complete grammar book new version 2008

7/25/2019 Complete Grammar Book New Version 2008

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PRONOUNS

WHAT IS A PRONOUN?

A pronoun is used in place of a noun. It refers to a noun. The noun it refers to is called the antecedent.

SINGULAR PLURAL

SUBJECTPRNUNS

IYou

He, She, It

WeYou

They

BJECT

PRNUNS

Me

You

Him, Her, It

Us

You

Them

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS:

SINGULAR PLURAL

PSSESSI!EPRNUNS

Mine

Yours

His, Hers, its

Ours

Yours

Theirs

PSSESSI!EA"JECTI!ES

My name Your name

His, Her, Its name

Our names Your names

Their names

Possessi#e nouns re$uire apostrophes. E%. That &oo' is Marys.

Possessi#e pronouns do not ta'e apostrophes.

Hint:

Pronouns that e%press o(nership )*ours+ his+ hers+ its+ ours+ etc, ne#er re$uire apostrophe.

Possessive pronouns ontrationsIts )&elon-in- to it, its )it is,

/our )&elon-in- to *ou, *oure )*ou are,Their )&elon-in- to the0, the*re )the* are,

N.L.C INTENSI!E GRA11AR

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RE!"E#IVE PRONOUNS:

The follo(in- are refle%i#e pronouns4

Myse$%

&ourse$%

Hi'se$%( )erse$%( itse$%

Ourse$ves&ourse$ves

T)e'se$ves

a. 5e loo'ed at hi0self in the 0irror.

*. 5e hi0self ans(ered the phone+ not his secretar*.

. 5e ans(ered the phone hi0self.+. She li#es &* herself.

E#ER,ISE - Choose the correct (ord in parentheses

3. This is 'y( 'ine/u0&rella. &our( yours/u0&rella is o#er there

6. This u0&rella is 'y( 'ine/. The other one is your( yours/

7. 1ar* and Bo& ha#e t)eir( t)eirs/&oo'. In other (ords+ 1ar* has )er( )ers/and Bo& has his.

8. Its( its/true that a ho0in- pi-eon (ill find its( its/ (a* ho0e e#en thou-h it &e-ins )its+ its, trip

in unfa0iliar territor*.

9. It (ast)ey( t)e'/ (ho o&:ected to the decision.

;. I don

E#ER,ISE 0 Co0plete the follo(in- &* usin- the appropriate refle%i#e pronouns

3. Jane did not :oin the rest of us. She sat in the &ac' of her roo0 &* ??????????

6. /ou 0a* thin' Stan is tellin- the truth+ &ut I ???????????? dont &elie#e hi0.

7. It is i0portant for all of us to &e honest (ith ?????????????????????????????

8. No( that their children are -ro(n+ 1r. And 1rs. Gra*son li#e &* ?????????????

9. /ou ?????????? ha#e to 0a'e that decision+ Ann. No one can 0a'e it for *ou.

;. I dont 'no( (hat to tell *ou+ Sue and Jac'. /ou (ill ha#e to ta'e care or that pro&le0

??????????????

E#ER,ISE 1 A2ree'ent o% pronouns

Co0plete the sentences (ith pronouns. In so0e of the &lan's there is 0ore than one possi&ilit*.

3. Students should al(a*s hand in ???????????? (or' on ti0e.




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6. Each student is e%pected to learn ???????????? lesson on ti0e.

7. If an*one calls+ please as' ????????????? to lea#e a 0essa-e.

8. So0e&od* left ?????????????? raincoat in the classroo0.

9. 1* fa0il* is (onderful. ???????????? ha#e al(a*s helped ????????????? in an*(a*

???????????? can.E3erise 4: !ind the su&:ect and refle%i#e pronoun that should &e in each sentence.

3. The pro&le0 (ont sol#e ?????????????????????.

6. The repair0an couldnt help 0e+ so I had to fi% it????????????.

7. @e pro0ised ??????????????? a -reat #acation after (e finish this :o&.8. The secretaries told their &osses to 0a'e the coffee??????????????????.

9. The tour -uide told us+ *ou (ill ha#e to -et to the hotel &*????????????????

;. The 0an (as terri&l* fat and I -uess he did not (ant to (ei-h???????????????.=. If *ou (ant it done ri-ht+ do it??????????????????.

. @e did not (ant the0 to co0e+ &ut the* in#ited ???????????????.. The fa0ous (riter si-ned the &oo'??????????????.

3D. That door closed &* ????????




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NUNS5e%inition:

A noun na0es a person+ a place+ a thin- or an idea.

,ount nouns:

Count nouns are ite0s that can &e counted. E%a0ple4

I &ou-ht a chair. Sa0 &ou-ht three chairs

SINGULARA chair

ne chairA count noun4

3. 1a* &e preceded &* a an in the

sin-ular.

PLURAL

Chairs

T(o chairs

So0e chairsA lot of chairs

1an* chairs

6. It ta'es a final Fs es in the plural

Non ount nouns:

No count nouns refer to a 67)o$e6that is 0ade up of different parts.E3a'p$e.

I &ou-ht so0e chairs+ ta&les+ and des's. In other (ords+ I &ou-ht so0e %urniture.

To e%press a particular $uantit*+ so0e count nouns 0a* &e preceded &* unit e%pressions.

E3: A spoon%u$ o% su2ar A up o% o%%ee

A 8uart o% 'i$9 A $oa% o% *rea+

A 2rain o% rie A *o7$ o% soup

A *a2 o% %$our A poun+ o% 'eat

A piee o% %urniture A piee o% paper

A piee o% e7e$ryI 7is) you $u9

Luc' is an a&stract concept+ an a&stract 67)o$e6.It has no ph*sical for0H *ou cant touch it. /ou

cant count it.

Suns)ine is 7ar' an+ )eer%u$

Pheno0ena of nature+ such as sunshine+ are fre$uentl* used as No count nouns.



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1an* nouns can &e used as either Non count or count nouns+ &ut the 0eanin- is different. E%4

a. Hair:

. Non count4 Ann has &ro(n hair

. Count4 To0 has a hair on his :ac'et

*. "i2)t:

. Non ount:I opened the curtains to let in so0e li-ht

. ,ount: "ont for-et to turn off the li-hts &efore *ou -o to &ed

So'e o''on Non ount nouns:

The follo(in- are nouns that are co00onl* used as Non count nouns. 1an* other nouns can &e used

as Non count nouns. This list ser#es onl* as a sa0ple.

