 200H9. ese#rch into interperson#l communic#tion theory typic#lly %ocuses on the !eelopment, m#inten#nce,

#n! !issolution o% rel#tionships. 1t h#s been recogni?e! th#t interperson#l communic#tion is moti#te!

by uncert#inty re!uction 8erger E C#l#brese, JDH9. ince its intro!uction in the JD0s, uncert#intyh#s been recogni?e! #s # m#Oor %iel! o% stu!y th#t h#s contribute! to the !eelopment o% the %iel! o%

communic#tion #s # /hole. his ch#pter stries to %ocus on those theorists /ho pioneere! the rese#rch

o% uncert#inty re!uction in communic#tion. heir /ork is cruci#l to the !eelopment o% the %iel! o%

interperson#l communic#tion, #n! is centr#l in our un!erst#n!ing o% interperson#l processes.

(e'ining Unertainty

ince uncert#inty h#s been i!enti%ie! #s #n import#nt construct, necess#ry to the stu!y o%communic#tion, it /oul! be bene%ici#l to kno/ /hen the concept origin#te!, #n! ho/ it h#s been

!e%ine! #n! stu!ie!. ne /#y to consi!er uncert#inty is through the theoretic#l %r#me/ork o%

in%orm#tion theory. h#nnon #n! We#er 8J4J9 propose! th#t uncert#inty existe! in # gien situ#tion

/hen there /#s # high #mount o% possible #ltern#ties #n! the prob#bility o% their eent /#s rel#tielyeKu#l. h#nnon #n! We#er rel#te! this ie/ o% uncert#inty to the tr#nsmission o% mess#ges, but their

/ork #lso contribute! to the !eelopment o% (>.

erger #n! C#l#brese 8JDH9 #!opte! concepts %rom the in%orm#tion theorists #s /ell #s 7ei!erLs

8JHI9 rese#rch in #ttribution. erger #n! C#l#brese 8JDH9 exp#n!e! the concept o% uncert#inty to %it

interperson#l communic#tion by !e%ining uncert#inty #s the Qnumber o% #ltern#tie /#ys in /hich e#chinter#ct#nt might beh#eR 8p. 009. he gre#ter the leel o% uncert#inty th#t exists in # situ#tion, the

sm#ller the ch#nce in!ii!u#ls /ill be #ble to pre!ict beh#iors #n! occurrences.

)uring inter#ctions in!ii!u#ls #re not only %#ce! /ith problems o% pre!icting present #n! p#st beh#iors, but #lso expl#ining /hy p#rtners beh#e or beliee in the /#y th#t they !o. erger #n!

r#!#cSs 8JI29 !e%inition o% uncert#inty highlighte! the complexity o% this process /hen they st#te!

Q(ncert#inty, then, c#n stem %rom the l#rge number o% #ltern#tie things th#t # str#nger c#n beliee or potenti#lly s#yR 8p. D9.

(ncert#inty pl#ys # signi%ic#nt role /hen ex#mining rel#tionships. 7igh leels o% uncert#inty c#nseerely inhibit rel#tion#l !eelopment. (ncert#inty c#n c#use stress #n! #nxiety /hich c#n le#! to lo/

1 M Communic#tion heory

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leels o% communic#tor competence 8West E urner, 20009. 1ncompetent communic#tors m#y not be

#ble to !eelop rel#tionships or m#y be too #nxious to eng#ge in initi#l inter#ctions. West #n! urner

820009 note th#t lo/er leels o% uncert#inty c#use! incre#se! erb#l #n! nonerb#l beh#ior, incre#se!

leels o% intim#cy, #n! incre#se! liking. 1n inter#ctions in!ii!u#ls #re expecte! to incre#se pre!ict#bility /ith the go#l th#t this /ill le#! to the #bility to pre!ict #n! expl#in /h#t /ill occur in

%uture inter#ctions. When high uncert#inty exists it is o%ten !i%%icult to re#ch this go#l.

3lthough in!ii!u#ls seek to re!uce uncert#inty, high leels o% cert#inty #n! pre!ict#bility c#n #lsoinhibit # rel#tionship. 7e#th #n! ry#nt 820009 st#te Qoo much cert#inty #n! pre!ict#bility c#n

!e#!en # rel#tionship too much uncert#inty r#ises its costs to #n un#ccept#ble leel. >el#tionship buil!ing is # !i#lectic o% st#bility #n! ch#nge, cert#inty #n! uncert#intyR 8p. 2D9. here%ore uncert#inty

is # concept th#t pl#ys # signi%ic#nt role in interperson#l communic#tion. he %ollo/ing theorists

explore ho/ communic#tion c#n be # ehicle in!ii!u#ls utili?e to re!uce uncert#inty.

Early In'luenes

he %ollo/ing theorists signi%ic#ntly contribute! to the ex#min#tion o% uncert#inty incommunic#tion. he in%luence o% their /ork c#n be seen re%lecte! in the #ssumptions o% erger #n!C#l#brese 8JDH9.

5eon 6estin7e 81313913/3:

*eon Festinger stu!ie! psychology #t the (niersity o% 1o/# un!er the !irection o% ochester, but in J4H he %ollo/e! *e/in to #ss#chusetts

1nstitute o% echnology #n! the >ese#rch Center %or &roup )yn#mics. 3%ter *e/inLs !e#th, Festinger/orke! #t the (niersity o% ichig#n, t#n%or! (niersity, #n! the 'e/ chool %or oci#l >ese#rch

8#melson, 20009.

uch o% FestingerSs rese#rch %ollo/e! his mentor *e/in #n! %urther !eelope! *e/inSs theories.

eer#l o% FestingerLs theories /ere highly in%luenti#l on the emerging %iel! o% interperson#l

communic#tion #n! on the !eelopment o% (>. Festinger is best kno/n %or the theories o% Cognitie

)isson#nce #n! oci#l Comp#rison. Cognitie )isson#nce theory 8C)9 #ttempte! to expl#in ho/ #nimb#l#nce #mong cognitions might #%%ect #n in!ii!u#l. *e/in %oresh#!o/e! C) in his obser#tions

reg#r!ing #ttitu!e ch#nge in sm#ll groups 8Festinger, JI29. C) #llo/s %or three rel#tionships to

occur #mong cognitions # conson#nt rel#tionship, in /hich cognitions #re in eKuilibrium /ith e#ch

other # !isson#nt rel#tionship, in /hich cognitions #re in competition /ith e#ch other #n! #nirrele#nt rel#tionship, in /hich the cognitions in Kuestion h#e no e%%ect on one #nother 8West E

urner, 20009. Cognitie )isson#nce, like uncert#inty, h#s #n element o% #rous#l #n! !iscom%ort th#tin!ii!u#ls seek to re!uce.

oci#l Comp#rison theory postul#tes th#t in!ii!u#ls look to %ee!b#ck %rom others to e#lu#te their per%orm#nce #n! #bilities. o e#lu#te the sel%, the in!ii!u#l usu#lly seeks the opinions o% others /ho

#re simil#r to the sel%. his nee! %or soci#l comp#rison c#n result in con%ormity pressures 8renholm E

;ensen, 20049. erger #n! C#l#brese 8JDH9 rel#te! soci#l comp#rison to (> by st#ting th#t

QFestinger h#s suggeste! th#t persons seek out simil#r others /ho #re proxim#te /hen they experience

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# high leel o% uncert#inty reg#r!ing the #ppropri#teness o% their beh#ior #n!$or opinions in #

p#rticul#r situ#tionR 8p. 0D9.

Festinger receie! the )istinguishe! cientist #/#r! o% the 3meric#n "sychologic#l 3ssoci#tion

#n! the )istinguishe! enior cientist 3/#r! %rom the ociety o% Bxperiment#l oci#l "sychology.FestingerSs leg#cy is signi%ic#nt, #n! his theoretic#l in%luence c#n still be recogni?e! in contempor#ry

soci#l science rese#rch. 3ronson 8in Festinger, JI09 st#te!, Q1t /#s in this er# th#t *eon Festinger

inente! #n! !eelope! his theory o% cognitie !isson#nce, #n! in my opinion, soci#l psychology h#snot been the s#me sinceR 8p. G9.