3. W)o$e 2roups 'a+e up o% si'i$ar ite's: Ba--a-e+ clothin-+ e$uip0ent+ food+ fruit+ furniture+-ar&a-e+ hard(are+ :e(elr*+ :un'+ lu--a-e+ 0achiner*+ 0ail+ 0a'e up+ 0one* cash chan-e+

posta-e+ scener*+ traffic.

6. !$ui+s: @ater+ coffee+ tea+ 0il'+ oil+ soup+ -asoline+ &lood+ etc.

7. So$i+s: Ice+ &read+ &utter+ cheese+ 0eat+ -old+ iron+ sil#er+ -lass+ paper+ (ood+ cotton+ (ool+ etc.

8. ;ases: Stea0+ air+ o%*-en+ nitro-en+ s0o'e+ s0o-+ pollution+ etc.

9. Parti$es: Rice+ chal'+ corn+ dirt+ dust+ flour+ -lass+ hair+ pepper+ salt+ sand+ su-ar+ (heat+ etc.

;. A*strations: Beaut*+ confidence+ coura-e+ education+ en:o*0ent+ fun+ happiness+ health+ help+

honest*+ hospitalit*+ i0portance+ intelli-ence+ :ustice+ 'no(led-e+ lau-hter+ luc'+ 0usic+ patience+

peace+ pride+ pro-ress+ recreation+ si-nificance+ sleep+ truth+ #iolence+ (ealth+ Ad#ice+ infor0ation+ne(s+ e#idence+ proof+ Ti0e+ space+ ener-*+ 5o0e(or'+ (or'+ Gra00ar+ slan-H #oca&ular*.

=. "an2ua2es: Ara&ic+ Chinese+ En-lish+ Spanish+ etc.

. !ie$+s o% stu+y: Che0istr*+ en-ineerin-+ histor*+ literature+ 0athe0atics+ ps*cholo-*+ etc.

. Rereation: Base&all+ soccer+ tennis+ chess+ &rid-e+ po'er+ etc.

3D. ;enera$ ativities: "ri#in-+ stud*in-+ s(i00in-+ tra#elin-+ (al'in-+ )and other -erunds,.

33. Natura$ p)eno'ena: @eather+ de(+ fo-+ hail+ hu0idit*+ heat+ li-htnin- rain+ sleet+ sno(+ thunder+

(ind+ dar'ness+ li-ht+ sunshine+ electricit*+ fire+ -ra#it*.




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E3pressions o%


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8. In the last couple of *ears+ I#e -one to 2rance+ India+ and the So#iet Union. I li'e to ta'e

????????????. In other (ords ????????????? is one of 0* fa#orite acti#ities.

9. I put so0e &anana peels+ rotten food+ and &ro'en &ottles in the (aste can. The can is full of

??????????????.

;. The* ha#e a rust* car (ithout an en-ine+ &ro'en chairs+ and an old refri-erator in their front *ard.

Their *ard is full of ????????????.

=. I (ent to the store to -et so0e nails+ ha00ers+ and scre(s. In other (ords+ I &ou-ht so0e

?????????????????.

. Toni-ht I ha#e to read 6D pa-es in 0* histor* &oo'+ do 7D pro&le0s in al-e&ra+ and (rite a

co0position for 0* En-lish teacher. In other (ords+ I ha#e a lot of ???????????? to do toni-ht.

. Ann too' three suitcases+ a shoulder &a-+ and a cos0etic case. In other (ords+ she too' a lot of

??????????????? on her trip.

3D. Toronto is 79; ft. 3D0 a&o#e sea le#el. The a#era-e annual precipitation in Toronto is 76 in.

3c0. The population of the 0etropolitan area is o#er 7.DDD.DDD. I found )this+ these,

??????????????? in the enc*clopedia.

33. I didnt feel -ood. Ann said+ *ou should see a "octor. To0 said+ *ou should -o ho0e and -o to

&ed. 1artha said+ *ou should drin' fruit :uice and rest. I -ot ????????????? fro0 tree people.

36. 1* En-lish is slo(l* -ettin- &etter. 1* #oca&ular* is increasin-. Its -ettin- easier fro0 0e to

(rite and I 0a'e fe(er 0ista'es. I can often understand people e#en (hen the* tal' fast. I0

satisfied (ith the ????????????? I ha#e 0ade in learnin- En-lish.


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ARTI,"ES

;ENERA" ;UI5E"INES !OR ARTI,"E USA;E

THE:

Use it (hen *ou 'no( or assu0e that *our listener is fa0iliar (ith and thin'in- a&out the sa0e

specific thin- or person *ou are tal'in- a&out.

E%. The sun is &ri-ht toda*. Please hand this &oo' to the teacher.

Please open the door. Jac' is in the 'itchen.

Use T5E for the second 0ention of an indefinite noun.

E%./esterda* I sa( so0e do-s. The do-s (ere chasin- a cat. The cat (as chasin- a 0ouse. The 0ouse

ran into a hole. The hole (as #er* s0all.

2irst 0ention4 so0e do-s+ a cat+ a 0ouse+ a hole.

Second 0ention4 the do-s+ the cat+ the 0ouse+ and the hole.

T5E is notused for the second 0ention of a -eneric noun. Co0pare4

a. @hat color is a &anana )-eneric noun,> A &anana )-eneric noun, is *ello(.

&. To0 offered 0e a &anana )indefinite noun, or an apple. I chose the &anana )definite noun,.

"o not use T5E (ith a plural count noun )e%. Apples, or a Non count noun )e%4 Gold, (hen *ou

are 0a'in- a -eneraliation.

E%.

INCRRECT4The apples are 0* fa#orite fruit.

CRRECT4 Apples are 0* fa#orite fruit.

INCRRECT4The -old is a 0etal.

CRRECT4 Gold is a 0etal.

"o not use a sin-ular count noun )e%. Car, (ithout4 an article )a+ an+ the, or )this+ that, or a

possessi#e pronoun.


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E#ER,ISE - : In the follo(in- sentences+ tr* to decide (hether the spea'ers (ould pro&a&l* use aan

or the.

3. "id *ou ha#e fun at ???????? picnic *esterda*>

6. /oud &etter ha#e ???????? -ood reason for &ein- lateM7 ."id *ou thin' ???????? reason Jac' -a#e for &ein- late (as &elie#a&le>

8. /our &lue shirt is on ???????? (ashin- 0achine. /ou (ill ha#e to (ear ???????? different shirt.

9. I (ish (e had ???????? (ashin- 0achine.;. @hat happened to *our &ic*cle> ???????? 2ront (heel is &ent.

=. I ran into ???????? par'ed car (hen I s(er#ed to a#oid ???????? truc'.

. I (rote ???????? apolo-* for 1ar*..?????????? Radiator has ?????????? lea'+ and one of ???????? (indshield (ipers doesnt (or'.

3DCan *ou sho( 0e (here ???????? lea' is>


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,ON>UN,TIONSne use of a con:unction is to connect (ords or phrases that ha#e the sa0e -ra00atical function in a

sentence. This use of con:unctions is called parallel structure. The con:unctions used in this pattern

are4

AN"+ BUT+ R+ NR. )1ore specificall* are called coordinatin- con:unctions,.

E#AMP"E PATTERN

a. Ste#e an+his friend are co0in- to dinner.

&. Susan raised her hand an+snapped her fin-ers.

c. 5e is (a#in- his ar0s an+)is, shoutin- at us.

d. These shoes are old *utco0forta&le.

e. 5e (ants to (atch T! or )to, listen to so0e

0usic.

Noun an+ Noun

!er& an+ #er&

!er& an+ #er&In this case the second au%iliar* 0a* &e

o0itted if it is the sa0e as the first

au%iliar*.

Ad:ecti#e *ut Ad:ecti#e

Infiniti#e or Infiniti#eIn this case the second TO0a* &e o0itted.

f. Ste#e+ Joe+ an+Alice are co0in- to dinner.

-. Susan raised her hand+ snapped her fin-ers+ an+

as'ed a $uestion.h. The colors in that fa&ric are red+ -old+ &lac'+ an+

-reen.

A parallel structure 0a* contain 0ore than

t(o parts. In this case+ co00as are used to

separate each unit. The final co00a thatprecedes the con:unction is optional &ut is

custo0aril* used. )No co00as are used if

there are onl* t(o parts to a parallelstructure,.

USIN; AN5 TOO( SO( EITHER( NEITHER


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AN" OO T

AN" S.

A Sue li'es 0il'+AN5 S au% T

An+ To' +oes too.

B Sue li'es 0il'+

AN5 S au% S An+ so +oes To'

)a, And )&, ha#e the sa0e 0eanin-.

Notice in )&,4 After an+ soO the

au%iliar* #er& )au%, co0es &efore

the su&:ect )S,.

AN" OO EIT5ER

AN" NEIT5ER.

C 1ar* doesnt li'e 0il'+

AN5 S au% EIT5ER

An+ >o)n +oesnt eit)er.

" 1ar* doesnt li'e 0il'+

AN5 NEIT5ER au% S

An+ neit)er +oes >o)n.

C And d ha#e the sa0e 0eanin-.

Notice in )d,4 After an+neit)er+ the

au%iliar* #er& co0es &efore the

su&:ect.

Notice in )c,4 A ne-ati#e au%iliar*

#er& is used (ith an+O eit)er.

In )d,4 An affir0ati#e au%iliar* #er&is used (ith an+ neit)erO

E F A34 I0 hun-r*.

B34 I a' too.

G F A34 I dont li'e

hot "o-s.

B34 I +ont eit)er.

2 F A34 I0 hun-r*.

B34 So a' I.

5 F A34 I dont li'e hot do-s.

B34 Neit)er +o I.

An+is usuall* not used (hen there

are t(o spea'ers.

EAnd !ha#e the sa0e 0eanin-.;GAnd Hha#e the sa0e 0eanin-

I A34I0 hun-r*.

B34 1e too.. )Infor0al,

J A34 I dont li'e hot do-s.

B34 Me neit)er. )Infor0al,

Me too and 'e neit)er are oftenused in infor0al spo'en En-lish.

,ONNE,TIN; I5EAS WITH @E,AUSE

)a, 5e dran' (ater &ecause ha (as thirst*. @eause e3pressesa causeH it -i#es a reason.@h* did he drin' (ater>

Reason4 he (as thirst*.

)&, 1AIN CLAUSE4 5e dran' (ater. A 0ain clause is a co0plete sentence4

5e dran' (ater. A co0plete sentence.C A"!ERB CLAUSE4

&ecause he (as thirst*.

An ad#er& clause is NT a co0plete sentence4 &ecause he

(as thirst* NT a co0plete sentence.

@eauseintroduces an ad#er& clause4@eause su&:ect #er& an ad#er& clause.

An ad#er& clause is connected to a 0ain clause+ as in )d,




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1ain clause ad#er& clause

" 5e dran' (ater &ecause he (asthirst*.

)No co00a,

Ad#er& clause 0ain clause

E Because he (as thirst*+ he dran'

(ater. )Co00a,

and )e,.

In )d,4 'ain $ause no o''a a+ver* $ause.

In )e,4 a+ver* $ause o''a 'ain $ause.

)d, And )e, ha#e e%actl* the sa0e 0eanin-.

2 INCRRECT4

5e dran' (ater. Because he (as

thirst*.

)f, Is incorrect4 &ecause he (as thirst* cannot stand alone as

a sentence that starts (ith a capital letter and ends (ith a

period. It has to &e connected to a 0ain clause as in )d, and)e,.

,ONNE,TIN; I5EAS WITH SO

)a, The roo0 (as dar'+ soI turned on a

li-ht.

)&, I didnt stud*+ soI failed the e%a0.

Socan &e used as a con:unction. It is precedes &* a co00a.

It connects the ideas in t(o independent clauses. So

e%presses resu$ts4 Cause4 the roo0 (as dar'

Result4 I turned on a li-ht

USIN; AU#I"IAR& VER@S A!TER @UT AN5 AN5

)a, I dont li'e coffee+ *ut0* hus&and+oes.

)&, )&, I li'e tea+ *ut 0* hus&and

+oesnt.

)c, I (ont &e here to0orro(+ *ut Sue7i$$.

)d, I#e seen that 0o#ie+ *ut Joe

)asnt.

)e, 5e isnt here+ *utshe is.