6it; Hei%e 81/3)913//:

Frit? 7ei!er e#rne! his !octor#te in philosophy %rom the (niersity o% &r#?. )uring his time in

Burope, 7ei!er /#s #ble to /ork /ith m#ny reno/ne! psychologists such #s Wol%g#ng


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C!au%e < Shannon 8131)921: an% Waen Wea#e 81/34913-/:

Cl#u!e B. h#nnon receie! his .. %rom ichig#n t#te (niersity #n! his "h.). %rom#ss#chusetts 1nstitute o% echnology 819. h#nnon /orke! %or the '#tion#l >ese#rch Council, the

'#tion#l )e%ense >ese#rch Committee, #n! ell elephone *#bor#tories, /here he !eelope! the

m#them#tic#l theory o% communic#tion, no/ kno/n #s in%orm#tion theory, /ith W#rren We#er.

h#nnon /ent on to te#ch #t 1 until his !e#th in 200. )uring his li%etime h#nnon /#s #/#r!e! the 'obel "ri?e, *eibm#nn "ri?e, #ll#ntine e!#l, WhoLs Who *i%e 3chieement "ri?e, #n! the ocke%eller Foun!#tion, lo#n-ese#rch, 3l%re! ". lo#n Foun!#tion, #n! #lk 1nstitute %or iologic#l tu!ies,sering in m#ny le#!ership roles. 7e /#s #/#r!e! ('BCLs . erger receie! his .. %rom "ennsyl#ni# t#te (niersity #n! his .3. #n! "h.).%rom ichig#n t#te (niersity. 3%ter gr#!u#tion, erger /orke! #t 1llinois t#te (niersity #t

'orm#l, 'orth/estern (niersity, #n! the (niersity o% C#li%orni# #t )#is, /here he continues to/ork to!#y #s the ch#ir o% the )ep#rtment o% Communic#tion. erger h#s been inole! /ith the

1ntern#tion#l Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion since the JD0s, is #n #ctie member o% the '#tion#l

Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion, #n! belongs to such pro%ession#l groups #s the 3meric#n "sychologic#lociety, the ociety %or Bxperiment#l oci#l "sychology, the ociety %or "erson#lity #n! oci#l

"sychology, #n! the 1o/# 'et/ork %or "erson#l >el#tionships 8QCh#rles >. ergerR, 2009.

erger h#s publishe! on # #riety o% topics in interperson#l communic#tion inclu!ing uncert#inty

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Ch#pter G

re!uction, str#tegic inter#ction, in%orm#tion-seeking, #ttribution, interperson#l #ttr#ction, soci#l

cognition, #n! #pprehension. 1n the p#st thirty-%ie ye#rs, erger h#s publishe! #pproxim#tely %orty#rticles #ppe#ring in the Communication Education, Communication onographs, Communication

Research, Communication Theory, Communication !uarterly, Communication "ear#oo$, Educational

and Psychological easurement, Human Communication Research, %ournal of Communication,

%ournal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology %ournal of &ocial Issues, %ournal of Personality, Personal Relationship Issues, &peech onographs, 'estern %ournal of Communication, #n! the

'estern %ournal of &peech Communication. erger h#s co#uthore! %ie books #n! contribute! to oerthirty other texts. 1n JI2, erger receie! the &ol!en 3nniers#ry ook 3/#r!, presente! by thepeech Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion, %or his text (anguage and &ocial )nowledge.

Richa% < Ca!abese> =io7a"h&

>ich#r! ;. C#l#brese receie! his .3. %rom *oyol# (niersity, t/o .3. !egrees %rom r#!ley(niersity, #n! his "h.). %rom 'orth/estern (niersity. C#l#brese h#s t#ught #t r#!ley (niersity,

the (niersity o% 1llinois #t (rb#n, #n! o/ling &reen (niersity. C#l#brese bec#me # pro%essor in

communic#tion #t )ominic#n (niersity in >ier Forest, 1llinois, in J6D, /here he continues to /ork

to!#y. Currently, C#l#brese is the !irector o% the #ster o% cience in rg#ni?#tion #n#gement"rogr#m #t )ominic#n (niersity #n! #lso # consult#nt %or org#ni?#tion#l communic#tion 8Q>ich#r!

;oseph C#l#breseR, 2009.

C#l#brese is # member o% the 1ntern#tion#l 3ssoci#tion o% usiness Communic#tors, the peech

Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion, #n! is inole! /ith the '#tion#l Communic#tion 3ssoci#tion. C#l#brese

is the co#uthor o% Communication and Education &$ills for *ietetics Professionals.

A Theo& o. Uncetaint& Re%uction> @Some e+"!oations in initia! inteaction an%

be&on%> Toa% a %e#e!o"menta! theo& o. inte"esona! communicationB 813-(:<

1n JD, erger bec#me #n #ssist#nt pro%essor o% communic#tion #t 'orth/estern (niersity.)uring this time, C#l#brese stu!ie! un!er erger, receiing his "h.). in JDG. 1n JDH, erger #n!

C#l#brese publishe! Qome explor#tions in initi#l inter#ction #n! beyon! o/#r! # !eelopment#l

theory o% interperson#l communic#tion,R /hich seres #s the %oun!#tion o% (>. his #rticle inspire! #/#e o% ne/ rese#rch ex#mining the role o% uncert#inty in communic#tion. erger #n! C#l#brese

8JDH9 %orme! (>, #lso kno/n #s initi#l inter#ction theory, to expl#in the role o% communic#tion in

re!ucing uncert#inty in initi#l inter#ctions #n! the !eelopment o% interperson#l rel#tionships.

he theory /#s !eelope!, like other interperson#l theories be%ore it 87ei!er, JHI9, /ith the go#l

o% #llo/ing the communic#tor the #bility to pre!ict #n! expl#in initi#l inter#ctions. hough erger #n!

C#l#brese !i! not explore the re#lm o% subseKuent inter#ction, they !i! strongly recommen! th#t %uturerese#rch shoul! inestig#te the #pplic#tion o% the %r#me/ork o% (> to !eelope! rel#tionships.

Bspeci#lly in initi#l encounters, there exists # high !egree o% uncert#inty gien th#t # number o%

possible #ltern#ties exist in the situ#tion 8h#nnon E We#er, J4J9. ut in!ii!u#ls c#n usecommunic#tion to re!uce this uncert#inty. erger #n! C#l#brese 8JDH9 m#int#ine! th#t

Qcommunic#tion beh#ior is one ehicle through /hich such pre!ictions #n! expl#n#tions #re

themseles %ormul#te!R 8p.09. 1n!ii!u#ls h#e the #bility to !ecre#se uncert#inty by est#blishing

pre!ict#ble p#tterns o% inter#ction. ec#use o% this, re!ucing uncert#inty c#n help %oster the!eelopment o% rel#tionships.




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erger #n! C#l#brese 8JDH9 %oun! th#t uncert#inty /#s rel#te! to seen other communic#tion #n!

rel#tion#l-%ocuse! concepts erb#l output, nonerb#l /#rmth, in%orm#tion seeking, sel%-!isclosure,

reciprocity, simil#rity, #n! liking. From those concepts, the rese#rchers intro!uce! # collection o%

#xioms, or propositions, supporte! by p#st uncert#inty rese#rch. B#ch #xiom st#tes # rel#tionship bet/een # communic#tion concept #n! uncert#inty. From this b#sis o% #xioms, the theorists /ere #ble

to use !e!uctie logic to in%er t/enty-one theorems th#t comprise the theory o% uncert#inty re!uction

8West E urner, 20009. he proce!ure use! to !eelop the #xioms #n! theorems /#s #!opte! %rom

l#lock 8J6J9. 3 complete list o% the #xioms #n! theorems o% (> is ##il#ble in 3ppen!ix 3.

Centr#l to (> is the supposition th#t in initi#l inter#ctions, #n in!ii!u#lSs prim#ry concern is to!ecre#se uncert#inty #n! incre#se pre!ict#bility reg#r!ing the beh#iors o% the sel% #n! the

communic#tie p#rtner. his i!e# is b#se! on 7ei!erLs 8JHI9 notion th#t in!ii!u#ls seek to m#ke

sense out o% the eents he perceies 8erger E C#l#brese, JDH9. 1n!ii!u#ls must be #ble to eng#ge in pro#ctie #n! retro#ctie str#tegies to le#rn ho/ to pre!ict /h#t /ill h#ppen #n! #lso expl#in /h#t h#s

#lre#!y h#ppene!.

7e#th #n! ry#nt 820009 st#te! Q(ncert#inty-re!uction theory is # po/er%ul expl#n#tion %orcommunic#tion bec#use it oper#tes in #ll contexts to help expl#in /hy people communic#te #s they !oR

8p. 2D9. he imp#ct o% erger #n! C#l#brese 8JDH9 on the %iel! o% interperson#l communic#tion /#s#n! continues to be proli%ic. 1n the p#st thirty ye#rs, this #rticle h#s gener#te! # plethor# o% rese#rch,

ch#nging the /#y th#t rel#tionships #re explore! #n! #n#ly?e!.

+"ansions on Uncetaint& Re%uction

3lthough (> /#s prim#rily %orme! to expl#in beh#ior in initi#l inter#ctions, its #pplic#tion h#s

since been exp#n!e! to incorpor#te #ll leels o% interperson#l rel#tionships. Q(ncert#inties #re ongoingin rel#tionships, #n! thus the process o% uncert#inty re!uction is rele#nt in !eelope! rel#tionships #s

/ell #s in initi#l inter#ctionsR 8West E urner, 2000, p. 49. he %ollo/ing section /ill ex#mine

uncert#inty re!uction rese#rch since its intro!uction in JDH.