After *ut and+ often a 0ain #er& is not repeated. Instead+onl* an au%iliar* #er& is used. The au%iliar* is a su&stitutefor the 0ain #er& phrase. The au%iliar* after *utand has the

sa0e tense or 0odal as the 0ain #er&.

In )a,4 does li'es coffee. The au%iliar* does )si0ple

present, is the su&stitute for the 0ain #er& phrase )si0ple

present,.

)f, I dont li'e coffee+ an+ Ed +oesnt

either.)-, I li'e tea+ an+Qate +oestoo.

)h, I (ont &e here+ an+he 7onteither.)i, I#e seen that 0o#ie+ an+ Pat )as

too.

):, 5e isnt here+ an+Anna isnteither.

Notice in the e%a0ples4

Ne-ati#e &ut affir0ati#e Affir0ati#e &ut ne-ati#e

Ne-ati#e and ne-ati#e Affir0ati#e and affir0ati#e




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A #er& is not contracted (ith a pronoun at the end of a sentence after *ut and4

CRRECT4 &ut she is.INCRRECT4 OOOO &ut shes.

E#ER,ISE -:Parallel structure 0a'es repeatin- the sa0e (ords unnecessar*.Co0&ine the -i#en sentences into one concise sentence that contains parallel structure.

3. 1ar* opened the door. 1ar* -reeted her -uests. Mary opened the door and greeted her guests.

6. 1ar* is openin- the door. 1ar* is -reetin- her -uests.

7. 1ar* (ill open the door. 1ar* (ill -reet her -uests.

8. Alice is 'ind. Alice is -enerous. Alice is trust(orth*.

9. Please tr* to spea' 0ore loudl*. Please tr* to spea' 0ore clearl*.

;. 5e -a#e her flo(ers on Sunda*. 5e -a#e her candies on 1onda*. 5e -a#e her a rin- on Tuesda*.

=. @hile (e (ere in N/+ (e attended an opera. @hile (e (ere in N/+ (e ate at 0ar#elous restaurants.@hile (e (ere in N/ (e #isited so0e friends.

. 5e decided to $uit school. 5e decided to -o to California. 5e decided to find a :o&.

. 5e preferred to pla* &ase&all. r he preferred to spend his ti0e in the streets (ith other to*s.

3D. I li'e coffee. I do not li'e tea. I like coffee ut not tea.

33. I ha#e 0et his 0other. I ha#e not 0et his father.

36. Ja'e (ould li'e to li#e in Puerto Rico. 5e (ould not li'e to li#e in Iceland.




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E#ER,ISE 0 : Co0plete the sentences &* usin- the (ord in italics and an appropriate au%iliar*.

3. To0 Jac' has a 0ustache+ and so ????????+oes To'??????.

Jac' has a 0ustache+ and ???????????To' +oes too.

6. Brian Ale% doesnt ha#e a 0ustache+ and neither ??????????????????. Ale% doesnt ha#e a 0ustache+ and ??????????????????? +either.

7. I Sara (as at ho0e last ni-ht+ and so ???????????????????????.

Sara (as at ho0e last ni-ht+ and ???????????+ too

8. re-on California is on the @est Coast+ and so ?????????????????????.

California is on the @est Coast+ and ???????????????????? + too.

9. Jean I (ent to a 0o#ie last ni-ht+ and so ?????????????????????????.

I (ent to a 0o#ie last ni-ht+ and ????????????????????????+ too.

;. Jason I didnt stud* last ni-ht+ and neither ?????????????????????????.

I didnt stud* last ni-ht+ and ??????????????????????????+ either.

=. "ic' Ji0 cant spea' Ara&ic+ and neither ?????????????????????????.

Jim cant speak Arabic, and ___________________________, either.



CHAPTER 5


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A5>E,TIVESWHAT IS AN A5>E,TIVE?

Ad:ecti#es descri&e nouns. In -ra00ar (e sa* that ad:ecti#es 0odif* nouns. The (ord 0odifies0eans chan-e a little. Ad:ecti#es -i#e a little different 0eanin- to a noun.

E%4 Intelli-ent student

La* studentGood student

3. 1ar* is an intelli-ent student. ) Ad: , )Noun,

6. The hun-r* children ate fruit.)Ad: , )Noun,

An ad:ecti#e is neither sin-ular nor plural. A final Fs is ne#er added to an ad:ecti#e.

CRRECT4 I sa( so0e &eautiful pictures.

INCRRECT4 I sa( so0e &eautifuls pictures.

e3erise -

A+etives %o$$o7e+ *y in%initives:

Certain ad:ecti#es can &e i00ediatel* follo(ed &* infiniti#es. In -eneral+ these ad:ecti#es descri&e aperson or people+ not a thin-. 1an* of these ad:ecti#es descri&e a persons feelin-s or attitudes.

,o''on a+etives t)at an *e %o$$o7e+ *y t)e in%initeGlad to

5app* toPleased to

"eli-hted to

Content to

Relie#ed toAlar0ed to

Encoura-ed to

Sorr* to

Sad toUpset to

"isappointed to

Proud to

Asha0ed toCurious to

E0&arrassed to

Read* to

Prepared toAn%ious to

Ea-er to

@illin- to

1oti#ated to"epressed to

E%cited to

Careful to

5esitant toReluctant to

Afraid to

"eter0ined to

Luc'* to"istressed to

2ortunate to

Surprised to

A0aed toAstonished to

Shoc'ed to

Stunned to

2ortunate to"istur&ed to

Touched to

The e%pressions (ith an are usuall* follo(ed &* infiniti#e phrases (ith #er&s such as4

See learn "isco#er

2ind out 5ear

A5>E,TIVES ,"ASSI!I,ATION4

NUMERA"S ,A"I!I,ATIVES POSSESIVES




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2irst Tall Short 1*

Second Prett* U-l* /our

Third Tired E%cited 5is

Good Bad 5er

5un-r* 2ull Its

E%hausted Rela% ur

Nice Rude /our

ut-oin- Sh* Their

Polite I0polite

Colors are also classified as ad:ecti#es. Because in certain 0o0ent the* are 0odif*in- a noun. E%.