A< Cha!es =e7e

ince its conception, erger h#s pro!uce! # plethor# o% rese#rch exp#n!ing (> to better %it the

!yn#mic n#ture o% interperson#l rel#tions. erger 8JDJ9 est#blishe! th#t three pre!ece#sing con!itionsmust exist %or #n in!ii!u#l to re!uce uncert#inty. hese moti#tions to re!uce uncert#inty inclu!e #

potenti#l %or costs or re/#r!s, !ei#tions %rom expecte! beh#ior, #n! the possibility o% %uture

inter#ction.

1n JI2, erger te#me! up /ith ;#mes ;. r#!#c, %ormerly o% (niersity o% C#li%orni# #t #nt##rb#r# 8JI0-20049, to publish # book !eote! to uncert#inty re!uction rese#rch. heir text, title!

(anguage and &ocial )nowledge+ ncertainty in Interpersonal Relations, /#s #lso e!ite! by 7o/#r!&iles, origin#tor o% Communic#tion 3ccommo!#tion heory #n! #lso %#culty o% (C. 1n this text, the

#uthors %ocuse! on the %unction o% communic#tion, #n! speci%ic#lly l#ngu#ge, #s # proponent %or

re!ucing uncert#inty.

erger #n! r#!#c 8JI29 propose! six #xioms th#t built on (>Ss origin#l seen #xioms to

exten! the rel#tionship bet/een uncert#inty re!uction #n! l#ngu#ge. hrough the use o% these #xioms

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the #uthors speci%ic#lly ex#mine! the role o% l#ngu#ge #s #n uncert#inty re!ucing #gent. he #uthors

%urther #rr#nge! uncert#inty into t/o c#tegories cognitie uncert#inty #n! beh#iour#l uncert#inty8erger E r#!#c, JI29. Cognitie uncert#inty re%ers to uncert#inty #ssoci#te! /ith belie%s #n!

#ttitu!es. eh#iour#l uncert#inty re%ers to uncert#inty reg#r!ing the possible beh#iors in # situ#tion.

his c#tegori?#tion helpe! rese#rchers i!enti%y the origins o% uncert#inty, /hich resulte! in #n

incre#se! #bility to #!!ress the !iscom%ort pro!uce! by uncert#inty.

erger #n! r#!#c /ere cognitie th#t (> /oul! be more use%ul i% its in%luence /#s exten!e! toinclu!e !eelope! rel#tionships #s /ell #s initi#l inter#ction. erger #n! r#!#c 8JI29 #llei#te! this by st#ting th#t uncert#inty re!uction /#s critic#l to rel#tion#l !eelopment, m#inten#nce, #n!

!issolution #s /ell. erger #g#in rel#te! his rese#rch to 7ei!er 8JHI9 by st#ting th#t in!ii!u#ls m#ke

c#su#l #ttributions reg#r!ing communic#tie beh#ior. 3s rel#tionships %urther !eelop, in!ii!u#lsm#ke retro#ctie #n! pro#ctie #ttributions reg#r!ing # p#rtnerSs communic#tion #n! beh#ior 8erger

E r#!#c, JI29.

erger 8JID9 highlighte! the role o% costs #n! re/#r!s in rel#tionships by st#ting th#t Quncert#intyre!uction is # necess#ry con!ition %or the !e%inition o% the currency o% soci#l exch#nge, #n! it is

through communic#tie #ctiity th#t uncert#inty is re!uce!R 8erger, JID, p. HD9. erger 8JID9 #lso

exp#n!e! (> by cl#iming th#t three types o% in%orm#tion-seeking str#tegies #re use! to re!uceuncert#inty p#ssie, #ctie, or inter#ctie str#tegies. his is rel#te! to the concepts o% in%orm#tion

theory 8h#nnon E We#er, J4J9, emph#si?ing th#t incre#se! in%orm#tion results in !ecre#se!

uncert#inty.

=< De#e!o"ments .om Othe Reseaches

he l#tter improements m#!e by erger exp#n!e! the scope #n! #lue o% (>. ther rese#rchers

#lso m#!e contributions to %urther !eelopments o% (>. ince its intro!uction in JDH, (> h#s been

exp#n!e! %rom # theory o% rel#tion#l !eelopment to one #lso import#nt in est#blishe! rel#tionships.

he %ollo/ing sections ex#mine the contributions m#!e by current interperson#l rese#rchers to (>.

Wi!!iam Dou7!as Willi#m )ougl#s /#s # stu!ent #t 'orth/estern (niersity /hile erger /#s on %#culty. he t/o

schol#rs coll#bor#te! in their stu!y o% uncert#inty in JI2, #n! )ougl#s continue! in the s#me

ein o% rese#rch #%ter gr#!u#tion. )ougl#sS rese#rch h#s #ppe#re! in m#Oor communic#tion Oourn#ls inclu!ing Communication onographs, Communication Research, Human

Communication Research, %ournal of -roadcasting and Electronic edia, #n! the %ournal of

Personal and &ocial Relationships. )ougl#sS rese#rch in uncert#inty #ccounts %or in!ii!u#l

!i%%erences /hen ex#mining initi#l inter#ctions. uch o% his rese#rch exp#n!e! preious /ork ininiti#l inter#ction, ex#mine! glob#l uncert#inty, sel%-monitoring, #n! the rel#tionship o% erb#l

communic#tion to uncert#inty re!uction.)ougl#s 8JID9 ex#mine! one o% the moti#tions to re!uce uncert#inty origin#lly posite! inerger 8JDJ9 the #nticip#tion o% %uture inter#ction. 1n this stu!y, Kuestion-#sking in situ#tions o%

#rying leels o% #nticip#te! %uture inter#ction /#s #n#ly?e!. )ougl#s %oun! th#t high leels o%

mutu#l Kuestion-#sking occurre! /hen the leel o% #nticip#te! %uture inter#ction /#s mo!er#te.his %in!ing suggeste! th#t in!ii!u#ls seem to #oi! neg#tie conseKuences 8)ougl#s, JID9.

)ougl#s 8JJ09 exp#n!e! this erb#l communic#tion to uncert#inty rel#tionship by !iscoering

th#t Kuestion-#sking resulte! in uncert#inty re!uction /hich in turn resulte! in incre#se! leels o%!isclosure.

)ougl#s 8JJ9 !e%ines glob#l uncert#inty #s Quncert#inty #bout #cKu#int#nceship in gener#lR 8p.

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GH69. 1n this #rticle, )ougl#s %oun! th#t in!ii!u#ls /ith high glob#l uncert#inty #re less likely to

eng#ge in Kuestion-#sking, sel%-!isclosure, #n! #re e#lu#te! #s less competent communic#tors

th#n in!ii!u#ls /ith lo/ glob#l uncert#inty. Fin!ings #lso suggeste! th#t high glob#l uncert#inty

positiely correl#tes to communic#tion #pprehension. his h#s # neg#tie e%%ect on rel#tion#l!eelopment #n! c#n result in lo/ leels o% rel#tion#l s#tis%#ction.

Uncetaint&9Inceasin7 #ents

#lly "l#n#lp #n! ;#mes 7oneycutt 8JIH9 #lso m#!e subst#nti#l contributions to uncert#intyre!uction rese#rch. "l#n#lp #n! 7oneycutt recogni?e! th#t communic#tion !oes not #l/#ys

%unction #s #n uncert#inty re!ucing #gent, but c#n #lso sere to incre#se uncert#inty /henin%orm#tion con%licts /ith p#st kno/le!ge. he #uthors rese#rche! /h#t speci%ic eents le#! to

incre#se! uncert#inty in interperson#l rel#tionships #n! their e%%ects on both the in!ii!u#l #n!

the rel#tionship. he results %oun! th#t uncert#inty-incre#sing eents /ere ery likely to result inrel#tion#l !issolution or !ecre#se! closeness o% the rel#tion#l p#rtners. his rese#rch /#s ery

bene%ici#l bec#use it le! to better expl#n#tions reg#r!ing the role o% communic#tion in uncert#inty

re!uction.

Romantic Re!ationshi"s

#lcolm "#rks #n! #r# 3!elm#n 8JIG9 sought to exp#n! the bre#!th o% (> to #pply torom#ntic rel#tionships. )#t# /#s collecte! %rom in!ii!u#ls in prem#rit#l rom#ntic rel#tionships

through Kuestionn#ires #n! telephone interie/s. 1n!ii!u#ls /ho communic#te! more o%ten /iththeir rom#ntic p#rtner #n! their p#rtnerSs net/ork 8%#mily #n! %rien!s9 perceie! gre#ter

simil#rity to their p#rtner. hey #lso receie! gre#ter support %rom their o/n net/ork 8%#mily #n!

%rien!s9, #n! experience! # lo/er !egree o% uncert#inty 8"#rks E 3!elm#n, JIG9. hese %in!ingssupport (>Ss #xioms th#t gre#ter erb#l communic#tion #n! simil#rity sere to !ecre#se

uncert#inty 8erger E C#l#brese, JDH9, #n! #lso exten!s the scope o% (> to rom#ntic

rel#tionships.

Re!ationa! Maintenance

1n recent ye#rs, stu!ies h#e begun to link uncert#inty re!uction to rel#tion#l m#inten#nce processes. )#inton #n! 3ylor 82009 connecte! rel#tion#l uncert#inty positiely to Oe#lousy #n!

neg#tiely to rel#tion#l m#inten#nce beh#iors. hese results suggeste! th#t in!ii!u#ls #re less

likely to eng#ge in rel#tion#l m#inten#nce /hen high uncert#inty exists in the rel#tionship.

Cu!tua! Stu%ies

>ese#rch con!ucte! by Willi#m &u!ykunst #n! suk#s# 'ishi!# 8JI49 exp#n!e! (>Ss scope

to intercultur#l contexts. peci%ic#lly the rese#rchers ex#mine! the e%%ects o% #ttitu!e simil#rity,cultur#l simil#rity, culture, #n! sel%-monitoring on #ttr#ction, intent to interrog#te, intent to sel%-

!isclose, #ttribution#l con%i!ence, #n! intent to !ispl#y nonerb#l #%%ili#tie beh#iors

8&u!ykunst E 'ishi!#, JI49. >ese#rch con!ucte! on in!ii!u#ls o% the ;#p#nese #n! 3meric#n

cultures %oun! # positie correl#tion bet/een e#ch o% the #ri#bles in!ic#ting th#t uncert#inty#ries #cross cultures.

C< Citicisms o. URT

erger 8JID9 recogni?e! th#t (> Qcont#ins some propositions o% !ubious #li!ityR 8p. 409. *ikem#ny other success%ul theoretic#l #ppro#ches, erger #n! C#l#breseSs 8JDH9 theory o% uncert#inty

re!uction h#s inspire! subseKuent rese#rch th#t sere! both #s supporting ei!ence #n! in #n

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Ch#pter G

opposition#l role to the theory. hese criticisms help to cl#ri%y the un!erlying principles o% the theory

#n! suggest /#ys %or improement %or %uture rese#rch.

ich#el unn#%r#nk 8JI69 #rgue! th#t # moti#tion to re!uce uncert#inty is not # prim#ry concern

in initi#l inter#ctions. 7is belie% /#s th#t # Qm#ximi?#tion o% rel#tion#l outcomesR 8p. J9 /#s o% moresigni%ic#nt concern in initi#l encounters. unn#%r#nk #rgue! th#t the pre!icte! outcome #lue 8"+9 o%

the inter#ction h#! # gre#ter e%%ect on uncert#inty. erger 8JI69 comb#te! unn#%r#nkSs #rguments by

#ckno/le!ging th#t outcomes c#nnot be pre!icte! i% there is no preious history o% inter#ctionreg#r!ing the beh#ior o% the in!ii!u#ls. erger cl#ims th#t unn#%r#nkSs #rguments simply exp#n!e!(> th#t by pre!icting outcomes 8using "+9 in!ii!u#ls #re #ctu#lly re!ucing their uncert#inty

8erger, JI69.

eynol!s 8JJ09 #lso teste! the #li!ity o% (>. heir prim#ryconcern /#s #xiom three, /hich rel#te! high uncert#inty to high in%orm#tion seeking 8see #ppen!ix 39.

heir stu!y o% oer # thous#n! stu!ents %oun! th#t # /#nt %or kno/le!ge /#s # gre#ter in!ic#tor th#n #

l#ck o% kno/le!ge %or promotion o% in%orm#tion-seeking 8eynol!s, JJ09. heserese#rchers emph#si?e! th#t high uncert#inty !oes not cre#te enough moti#tion to result in

in%orm#tion-seeking r#ther # /#nt %or in%orm#tion must #lso exist.

C#n#ry #n! )#inton 8200G9 explore! uncert#inty re!uction in terms o% rel#tion#l m#inten#nce

#cross cultur#l contexts #n! %oun! th#t the #pplic#bility o% (> m#y not hol! to multiple cultures.

C#n#ry #n! )#inton 8200G9 %ocuse! on the concept o% uncert#inty #oi!#nce in cultures st#tingQin!ii!u#ls %rom cultures /ith # high toler#nce %or uncert#inty #re unlikely to %in! the experience o%

uncert#inty #s # prim#ry moti#tor %or per%orming rel#tion#l m#inten#nceR 8p. G49. his le#!s to #

gener#l Kuestioning o% #li!ity o% (> other cultures.

Legay and In'luene

>ese#rch h#s %oun! th#t communic#tion pl#ys # critic#l role in initi#l inter#ctions #n! rel#tion#l

!eelopment. erger #n! C#l#brese 8JDH9 /ere the %irst to inestig#te the role o% communic#tion ininiti#l inter#ctions /ith the !eelopment o% # theory o% uncert#inty re!uction. 1ts /i!espre#! in%luence

le! to its #!option in other rel#tion#l #n! communic#tie contexts such #s sm#ll group, m#ss

communic#tion, #n! computer-me!i#te! communic#tion.

he in%luence o% (> is /ell note! by others in the %iel! Q"ostul#tes by erger #n! C#l#brese

prompte! more th#n t/o !ec#!es o% rese#rch to proe, cl#ri%y, #n! critiKue uncert#inty re!uctionSs

expl#n#tion o% ho/ people communic#te interperson#llyR 87e#th E ry#nt, 2000, p. 2DH9. erger #n!

C#l#brese 8JDH9 gener#te! #!!ition#l stu!ies on uncert#inty re!uction #ccomplishe! by such schol#rs#s 7e/es, "l#n#lp, "#rks, 3!elm#n, &u!ykunst, =#ng, 'ishi!#, )ougl#s, uther%or!, 7oneycutt, unn#%r#nk, C#pell#, Werner, #n! #xter. (> h#s /ithstoo! the test o% time,

proing itsel% #s # heuristic theory /ith utility th#t incre#ses /ith subseKuent rese#rch.

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Appendi) A" A)io!s and Theore!s o' UnertaintyRedution Theory

A+ioms o. Uncetaint& Re%uction Theo&

. &ien the high leel o% uncert#inty present #t the onset o% the entry ph#se, #s the #mount o%

erb#l communic#tion bet/een str#ngers incre#ses, the leel o% uncert#inty %or e#ch inter#ct#nt

in the rel#tionship /ill !ecre#se. 3s uncert#inty is %urther re!uce!, the #mount o% erb#lcommunic#tion /ill incre#se.

2. 3s nonerb#l #%%ili#tie expressieness incre#ses, uncert#inty leels /ill !ecre#se in #n

initi#l inter#ction situ#tion. 1n #!!ition, !ecre#ses in uncert#inty leel /ill c#use incre#ses innonerb#l #%%ili#tie expressieness.

G. 7igh leels o% uncert#inty c#use incre#ses in in%orm#tion seeking beh#ior. 3s uncert#inty

leels !ecline, in%orm#tion seeking beh#ior !ecre#ses.4. 7igh leels o% uncert#inty in # rel#tionship c#use !ecre#ses in the intim#cy leel o%

communic#tion content. *o/ leels o% uncert#inty pro!uce high leels o% intim#cy.

H. 7igh leels o% uncert#inty pro!uce high r#tes o% reciprocity. *o/ leels o% uncert#inty pro!uce lo/ reciprocity r#tes.

6. imil#rities bet/een persons re!uce uncert#inty, /hile !issimil#rities pro!uce incre#ses in

uncert#inty.

D. 1ncre#ses in uncert#inty leel pro!uce !ecre#ses in liking !ecre#ses in uncert#inty leel pro!uce incre#ses in liking.

Theoems o. Uncetaint& Re%uction Theo&

. 3mount o% erb#l communic#tion #n! nonerb#l #%%ili#tie expressieness #re positiely

rel#te!.2. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! intim#cy leel o% communic#tion #re positiely rel#te!.

G. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! in%orm#tion seeking beh#ior #re inersely rel#te!.4. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! reciprocity r#te #re inersely rel#te!.

H. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! liking #re positiely rel#te!.

6. 3mount o% communic#tion #n! simil#rity #re positiely rel#te!.D. 'onerb#l #%%ili#tie expressieness #n! intim#cy leel o% communic#tion content #re

positiely rel#te!.

I. 'onerb#l #%%ili#tie expressieness #n! in%orm#tion seeking #re inersely rel#te!.

J. 'onerb#l #%%ili#tie expressieness #n! reciprocity r#te #re inersely rel#te!.0.'onerb#l #%%ili#tie expressieness #n! liking #re positiely rel#te!.

.'onerb#l #%%ili#tie expressieness #n! simil#rity #re positiely rel#te!.2.1ntim#cy leel o% communic#tion content #n! in%orm#tion seeking #re inersely rel#te!.G.1ntim#cy leel o% communic#tion content #n! reciprocity r#te #re inersely rel#te!.

4.1ntim#cy leel o% communic#tion content #n! liking #re positiely rel#te!.

H.1ntim#cy leel o% communic#tion content #n! simil#rity #re positiely rel#te!.6.1n%orm#tion seeking #n! reciprocity r#te #re positiely rel#te!.

D.1n%orm#tion seeking #n! liking #re neg#tiely rel#te!.

I.1n%orm#tion seeking #n! simil#rity #re neg#tiely rel#te!.