I li'e the &lue coat )Ad:, )Noun,

So0e colors are4

Blac' ran-eBlue @hite

Bro(n /ello( Purple Pin' Red Green Gra* Bei-e

,OMPARATIVE AN5 SUPER"ATIVE !ORMS O! A5>E,TIVES

,o'paratives

Co0parati#es are used to sho( the difference &et(een t(o o&:ects. Lets sa* that I ha#e t(o cars. I

ha#e a little To*ota and a &i- 2ord. A co0parati#e is used to sho( the difference &et(een the t(o. The

2ord is &i- so (e can sa* the 2ord is &i--er than the To*otaK. Because the To*ota is s0all+ (e can sa*The To*ota is s0aller than the 2ordK. To learn to use these (e need to learn fi#e &asic rules.

3. If an ad:ecti#e has 3 s*lla&le (e add the endin- F er to the ad:ecti#e.S0all er s0aller than

5ard er harder than

6. If a one s*lla&le ad:ecti#e ends (ith a consonant a #o(el a consonant *ou 0ust dou&le the

last consonant and then add Fer.

Bi- er &i--er than2at er fatter than

7. If an ad:ecti#e ends (ith a *K+ re0o#e the *K and add Fier.

5app* F* ier happier than2unn* F* ier funnier than


Ela&orated &* 2rancisco Arrieta and 2lora Castro fro0 N.L.C Costa Rica3;


17/59

8. If an ad:ecti#e has t(o s*lla&les or 0ore (ithout a *K then add the (ord 0oreK &efore the

(ord. If the ad:ecti#e ends (ith a *K *ou (ill onl* add the (ord 0oreK if it has t(o s*lla&les

or 0ore.

Beautiful 0ore 0ore &eautiful thanE%pensi#e 0ore 0ore e%pensi#e than

Satisfactor* 0ore 0ore satisfactor* than

9. There are a fe( e%ceptions.

Good &etter than

Bad (orse than2ar farther than

Re0e0&er+ (hen usin- a co0parati#e *ou 0ust al(a*s follo( it (ith the (ord thanK.

o The To*ota is s0aller than the 2ord

o The 2ord is &i--er than the To*ota

o Britne* Spears is 0ore &eautiful than Janet Jac'son

o The airplane is 0ore e%pensi#e than the car.

o Ji0 Carre* is funnier than Geor-e Bush.

Super$atives

Superlati#es are used to sho( the difference &et(een 0ore than t(o o&:ects. Lets sa* that I ha#e threecars. I ha#e a little To*ota+ a 0ediu0 sie Jeep and a &i- 2ord. A superlati#e is used to sho( the

difference &et(een in the -roup. The 2ord is &i- so (e can sa* the 2ord is the &i--estK. Because the

To*ota is s0all+ (e can sa* The To*ota is the s0allestK. To learn to use these (e need to learn fi#e

&asic rules.

;. If an ad:ecti#e has 3 s*lla&le (e add the endin- Fest to the ad:ecti#e.

S0all est the s0allest5ard est the hardest

=. If one s*lla&le ad:ecti#e ends (ith a consonant a #o(el a consonant *ou 0ust dou&le thelast consonant and ad Fest.

Bi- est the &i--est

2at est the fattest

. If an ad:ecti#e ends (ith a *K+ re0o#e the *K and add Fiest.

5app* F* iest the happiest

2unn* F* iest the funniest

. If an ad:ecti#e has t(o s*lla&les or 0ore (ithout a *K then add the (ord 0oreK &efore the

(ord. If the ad:ecti#e ends (ith a *K *ou (ill onl* add the (ord 0ostK if it has t(o s*lla&lesor 0ore.

Beautiful 0ost the 0ost &eautiful

E%pensi#e 0ost the 0ost e%pensi#e

Satisfactor* 0ost the 0ost satisfactor*


Ela&orated &* 2rancisco Arrieta and 2lora Castro fro0 N.L.C Costa Rica3=


18/59

3D. There are a fe( e%ceptions.

Good the &est

Bad the (orst

2ar the farthest

Re0e0&er+ (hen usin- a superlati#e *ou 0ust al(a*s precede it (ith the (ord theK.

o

The To*ota is the s0allest.o The 2ord is the &i--est.

o Britne* Spears is the 0ost &eautiful.

o That airplane is the 0ost e%pensi#e.

o Ji0 Carre* is the funniest.

SOME A5>E,TIVES THAT !ORM THE ,OMPARATIVE

AN5 SUPER"ATIVE IN TWO WA&S.

A5>ETIVE ,OMPARATIVE SUPER"ATIVE

Co00on Co00oner0ore co00on Co00onest0ost co00on

Cruel Crueler0ore cruel Cruelest0ost cruel

"eadl* "eadlier0ore deadl* "eadliest0ost deadl*

2riendl* 2riendlier0ore friendl* 2riendliest0ost friendl*

5andso0e 5andso0er0ore handso0e 5andso0est0ost handso0e

5app* 5appier0ore happ* 5appiest0ost happ*

Li'el* Li'elier0ore li'el* Li'eliest0ost li'el*

Li#el* Li#elier0ore li#el* Li#eliest0ost li#el*

Lonel* Lonelier0ore lonel* Loneliest0ost lonel*

Lo#el* Lo#elier0ore lo#el* Lo#eliest0ost lo#el*

Narro( Narro(er0ore 0arro( Narro(est0ost narro(Pleasant Pleasanter0ore pleasant Pleasantest0ost pleasant

Polite Politer0ore polite Politest0ost polite

uiet uieter0ore $uiet uietest0ost $uieter

Shallo( Shallo(er0ore shallo( Shallo(est0ost shallo(

Sincere Sincerer0ore sincere Sincerest0ost sincere

Stupid Stupider0ore stupid Stupidest0ost stupid

True Truer0ore true Truest0ost true

,OMMON PARTI,IPIA" A5>E,TIVES Peop$e situation peop$e situationAlar0ed Alar0in- 2ascinated 2ascinatin-