J.>eciprocity r#te #n! liking #re neg#tiely rel#te!.

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20.>eciprocity r#te #n! simil#rity #re neg#tiely rel#te!.

2.imil#rity #n! liking #re positiely rel#te!.




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"rop#g#n!# #n! the "ublic

4 'RO'AANDA AND TH 'U=5IC

Walter Lippmann, Harold D. Lasswell, Edward Bernays, and ac!ues Ellul

lie ersion N !iscussion N e!it lesson N comment N report #n error N #sk # Kuestion

roun! the time o% Worl! W#r ne #n! /o, Communic#tion rese#rch l#rgely %ocuse! on the

in%luence o% prop#g#n!#. ne Kuestion th#t rese#rchers sought to #ns/er /#s ho/ c#n

communic#tion be utili?e! to cre#te beh#ior#l ch#ngesA &oernments %elt th#t i% they /ere to %unctione%%iciently, they coul! only !o so /ith the coor!in#te! cooper#tion o% their citi?ens. hrough the use o%

prop#g#n!#, goernments coul! ensure th#t # n#tion %unctione! to meet its go#ls, but coul! #lso le#! to

crushing in!ii!u#lsL #bility to sh#pe their o/n lies #n! their o/n consciousness. >ese#rch into this#re# gre#tly exp#n!e! m#ss communic#tion rese#rch in the t/entieth century.

3

his ch#pter #ppro#ches the Kuestion o% prop#g#n!#, %rom the perspectie o% someone th#t m#ny

h#e c#lle! one o% the %#thers o% communic#tion, W#lter *ippm#nn.

Early E)perienes o' *alter Lipp!ann +,--./,.012

W#lter *ippm#nn /#s born in IIJ #n! spent much o% his youth exploring #rts such #s p#inting

#n! music, tr#elling to Burope, #n! #cKuiring # p#rticul#r interest in re#!ing, #ll !ue to his %#milySssecure economic st#tus 8Weing#st, J4J9. y the time he entere! 7#r#r! in the %#ll o% J06, *ippm#nn

h#! been expose! to # /i!e #rr#y o% i!e#s #n! h#! been /ell prep#re! %or the ch#llenging /ork th#t l#y

#he#! o% him #t school. 1t /#s #t 7#r#r! th#t the %irst in%luences on *ippm#nnSs /ork #n! theoretic#l#ppro#ch %irst #ppe#re!.

*ippm#nn /#s in%luence! by the soci#l thinkers o% the time such #s &eorge #nt#y#n#, Willi#m;#mes, #n! &r#h#m W#ll#s. 1t is impossible to un!erst#n! *ippm#nnLs o/n thought /ithout some

groun!ing in the perspecties popul#r #t 7#r#r! #n! else/here. 7e /#s in%luence! by the moe

to/#r! #n 3meric#n pr#gm#tic #ppro#ch, #s /ell #s soci#list thinkers o% the time.

3redeessors o' *alter Lipp!ann

Wi!!iam ames 81/429131:

#ny consi!er Willi#m ;#mes to be one o% the most prominent in%luences on *ippm#nn /hile #t

7#r#r! 8Weing#st, J4J teel, JJJ9. he t/o schol#rs %irst met /hen *ippm#nn publishe! #n #rticlein the Illustrated , # 7#r#r! c#mpus m#g#?ine. *ippm#nnLs #rticle, /ritten #s # response to # book o%

#rrett Wen!ellLs, /#s # comment#ry on soci#l Oustice #n! the plight o% the common m#n. ;#mes /#s

intrigue! by *ippm#nnLs #rticle #n! surprise! *ippm#nn by #ppro#ching him. he t/o bec#me %rien!s,#n! *ippm#nnLs regul#r coners#tions /ith ;#mes pro%oun!ly in%luence! his %uture /ork.

Willi#m ;#mes is perh#ps best kno/n %or his theories o% pr#gm#tism. ;#mes 8J0D9 !e%ines the pr#gm#tic metho! #s, he #ttitu!e o% looking #/#y %rom %irst things, principles, Lc#tegories,L suppose!

Wikibooks M 21

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Publichttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Publichttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Publichttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Publichttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Public&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Public&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Public&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Public&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Lippmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismhttp://wikibooks.org/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Publichttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Publichttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Public&action=edithttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Public&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Communication_Theory/Propaganda_and_the_Public&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_Theory/Q%26A&action=edit&section=newhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Lippmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismhttp://wikibooks.org/


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necessities #n! o% looking to/#r! l#st things, %ruits, conseKuences, %#ct 8p. 2J9. 7e sho/e! ho/

pr#gm#tism is rel#te! to truth, #n! truth is th#t /hich c#n be eri%ie!. rue i!e#s #re those th#t /e c#n#ssimil#te, #li!#te, corrobor#te, #n! eri%y 8;#mes, J0D, p. II9. 1n this /#y, ;#mes 8J0D9 suggeste!

th#t the un!erst#n!ing o% the /orl! is b#se! on en!uring, signi%ic#nt perceptions o% the e%%ects o% the

obOects th#t surroun! in!ii!u#ls. 3lthough *ippm#nn str#ye! %rom the pr#ctice o% pr#gm#tism in his

o/n /ork, there /ere i!e#s th#t he took %rom ;#mesL theories #n! #pplie! to his o/n li%e. teel 8JJJ9cl#ims th#t one o% these i!e#s /#s th#t o% meliorism, or the i!e# th#t things coul! be improe!, but

neer per%ecte! 8p. I9. 3nother is pr#ctic#lity, or the i!e# th#t men h#! to m#ke !ecisions /ithout/orrying #bout /hether they /ere per%ect 8teel, JJJ, p. I9.

he themes o% meliorism #n! pr#ctic#lity #re in!ee! ei!ent in *ippm#nnSs thought #n! /riting.

hroughout m#ny ye#rs o% /riting, *ippm#nnLs opinions on the issues o% the public #n! theirrel#tionship to goernment ten!e! to /#er. For ex#mple, #ccor!ing to Weing#st 8J4J9, *ippm#nn

initi#lly supporte! the i!e# th#t goernment interention in the economy /#s necess#ry, speci%ic#lly

through the proision o% public proOects to support employment !uring times o% economic h#r!ship.7o/eer, /hen Fr#nklin ). >ooseelt presente! his 'e/ )e#l, /hich inclu!e! more goernment

interention in the public #ren#, *ippm#nn !i! not support the progr#m 8Weing#st, J4J9. *ippm#nn

8JG69 /#ere! in his ie/s on soci#lism #s /ell.

1t is !oubt%ul th#t his const#nt ch#nges o% opinion /ere purpose%ul r#ther they sere! #s ei!ence

o% ;#mesL in%luence on *ippm#nnLs /ork. y #ccepting the i!e#s o% meliorism #n! pr#ctic#lity, it coul!

potenti#lly me#n th#t one is #l/#ys striing to %in! the next best solution th#t /hen one theory %#ils,

#nother c#n be !eelope! to t#ke its pl#ce. y Kuestioning himsel% #n! his belie%s, *ippm#nn /#s#!#ncing his o/n theories #n! %in!ing ne/ /#ys o% un!erst#n!ing his surroun!ings.

eo7e Santa&ana 81/)0913(2:

#nt#y#n# /#s # philosopher #t 7#r#r! /ho #lso in%luence! the /ork o% *ippm#nn. #nt#y#n#Ss

theories reole! #roun! the i!e# o% the essence o% obOects, /hich unson 8J629 !e%ine! #s the!#tum o% intuition 8p. I9. #nt#y#n# /#s intereste! in uncoering the #rious essences th#t m#!e up

hum#n li%e those #lues /hich coul! be uncoere! #n! then tie! to hum#n experience 8teel, JJJ9.his outlook is # sh#rp contr#st to the theories o% ;#mes, /hich *ippm#nn h#! #lre#!y been expose! to.

teel 8JJJ9 expl#ine! th#t /hile ;#mes %ocuse! on the i!e# o% mor#l rel#tiism, or the #bility to cre#te

truth %rom obser#tion, #nt#y#n# /#s %ocusing on the se#rch %or #bsolute mor#l #lues th#t coul! bereconcile! /ith hum#n experience 8p. 29.

#nt#y#n#Ss in%luence on *ippm#nn is ei!ent in his l#ter /ork. ie! to #nt#y#n#Ss i!e#s o% theessence o% hum#nity #n! li%e, /ere his i!e#s th#t !emocr#cy coul! result in # tyr#nny o% the m#Oority

8teel, JJJ, p. 29. his i!e# is e#sily rel#te! to *ippm#nnLs l#ter /ritings in Phantom Pu#lic 8J2H9.