A0aed A0ain- 2ri-htened 2ri-htenin-

A0used A0usin- 5orrified 5orrif*in-

Anno*ed Anno*in- Inspired Inspirin-




19/59

Astonished Astonishin- Interested Interestin-

Bored Borin- Irritated Irritatin-

Confused Confusin- 1o#ed 1o#in-

"epressed "epressin- Paral*ed Paral*in-

"isappointed "isappointin- Pleased Pleasin-

"is-usted "is-ustin- Rela%ed Rela%in-

"istressed "istressin- Satisfied Satisf*in-"istur&ed "istur&in- Shoc'ed Shoc'in-

E0&arrassed E0&arrassin- Surprised Surprisin-

Entertained Entertainin- Terrified Terrif*in-

E%cited E%citin- Tired Tirin-

E%hausted E%haustin- Touched Touchin-

,OMMON A5>ETIVES WITH A""IE5 PREPOSITIONS

A -reat deal of E%cited a&out Responsi&le for

Afraid of 2a0ous for Si0ilar toA&sent fro0 2ed up (ith Suspicious of

A0aed at&* 2ond of Sad a&out

An-r* at Glad a&outto Safe fro0

Asha0ed of Good atto Satisfied (ith

A(are of 5app* a&out Shoc'ed at&*

A(ful at Interested in Sic' of

Bad at Jealous of Slo( at

Bored (ith&* 1ad ata&out Sorr* fora&out

Capa&le of Ner#ous a&out Surprised ata&out&*

Careful of(ith pposed to Suita&le for

Content (ith Perfect for Terri&le atCurious a&out Pleased (itha&out Tired of

"epend on Plent* of Used to

"ifferent fro0 Prepared for @orried a&out

E$ual to Polite to(ith @or' for

Read* for Proud of

E#ER,ISE -: Co0plete the sentences (ith infiniti#es.

3. I (as -lad to 2et a letter fro0 *ou.6. I (as relie#ed to %in+ outthat I had passed the e%a0.

7. Sue is luc'* ??????????ali#e after the accident.

8. The soldiers (ere prepared ????????????.

9. The children are an%ious???????????? to the circus.




20/59

;. "ic' didnt feel li'e -oin- an*(here. 5e (as content???????????? at ho0e and read a &oo'.

=. The teacher is al(a*s (illin-???????????? us.

. The students are 0oti#ated????????????????? En-lish.

. Be careful not???????????? on the ic* side(al's.3D. To0 (as hesitant ????????????ho0e alone on the dar' street.

E3erise 0: A"JETI!ES @IT5 ALLIE" PREPSITINSSelect the correct prepositions for the &lan' space in each sentence.

3, Are *ou read* ?????????? the En-lish e%a0ination>

6, 1r. And 1rs. Bro(n are proud ??????????? their ne( house.

7, @h* those -irls (ere 0ad ??????????? 2ran' and *ou.8, John is 0ore interested ?????????? 5istor* than En-lish.

9, E#er*one feels #er* sorr* ???????????? that poor old 0an.

;, I thin' that *oun- -irl is afraid??????????? cats and do-s

=, I0 -ettin- tired ??????? that students constant e%cuses., 1* friend Ro-er is #er* e%cited ????????????? his ne( :o&.

, @e ha#e plent* ???????? ti0e ahead.

3D, "aniel Soto and his (ife are $uite fond ??????????? stron- coffee.

A5VER@S N.L.C INTENSI!E GRA11AR


CHAPTER 6


21/59

5e%inition

Ad#er&s 0odif* #er&s. ften the* ans(er the $uestion ho(>Ad#er&s are often for0ed &* addin- l* to an ad:ecti#e.

Ad:ecti#e4 $uic'Ad#er&4 $uic'l*

5e (al's $uic'l* )Ad#.,

She opened the door $uietl*. )Ad#.,

Ad#er&s are also used to 0odif* ad:ecti#es+ to -i#e infor0ation a&out ad:ecti#es.

I a0 e%tre0el* happ*.)Ad#,

Ad#er&s are also used to e%press ti0e or fre$uenc*. E%a0ples4

To0orro(+ toda*+ *esterda*+ soon+ ne#er+ usuall*+ al(a*s+ *et.

Ann (ill co0e to0orro(.

)Ad#.,

So0e ad#er&s 0a* occur in the 0iddle of a sentence. 1idsentence ad#er&s ha#e usual positionsH the*

Co0e in front of si0ple present and si0ple past #er&s )e%cept in &e,4

Ann al(a*s co0es on ti0e.

)Ad#.,

2ollo( &e )si0ple present and si0ple past,4

Ann is al(a*s on ti0e.

)Ad#.,

Co0e &et(een a helpin- #er& and a 0ain #er&4

Ann has al(a*s co0e on ti0e.

In a $uestion+ a 1idsentence

ad#er& co0es directl* after the su&:ect4

"oes she al(a*s co0e on ti0e>




22/59

)Ad:.,

Co00on 1idsentence Ad#er&s4

E#er al(a*s usuall* often

2re$uentl* -enerall* so0eti0es occasionall*

Seldo0 rarel* hardl* ne#er Not e#er alread* finall* :ust

Pro&a&l*

L/A"!ERBS

Carefull*Slo(l*

1orecarefull*

1ore slo(l*

The 0ost carefull*The 0ost slo(l*

More and 'ost are used(ith ad#er&s that end in F

Iy.

NE

S/LLABLEA"!ERBS

2ast

5ard

2aster

5arder

The fastest

The hardest

The Ber and Best. for0s

are used (ith one F s*lla&le ad#er&s.

IRREGULARA"!ERBS

@ellBadl*2ar

Better@orse2arther

further

The &estThe (orstThe farthest furthest

E%ception4 ear$y are &oth an ad:ecti#e and an ad#er&. 2or0s4 earlier+ earliest.Both %art)er and %urt)er are used to co0pare ph*sical distances4 I (al'ed fartherfurther than 0*

friend did.

!urt)er )&ut not %art)er/can also 0ean additional4 I need further infor0ation.

VER@ TENSES-. 5E!INITIONA #er& e%presses an action+ occurrence+ or state of &ein-. E%. Run+ spea'+ &eco0e+ &e+ etc.

Al0ost all En-lish sentences contain a su&:ect )S, and a #er& )!,. The #er& 0a* or not 0a* &e

follo(ed &* an o&:ect ),.



CHAPTER 7


23/59

)s, )#,

a. Birds fl*

)Noun, )!er&,

)s, )#,

&. The &a&* cried.

)Noun, )!er&,

)s, )#, )o,

c. The student needs a pen. )Noun, )!er&, )Noun,

The Su&:ects and &:ects of #er&s are nouns )or pronouns,.

0. Pro2ressive Ver*s4

These #er&s are 0a'in- reference to an acti#it* in pro-ress.