Phantom Pu#lic ex#mines the 3meric#n public /ithin # !emocr#tic system. *ippm#nn 8J2H9expresses his i!e#s th#t the m#Oority o% the 3meric#n public is une!uc#te! in public issues, e#silym#nipul#te! into si!ing /ith the m#Oority, #n! there%ore, pl#ys # ery limite! role in the !emocr#tic

process. 1n rel#tion to !emocr#cy, *ippm#nn st#tes, hus the oter i!enti%ie! himsel% /ith the

o%%ici#ls. 7e trie! to think th#t their thoughts /ere his thoughts, th#t their !ee!s /ere his !ee!s, #n!een in some mysterious /#y they /ere # p#rt o% himX.1t preente! !emocr#cy %rom #rriing #t # cle#r

i!e# o% its o/n limits #n! #tt#in#ble en!s 8p. 4I9. *ippm#nn 8J2H9 sho/s th#t /ithin # !emocr#tic

system the m#Oority is #ctu#lly suppresse! by the minority opinion. 1t is this oer/helming suppressiono% the public opinion /ithin # !emocr#tic system th#t seems to represent #nt#y#n#Ss in%luence on


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*ippm#nn. 1% #nt#ny#n# #rgue! th#t !emocr#cy /oul! result in # tyr#nny o% the m#Oority, *ippm#nn

8J2H9 supporte! this i!e# by sho/ing th#t public opinion c#use! little in%luence on # !emocr#tic

system th#t /#s #ctu#lly controlle! by the e!uc#te! elite.

aham Wa!!as 81/(/913(2:

&r#h#m W#ll#s, # %oun!er o% the F#bi#n ociety, /#s #nother pre!ecessor to *ippm#nnSs /ork

8teel, JJJ9. W#ll#s is perh#ps best kno/n %or his /ork Human ature in Politics 8JI9. he

politic#l ie/s expresse! in this book helpe! to sh#pe *ippm#nnSs l#ter thoughts #bout the rel#tionship bet/een the public #n! its enironment.

W#ll#s 8JI9 expresses his thoughts on the publicSs un!erst#n!ing o% their surroun!ings. 7est#tes th#t the unierse presents the public /ith, #n unen!ing stre#m o% sens#tions #n! memories,

eery one o% /hich is !i%%erent %rom eery other, #n! be%ore /hich, unless /e c#n select #n! recogni?e

#n! simpli%y, /e must st#n! helpless #n! un#ble to either #ct or think. #n h#s there%ore to cre#teentities th#t sh#ll be the m#teri#l o% his re#soning 8p. G49. 1n this /#y, W#ll#s /#s sho/ing th#t the

public is inc#p#ble o% un!erst#n!ing their enironment the stimuli th#t they #re presente! /ith #re too

numerous to g#in # /ell-erse! un!erst#n!ing. teel 8JJJ9 cl#ims th#t this i!e# /#s one o% W#ll#sSgre#test in%luences on the %uture /ork o% *ippm#nn, p#rticul#rly in "ublic pinion 8J229. 1n this /ork,

*ippm#nn 8J229 exp#n!e! upon W#ll#sS origin#l i!e#s #bout the rel#tionship bet/een the public #n!

their enironment, #n! /#s #ble to sho/ th#t the public /#s not #ble to t#ke in #ll o% the kno/le!ge

%rom their enironment th#t /oul! truly be nee!e! to #%%ect their goern#nce.

3si!e %rom inspiring *ippm#nn to ex#mine the rel#tionship bet/een the public #n! the

enironment, W#ll#s c#n #lso be cre!ite! /ith in%luencing *ippm#nn to bre#k his ties /ith the oci#list

school o% thought 8teel, JJJ9. (ntil his inter#ctions /ith W#ll#s, *ippm#nn h#! hel! strong soci#list belie%s, b#se! not only upon his experiences #t school, but #lso upon the /ritings o% ogers, JJ49. #rxism expl#ine! the /#y th#t economic %orces cre#te

ch#nges in society, #n! the nee! %or the cre#tion o% # communist system to restore eKu#lity to th#t

system 8>ogers, JJ49.

While #t 7#r#r!, *ippm#nn re#! #rxSs i!e#s on communism, #n! chose to support the i!eology

o% soci#lism 8teel, JJJ9. *ippm#nn #lso Ooine! the F#bi#ns /hile #t school. hey /ere # group /hichurge! %or the empo/ering o% the mi!!le-cl#sses, r#ther th#n the oer-thro/ing o% the elite, in or!er to

cre#te soci#l eKu#lity 8teel, JJJ9. (nlike #rxists, ho/eer, the F#bi#ns still beliee! in the presence

o% #n intellectu#l elite 8teel, JD09. his theme is present in *ippm#nnSs Phantom Pu#lic 8J2H9. 1n

this piece o% liter#ture, *ippm#nn 8J2H9 expl#ins th#t society is truly !omin#te! by #n intellectu#lelite, een /hen they might think th#t they #re %ollo/ing # system o% m#Oority rule. Xit is h#r! to s#y

/hether # m#n is #cting executiely on his opinions or merely #cting to in%luence the opinion o%

someone else, /ho is #cting executiely 8 *ippm#nn, J2H, p. 09.

Wikibooks M 20

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Ch#pter 4

#rx #lso cl#ime! th#t m#ss me!i# is use! #s # tool by the elite soci#l cl#sses to control society

8>ogers, JJ49. his theme is ei!ent in *ippm#nnSs Pu#lic /pinion 8J229, /hich expl#ine! th#t it/#s the m#ss me!i# /ho !etermine! /h#t in%orm#tion the public coul! #ccess, #n! ho/ the limit#tion

o% such #ccess coul! in turn, sh#pe public opinion.

he remn#nts o% #rxism #re present in *ippm#nnSs l#ter /orks, such #s Pu#lic /pinion #n!

Phantom Pu#lic. y J4, *ippm#nn /#s no longer # supporter o% the implement#tion o% soci#lism on

# l#rge sc#le 8teel, JJJ9. With his public#tion o% *rift and astery 8J49, *ippm#nn !enounce! theuse o% soci#lism 8teel, JJJ9. Furthermore, his public#tion o% 0ood &ociety 8JG69 /#s essenti#lly #criticism o% the ery theories o% soci#lism th#t he h#! once supporte!. y this point, *ippm#nn 8JG69

recogni?e! the error in the soci#list theories the %#ct th#t een by putting #n en! to pri#te o/nership

#n! !eeloping collectie property, people still m#y not kno/ ho/ to properly !istribute resources/ithout exploit#tion. *ippm#n 8JG69 cl#ims his is the cruci#l point in the soci#list #rgument the

/hole hope th#t exploit#tion, #cKuisitieness, soci#l #nt#gonism, /ill !is#ppe#r rests upon con%i!ence

in the mir#culous e%%ect o% the tr#ns%er o% titles 8p. D29. *ippm#nnSs /#ering ie/s on soci#lism #reimport#nt. hey cle#rly #%%ect ho/ *ippm#nn sees the rel#tion bet/een m#n, his enironment, #n! his

goernment. hese themes /ill be pre#lent in *ippm#nnSs theories, #s he expl#ins ho/ #n! /hy the

public is subOect to m#nipul#tion.

Si7mun% 6eu% 81/()91303:

3si!e %rom his re#!ing o% ogers, JJ49. % p#rticul#r import#nce to psycho#n#lytic theory /#s the un!erst#n!ing o% #n

in!ii!u#lSs min!. 3ccor!ing to >ogers 8JJ49, Freu! /#s #ble to !ii!e the hum#n consciousness intothree st#tes the conscious, preconscious, #n! unconscious. he conscious consists o% those things

/hich /e kno/ #bout ourseles, the preconscious consists o% those things /hich /e coul! p#yconscious #ttention to i% /e so !esire!, #n! the unconscious consists o% those things /hich /e !o not

un!erst#n! or kno/ #bout ourseles 8>ogers, JJ49. From these three leels o% in!ii!u#l #n#lysis,

Freu! #ttempte! to un!erst#n! hum#n beh#ior. oth Freu!Ss gener#l theories o% psycho#n#lysis, #s/ell #s one o% Freu!Ss /ritings in p#rticul#r, The Interpretation of *reams, c#me to be o% p#rticul#r

import#nce to the prop#g#n!# theorists.

The Interpretation of *reams !e#lt /ith the i!e# th#t !re#ms #re # %orm o% /ish %ul%illment they

represent # !esire o% the unconscious th#t c#n be #chiee! !uring sleep through the cre#tion o% # !re#m

to %ul%ill # nee! 8*ein, J2J9. *ippm#nn #pplie! this i!e# to his /ork in Pu#lic /pinion 8J229. 1n Pu#lic /pinion, *ippm#nn 8J229 stresse! the i!e# o% Qhe Worl! utsi!e #n! the "ictures in ur7e#!sR 8p. G9. his concept inoles the i!e# th#t # personSs perceptions o% #n eent or situ#tion m#y

not m#tch /h#t is #ctu#lly h#ppening in their enironment 8*ippm#n, J229. his i!e# /#s in%luence!

by The Interpretation of *reams, in th#t *ippm#nn use! this book to !eelop his i!e# o% # Qpseu!o-enironmentR th#t existe! in the min!s o% in!ii!u#ls 8>ogers, JJ4, p. 2G49.

ern#ysL 8J2I9 un!erst#n!ing o% hum#n moties /#s #lso b#se! on the stu!y o% Freu!Ss /ork.

ern#ys /#s Freu!Ls nephe/, #n! #t #rious times in his li%e the 3meric#n tr#elle! to +ienn# to isit


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/ith his uncle. ern#ys h#! # speci#l interest in #!opting psycho#n#lytic theory into his public rel#tions

/ork, #n! this in%luence! his thinking in rel#tion to public opinion. 1n Propaganda, ern#ys 8J2I9

cl#ims it is the Freu!i#n school o% thought th#t recogni?e! m#nLs thoughts #n! #ctions #re

compens#tory substitutes %or !esires /hich he h#s been oblige! to suppress 8p. H29. ern#ys 8J2I9goes on to sho/ th#t prop#g#n!ists c#nnot merely #ccept the re#sons th#t men gie %or their beh#ior.

1% they #re truly hi!ing their re#l moties, #s Freu! suggests, then the success%ul prop#g#n!ist must

un!erst#n! the true moties #n! not be content to #ccept the re#sons /hich men gie %or /h#t they !o

8ern#ys, J2I, p. H29. y getting to the root o% # m#nSs /#nts #n! nee!s, ern#ys suggests th#t prop#g#n!# c#n become more e%%ectie #n! in%luenti#l.

er#ll, Freu!Ss theories /ere # strong gui!ing %r#me/ork %or un!erst#n!ing in!ii!u#ls. y

helping theorists such #s *#ss/ell, *ippm#nn, ern#ys, #n! Bllul to un!erst#n! in!ii!u#ls, Freu! /#s

#lso helping them to un!erst#n! the public th#t they #ime! to m#nipul#te.

The Theories o' *alter Lipp!ann

While #t 7#r#r!, *ippm#nn h#! %irst-h#n! exposure to the theories o% Willi#m ;#mes, &eorge#nt#y#n#, #n! &r#h#m W#ll#s. 7e h#! #lso re#! the /orks o% igmun! Freu! #n!


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Ch#pter 4

the %irst ie/s on the m#ss communic#tion concepts o% g#tekeeping #n! #gen!#-setting, by sho/ing the

me!i#Ss po/er to limit public #ccess to in%orm#tion.

*ippm#nn 8J229 sho/e! ho/ in!ii!u#ls use tools such #s stereotypes to %orm their opinions. Q1n

putting together our public opinions, not only !o /e h#e to picture more sp#ce th#n /e c#n see /ithour eyes, #n! more time th#n /e c#n %eel, but /e h#e to !escribe #n! Ou!ge more people, more

#ctions, more things th#n /e c#n eer count, or ii!ly im#gineXWe h#e to pick our s#mples, #n!

tre#t them #s typic#lR 8*ippm#nn, J22, p. JH9. *ippm#nn sho/s th#t the public is le%t /ith thesestereotypic#l Ou!gments until the me!i# presents limite! in%orm#tion to ch#nge their perception o% #neent. >ogers 8JJ49 cl#ims th#t in this /#y, *ippm#nn /#s sho/ing us th#t ...the pseu!o-

enironment th#t is coneye! to us by the me!i# is the result o% # high !egree o% g#tekeeping in the

ne/s process 8p. 2GD9. *ippm#nn recogni?e! th#t the me!i# /#s #ltering the %lo/ o% in%orm#tion, bylimiting the me!i# content th#t /#s presente! to the public. Furthermore, *ippm#nn presents the i!e# o%

#gen!#-setting, #s he recogni?es th#t the m#ss me!i# is the link bet/een in!ii!u#l perceptions o% #

/orl!, #n! the /orl! th#t #ctu#lly exists 8>ogers, JJ49.

3hanto! 3u%li

Phantom Pu#lic 8J2H9 %ocuse! on !escribing the ch#r#cteristics o% the public itsel%. *ippm#nn

8J2H9 use! this book to sho/ the publicSs in#bility to h#e #st kno/le!ge #bout their enironment,#n! there%ore, to sho/ their %#ilure to truly support # position. *ippm#nn 8J2H9 gies # h#rsh ie/ o%

the gener#l public, st#ting, he in!ii!u#l m#n !oes not h#e opinions on public #%%#irs... 1 c#nnot

im#gine ho/ he coul! kno/, #n! there is not the le#st re#son %or thinking, #s mystic#l !emocr#ts h#ethought, th#t the compoun!ing o% in!ii!u#l ignor#nces in m#sses o% people c#n pro!uce # continuous

!irecting %orce in public #%%#irs 8p. GJ9. his book seeme! to sho/ th#t !emocr#cy /#s not truly run

by the public, but r#ther, /#s being controlle! by #n e!uc#te! elite. he public coul! not be truly /ell

in%orme!, so they /ere e#sily conince! to si!e /ith #n e!uc#te! minority, /hile conincingthemseles th#t they /ere #ctu#lly in # system o% m#Oority rule. *ippm#nn 8J2H9 cl#ims th#t the book

#ime! to ...bring the theory o% !emocr#cy into some/h#t truer #lignment /ith the n#ture o% public

opinion... 1t h#s seeme! to me th#t the public h#! # %unction #n! must h#e metho!s o% its o/n incontroersies, Ku#lit#tiely !i%%erent %rom those o% the executie men 8p. JD9.

Other *ritings

*ippm#nn #lso publishe! # number o% other books th#t !e#lt prim#rily /ith his politic#l thoughtsreg#r!ing the public. hese inclu!e! A Preface to Politics 8JG9 #n! 0ood &ociety 8JG69. While

these /orks #re import#nt to/#r! un!erst#n!ing *ippm#nnSs thoughts on the rel#tion o% the public to

their goernment, Pu#lic /pinion #n! Phantom Pu#lic hel! most o% *ippm#nnSs theories th#t /ererele#nt to m#ss communic#tion rese#rch.

4uture Career 3ath

3si!e %rom his m#Oor /orks o% liter#ture, *ippm#nn /#s perh#ps best kno/n %or his o!#y #n!omorro/ column, /hich he beg#n publishing in JG in the ew "or$ Herald Tri#une 8Weing#st,

J4J9. his column g#e *ippm#nn complete %ree!om o% expression, #n! the #bility to /rite #bout

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such topics #s history, goernment, economics, #n! philosophy 8Weing#st, J4J9. 3lthough the column

ten!e! to #ppe#l to # limite! 3meric#n #u!ience, it !e#lt /ith # /i!e #riety o% import#nt issues.

Weing#st 8J4J9 estim#tes th#t only 40Y o% 3meric#n #!ults coul! un!erst#n! *ippm#nnSs column,

#n! only 24Y coul! be consi!ere! regul#r re#!ers o% the column 8p. G09. 7o/eer, it is this columnth#t still must be recogni?e! %or helping *ippm#nnSs i!e#s to g#in popul#rity.

*ippm#nnSs #rious /orks le! him to # gre#t m#ny opportunities to /ork /ith import#nt %igures in

history. 1n JI, he /#s gien the #bility to #ssist "resi!ent Woo!ro/ Wilson in /riting the Fourteen"oints, /hich helpe! to restore pe#ce #%ter Worl! W#r ne 8>ogers, JJ49. % more import#nce to

communic#tion stu!ies, *ippm#nn /#s #lso gien the opportunity to publish #n! present prop#g#n!# inBurope to support the #ccept#nce o% the Fourteen "oints on #n intern#tion#l sc#le 8teel, JJJ9. 1t is

through this /ork th#t some o% *ippm#nnSs ties to 7#rol! *#ss/ell c#n be obsere!.

Other 3ropaganda Theorists

Hao!% 5asse!! 8132913-/:

3s *ippm#nn /#s /riting prop#g#n!#, 7#rol! *#ss/ell /#s un!ert#king empiric#l #n#lyses o%

prop#g#n!#. 1n %#ct, much o% the prop#g#n!# th#t *#ss/ell /#s ex#mining /#s #ctu#lly being /ritten

by *ippm#nn himsel% 8>ogers, JJ49.

7#rol! *#ss/ell 8J02-JDI9 /#s # prominent schol#r in the #re# o% prop#g#n!# rese#rch. 7e

%ocuse! on con!ucting both Ku#ntit#tie #n! Ku#lit#tie #n#lyses o% prop#g#n!#, un!erst#n!ing thecontent o% prop#g#n!#, #n! !iscoering the e%%ect o% prop#g#n!# on the m#ss #u!ience 8>ogers, JJ49.

*#ss/ell is cre!ite! /ith cre#ting the m#ss communic#tion proce!ure o% content #n#lysis 8>ogers,

JJ49. &ener#lly, content #n#lysis c#n be !e%ine! #s, ...the inestig#tion o% communic#tion mess#ges

by c#tegori?ing mess#ge content into cl#ssi%ic#tions in or!er to me#sure cert#in #ri#bles 8>ogers,JJ49. 1n #n ess#y entitle! Contents o% Communic#tion, *#ss/ell 8J469 expl#ins th#t # content

#n#lysis shoul! t#ke into #ccount the %reKuency /ith /hich cert#in symbols #ppe#r in # mess#ge, the

!irection in /hich the symbols try to persu#!e the #u!ienceSs opinion, #n! the intensity o% the symbolsuse!. y un!erst#n!ing the content o% the mess#ge, *#ss/ell 8J469 #ims to #chiee the go#l o%

un!erst#n!ing the stre#m o% in%luence th#t runs %rom control to content #n! %rom content to #u!ience

8p. D49.

his metho! o% content #n#lysis is tie! strongly to *#ss/ellLs 8JHG9 e#rly !e%inition o%

communic#tion /hich st#te!, Who s#ys /h#t in /hich ch#nnel to /hom #n! /ith /h#t e%%ects 8p.