The #er& BE an ad:ecti#e is used in the pro-ressi#e to descri&e a te0porar* characteristic. !er* fe(ad:ecti#es are used (ith BE in the pro-ressi#eH so0e of the 0ost co00on are4

2oolish careful polite rude

Nice patient i0polite

Qind sill* la*

E%a0ple4

Qi0 is rea+in2a&out this -ra00ar1arie is runnin2in the par'

7. NONCPRO;RESIVE OR NONCA,TION STATI,/ VER@S:

The* are not used in an* of the pro-ressi#e tenses. These #er&s descri&e states+ conditions that e%ist.

The* do not descri&e acti#ities that are in pro-ress.

,o''on NonCpro2ressive ver*s

MENTA" STATEQno(

RealieSee )Understand,

Reco-nie

A-reeGuess

5esitate

suppose

Belie#e

2eel ) &elie#e ,Suppose

Thin') &elie#e,

Assu0e2ind

5ope

(onder

I0a-ine

"ou&tRe0e0&er

2or-et

ConsiderE%pect

0ind

@ant

NeedPrefer

1ean

"isa-reeEsti0ate

Presu0e

EMOTIONA"

STATELo#eLi'e

5ate"isli'e

2earEn#*

1indCare




24/59

Appreciate

adore

"etest

dou&t

5ope

re-ret

Respect

POSSESSION

AN5

RE"ATIONSHIP

Possess

Contain

5a#e (n Belon-

SENSES AN5

PER,EPTIONS

Taste

S0ell

5ear

2eel

See

Notice

&ser#e

Percei#eWANTS AN5

PRE!EREN,ES"esire(ish

Need Prefer @ant

APPEARAN,ES

AN5 VA"UEAppear Be Cost E$ual

!er&s (ith an asteris' are also co00onl* used as pro-ressi#e #er&s+ (ith a difference in 0eanin-+

as in the follo(in- e%a0ples4

NNPRGRESSI!E

)e%istin- state,

PRGRESSI!E

)acti#it* in pro-ress,

Thin' I t)in9he is a 'ind 0an I a' t)in9in2a&out this -ra00ar.

5a#e 5e )asa car I a' )avin2trou&le. Shes )avin2a

-ood ti0e.

See I seea &utterfl*. "o *ou see it> The "octor is seein2a patient.

2eel The cats fur %ee$ssoft. Sue is %ee$in2the cats fur.

Loo' She $oo9s cold. Ill lend her 0*

coat.

I' $oo9in2out the (indo(.

Be I a' )un2ry To0 is *ein2foolish.

Re2u$ar Ver*s:

As it na0e indicates+ the* ha#e a re-ular for0+ to for0 the si0ple past and the past participle these

#er&s 0ust end in F Ed.

E%a0ples

SIMP"E !ORM SIMP"E PAST PAST

PARTI,IP"E

PRESENT

PARTI,IP"E

hope hoped hoped hopin-stop stopped stopped stoppin-

listen listened Listened Listenin-

Stud* Studied Studied Stud*in-

Start Started Started Startin-

Irre2u$ar Ver*s:




25/59

As it na0e indicates+ these #er&s ha#e irre-ular past and past participles for0s+ )the* do not end in Fed,

or the* are the sa0e.

E%a0ple4

SIMP"E !ORM SIMP"E PAST PAST

PARTI,IP"E

PRESENT

PARTI,IP"E

Brea' Bro'e Bro'en Brea'in-Co0e Ca0e Co0e Co0in-

2ind 2ound 2ound 2indin-

5it 5it 5it 5ittin-

S(i0 S(a0 S(u0 S(i00in-

Ver*s Tenses

T)e Present Tense

The 0ini0u0 *ou need to create a sentence in En-lish is a noun )person+ place+ or thin-, and a #er&)the action of the sentence,. Prepared &elo( is all *ou need to create a si0ple sentence in En-lish.

Su&:ect Pronoun !er& Base !er& Endin-

3. Su&:ect Pronouns are I+ /ou+ 5e+ She+ It+ @e+ /ou )plural,+ and The*.

6. The #er& &ase is toK follo(ed &* the si0ple present tense #er&. 2or e%a0ple4 To Eat.

7. The #er& endin- is the chan-e that is 0ade to the #er&. 2or e%a0ple4 5e To Eat 5e Eats.

T)e Si'p$e Past Tense

The si0ple past tense is used to tal' a&out a specific action that happened in the past. The si0ple past tense hasa fe( si0ple rules. A si0ple past tense #er& (ill ha#e one of three endin-s4 d+ ed+ or Fied. All past tense

#er&s e%cept for the past of to &eK (ill &e used for all persons.

If a #er& ends (ith an eK (e (ill add dK to the (ord.

E%a0ple Taste &eco0es Tasted

S'i$e *eo'es s'i$e+

If a #er& ends (ith a *K and has a consonant &efore it (e (ill re0o#e the *K and add iedK

E3a'p$e D ,ry *eo'es ,rie+

Rep$y *eo'es rep$ie+

If a #er& ends (ith a *K &ut has a #o(el &efore it+ (e (ill add FEd to the *.




26/59

E3a'p$e D P$ay *eo'es P$aye+

Spray *eo'es Spraye+

If a #er& ends (ith an* other letters then add FEd.

E3a'p$e D ,$i'* *eo'es ,$i'*e+

Ar2ue *eo'es Ar2ue+

If a #er& ends (ith a consonant #o(el consonant (e 0ust dou&le the last consonant unless it has

0ore than one s*lla&le and the first s*lla&le is stressed. )Ne#er dou&le %+ (+ or *,

E%a0ple Strap *eo'es Strappe+

Tan *eo'es Tanne+

Re%er *eo'es Re%erre+

Enter &eco0es Entered )first s*lla&le is stressed,

At one particular ti0e in the past+ this happened. It &e-an and ended in the past.

a. It sno7e+*esterda*.&. I 7at)e+tele#ision last ni-ht

If a sentence contains (hen and has the si0ple past in &oth clauses+ the action in the (hen clausehappens first.

. She -ot up to in#esti-ate (hen she heard a stran-e noise.

. The coffee spilled on 0* lap (hen I dropped 0* cup.

Si'p$e !uture

At one particular ti0e in the future+ this (ill happen. Be -oin- to and (ill are used to e%press future

ti0e.