I49. Content #n#lysis /#s essenti#lly the Ls#ys /h#tL p#rt o% this !e%inition, #n! *#ss/ell /ent on to !o

# lot o% /ork /ithin this #re# !uring the rem#in!er o% his c#reer.

*#ss/ellLs most /ell-kno/n content #n#lyses /ere #n ex#min#tion o% the prop#g#n!# content!uring Worl! W#r ne #n! /o. 1n Propaganda Techni1ue in the 'orld 'ar , *#ss/ell 8JGI9

ex#mine! prop#g#n!# techniKues through # content #n#lysis, #n! c#me to some striking conclusions.

*#ss/ell 8JGI9 /#s simil#r to Bllul, in th#t he sho/e! th#t the content o% /#r prop#g#n!# h#! to be per#sie in #ll #spects o% the citi?enSs li%e in or!er to be e%%ectie. Furthermore, *#ss/ell 8JGI9

sho/e! th#t #s more people /ere re#che! by this prop#g#n!#, the /#r e%%ort /oul! become more

e%%ectie. ...UVhe #ctie prop#g#n!ist is cert#in to h#e /illing help %rom eerybo!y, /ith #n #xe to

grin! in tr#ns%orming the W#r into # m#rch to/#r! /h#teer sort o% promise! l#n! h#ppens to #ppe#l to

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Ch#pter 4

the group concerne!. he more o% these sub-groups he c#n %ire %or the W#r, the more po/er%ul /ill be

the unite! !eotion o% the people to the c#use o% the country, #n! to the humili#tion o% the enemy8*#ss/ell, JGI, p. D69.

3si!e %rom un!erst#n!ing the content o% prop#g#n!#, *#ss/ell /#s #lso intereste! in ho/ prop#g#n!# coul! sh#pe public opinion. his !e#lt prim#rily /ith un!erst#n!ing the e%%ects o% the

me!i#. *#ss/ell /#s p#rticul#rly intereste! in ex#mining the e%%ects o% the me!i# in cre#ting public

opinion /ithin # !emocr#tic system. 1n *emocracy Through Pu#lic /pinion, *#ss/ell 8J49 ex#minesthe e%%ects o% prop#g#n!# on public opinion, #n! the e%%ects o% public opinion on !emocr#cy. *#ss/ell8J49 cl#ims, Q)emocr#tic goernment #cts upon public opinion #n! public opinion #cts openly upon

goernmentR 8p. H9. 3%%ecting this rel#tionship is the existence o% prop#g#n!#. )ue to this prop#g#n!#,

Q&ener#l suspiciousness is !irecte! #g#inst #ll sources o% in%orm#tion. Citi?ens m#y conincethemseles th#t it is hopeless to get the truth #bout public #%%#irsR 8*#ss/ell, J4, p. 409. 1n this /#y,

*#ss/ell h#s cre#te! # cycle, /hereby the public is limite! in the in%orm#tion th#t is presente! to them,

#n! #lso #pprehensie to #ccept it. 7o/eer, it is still th#t in%orm#tion th#t is #%%ecting their !ecisions/ithin the !emocr#tic system, #n! is being presente! to them by the goernment. his is #n interesting

/#y o% ie/ing the po/er o% the me!i# th#t is some/h#t simil#r to *ippm#nnSs theories.

%a% =ena&s 81/319133(:

3t #pproxim#tely the s#me time th#t *ippm#nn #n! *#ss/ell /ere ex#mining public opinion #n!

prop#g#n!#, B!/#r! ern#ys 8IJ-JJH9 /#s ex#mining public rel#tions, prop#g#n!#, #n! public

opinion. ern#ys 8J2I9 !e%ines prop#g#n!# #s, # consistent, en!uring e%%ort to cre#te or sh#pe eents

to in%luence the rel#tions o% # public to #n enterprise, i!e#, or group 8p. 2H9. Contr#ry to other prop#g#n!# theorists, ern#ys recogni?es th#t prop#g#n!# c#n be either bene%ici#l or h#rm%ul to the

public. 1t c#n help in!ii!u#ls !eci!e /h#t to think #bout or #lter the opinions o% in!ii!u#ls, but this

m#y #ctu#lly be bene%ici#l to societySs %unctioning #s # /hole. ern#ys st#tes, QWe #re goerne!, ourmin!s #re mol!e!, our t#stes %orme!, our i!e#s suggeste!, l#rgely by men /e h#e neer he#r! o%...

+#st numbers o% hum#n beings must cooper#te in this m#nner i% they #re to lie together #s # smoothly%unctioning society 8p. J9.

#se! on these i!e#s th#t the public opinion c#n be mo!i%ie!, #n! th#t such sh#ping is # necess#ry

p#rt o% society, ern#ys pursue! his /ork in the %iel! o% public rel#tions. "ublic rel#tions is the

#ttempt, by in%orm#tion, persu#sion, #n! #!Oustment, to engineer public support %or #n #ctiity, c#use,moement, or institution 8ern#ys, JHH, p. G9. 1n he Bngineering o% Consent, ern#ys 8JHH9 l#ys

out the %r#me/ork %or un!erst#n!ing the public #n! !eeloping # public rel#tions c#mp#ign. ern#ys

8JHH9 cl#ims th#t the key to # success%ul public rel#tions c#mp#ign is #!Oustment o% the c#mp#ign to

the #ttitu!es o% #rious groups in society, g#thering in%orm#tion to e%%ectiely express #n i!e#, #n!%in#lly, utili?ing persu#sion to in%luence the public opinion in the inten!e! !irection.

ern#ysS theories represent # step %or/#r! %or m#ss communic#tion theory. hey moe #/#y %rommore typic#l present#tions o% Qhit-or-miss prop#g#n!#,R #n! moe to/#r! # !eeper un!erst#n!ing o%

the public, #n! the necessity o% #ttention-gener#ting prop#g#n!# in in%luencing public opinion

8ern#ys, JHH, p.229. ern#ys 8JHH9 himsel% m#!e # st#tement reg#r!ing his phr#se, Qthe engineeringo% consent.R 7e s#i!, QBngineering implies pl#nning. 3n! it is c#re%ul pl#nning more th#n #nything else

th#t !istinguishes mo!ern public rel#tions %rom ol!-time hit or miss publicity #n! prop#g#n!#R

8ern#ys, JHH, p.229. Furthermore, ern#ysS theories #lso represent # !i%%erent ie/ o% the %orm#tiono% public opinion. 1n opposition to *ippm#nn, /ho ie/s the public #s being e#sily m#nipul#te!,

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ern#ys c#utions #g#inst this. 7e cl#ims, Qhe public is not #n #morphous m#ss /hich c#n be mol!e!

#t /ill or !ict#te! toR 8ern#ys, J2I, p. 669. 1nste#!, ern#ys 8J2I9 o%%ers the i!e# th#t in #ttempting

to in%luence the public, # business must QXstu!y /h#t terms the p#rtnership c#n be m#!e #mic#ble #n!

mutu#lly bene%ici#l. 1t must expl#in itsel%, its #ims, its obOecties, to the public in terms /hich the public c#n un!erst#n! #n! is /illing to #cceptR 8p. 669.

ern#ys el#bor#tes on these i!e#s in "ublic >el#tions 8JH29. >#ther th#n merely #ttempting to

m#nipul#te the public through prop#g#n!#, ern#ys presents public rel#tions #s # tool th#t c#n be use!to combine the i!e#s o% the public #n! the persu#!er. Qhe obOectie-min!e! public rel#tions m#n helps

his client #!Oust to the contempor#ry situ#tion, or helps the public #!Oust to itR 8ern#ys, JH2, p. J9.ern#ys ie/ o% the public is so%ter th#n th#t o% *ippm#nn, #s he recogni?es the po/er o% society, but

still #lso cl#ims th#t m#nipul#tion o% the public is possible. ern#ys 8JH29 /rites o% the bene%its o%

public rel#tions, Qo citi?ens in gener#l, public rel#tions is import#nt bec#use it helps them toun!erst#n! the society o% /hich /e #re #ll # p#rt, to kno/ #n! e#lu#te the ie/point o% others, to exert

le#!ership in mo!i%ying con!itions th#t #%%ects us, to e#lu#te e%%orts being m#!e by others, #n! to

persu#!e or suggest courses o% #ctionR 8p. 09. (n!er this %r#me/ork, /hile m#nipul#tion o% the public

is still possible, it is not in such bl#t#nt ignor#nce o%

communication theory[1]

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