A. I a0 -oin- to lea#e at nine to0orro( 0ornin-.B. I (ill lea#e at nine to0orro( 0ornin-

C. 1arie is -oin- to &e at the 0eetin- toni-ht

". 1arie (ill &e at the 0eetin- toni-ht

)a, and )&, ha#e the sa0e 0eanin-

)c, and )d, ha#e the sa0e 0eanin-

E. I shall lea#e at ni-ht to0orro( 0ornin-

2. @e shall lea#e at ni-ht to0orro( 0ornin-

(ill and &e -oin- to usuall* -i#e the sa0e 0eanin-+ &ut so0eti0es e%press different 0eanin-s.

the use of shall ) (ith I or (e e%presses future ti0e is infre$uent and for0al.




27/59

!ORMS WITH WI""

STATEMENT ) I+ *ou+ he+ she+ it+ (e+ the* , 7i$$ o'eto0orro(

NE;ATIVE ) I+ *ou+ he+ she+ it+ (e+ the* , 7i$$ not 7ont / o'eto0orro(


28/59

Then+ the present pro-ressi#e e%presses an acti#it* that is in pro-ress at the 0o0ent of spea'in-. It

&e-an in the recent past+ is continuin- at present+ and (ill pro&a&l* end at so0e point in the future.

I need an u0&rella &ecause it is rainin-.John and 1ar* are tal'in- on the phone.

ften the acti#it* is of a -eneral nature4 so0ethin- -enerall* in pro-ress this (ee'+ this 0onth+ this*ear.

I a0 ta'in- fi#e courses this se0ester.John is tr*in- to i0pro#e his (or' ha&its.

She is (ritin- another &oo' this *ear

the sentence 0eans that (ritin- a &oo' is a -eneral acti#it* she is en-a-ed in at present+ &ut it does

not 0ean that at the 0o0ent of spea'in- she is sittin- at her des' (ith pen in hand.

6. Past pro2ressive4

5e (ent to sleep at 3D4DD last ni-ht. I arri#ed at 334DD. 5e (as still asleep. 5is sleep &e-an &efore and

(as in pro-ress at a particular ti0e in the past. It pro&a&l* continued.

&. 5e 7as s$eepin2(hen I arri#ed.

The past pro-ressi#e descri&es a situation in the past parallel to another prior acti#it* in the past+ too.E%a0ples4

I (as readin- a &oo' (hen the* ca0e in.@e (ere eatin- &rea'fast (hen he arri#ed.

@hen the* arri#ed. I (as 0a'in- a phone call.

@hen the phone ran-+ I (as ta'in- a sho(er.

Besides+ the past pro-ressi#e could 0a'e reference to pro:ects or plans that (ere not done.

I (as tr*in- to -et in touch (ith *ou+ &ut I couldnt.

@e (ere plannin- to lea#e earlier+ &ut there (as a lot of (or' to do.

3. !uture Pro2ressive4

5e (ill -o to sleep at 3D4DD to0orro( ni-ht. @e (ill arri#e at 334DD. The action of sleepin- (ill &e-in

&efore (e arri#e and it (ill &e in pro-ress at a particular ti0e in the future. Pro&a&l* his sleep (illcontinue.

c. 5e (ill &e sleepin- (hen (e arri#e.

E#ER,ISE -: ,)an2e t)e ver* to %it in t)e %o$$o7in2 sentenes:

3. I )to sit, ??????? on the couch.




29/59

6. 1* &rother )to li-ht, ???????????? the fire in the fireplace.

7. 1* sister )to use, ??????????????? the telephone.

8. @e )to put, ????????????? drin's on the coffee ta&le.

9. The* )to co#er, ???????????? our floor (ith carpet.

E#ER,ISE 0 Use either the si0ple present or the present pro-ressi#e of the #er&s in parentheses.

3. I cant afford that rin-. It )to cost,??????Too 0uch.

6. Loo'. It )to &e-in,????????????to rain. Unfortunatel*+ I )to ha#e+ not,???????????

0* u0&rella (ith 0e . To0 is luc'*. 5e )to (ear,????????????? a rain coat.

7. I )to o(n+ not ,???????????? an u0&rella. I )to (ear,????????????? a (aterproof

hat on rain* da*s.

8. Ri-ht no( I )to loo', ????????????around the classroo0. /o'o )to (rite,?????????? in her &oo'.

Carlos )to &ite,?????????? his pencil. @anNin- )to scratch,????????? his head. Ah0ed

)To stare, ???????????out the (indo(. 5e )to see0, ????????????? to &e da*drea0in-.

9. Theres a &oo' on 0* des'+ &ut it )to &elon-+ not, ???????????? to 0e.

E#ER,ISE 1 PRESENT PRGRESSI!E SI1PLE PRESENT

Use either the si0ple present or the present pro-ressi#e of the #er& in parenthesis4

3. "iane cannot co0e to the phone &ecause she )to (ash, ???????????? her hair.

6. "iana ) to (ash, ????????????her hair e#er* other da* or so.

7. Please &e $uiet. I ) to tr*, ????????????to concentrate.

8. E#er* 0ornin-+ the sun )to shine, ????????????in 0* &edroo0 (indo( and

)To (a'e,???????????? 0e up.

5. After three da*s of rain+ I0 -lad that the sun )to shine,????????????a-ain toda*.

E#ER,ISE 4 PAST PRO;RESSIVE F SIMP"E PAST

Co0plete in the spaces (ith the Past Pro-ressi#e or Si0ple Past if is necessar*.

1. @hat )to -o,?????????????on in *our house (hen I ) to call, ??????????????last ni-ht>




30/59

2. The t(o 0en ) to drin',????????????????to-ether (hen the fi-ht ) to start,??????????

3. @hat????????? *ou )to do, ??????????last ni-ht (hen the li-ht ) to -o, ??????????out>

4. @hen the police )to arri#e,???????????+ the situation )-et, ???????????(orse.

5. @hen the* )to arri#e,????????????+ 0* (ife ) to 0a'e, ???????????????????tea.

E#ER,ISE G: fill in the &lan's (ith either the si0ple past or past continuous.

n Jul* 33+ 33+ the 0ost spectacular total eclipse in se#en centuries????????????)ta'e,place. Little

&* little+ the s'*?????????????????)turn, dar' until the 0oon????????????????)co#er,the sun

co0pletel*. The actual pheno0enon?????????????????)not+ last, #er* lon-+ &ut &oth people and

ani0als????????????????????? )react, to its effects. The reactions of the people at the ti0e of theeclipse??????????????)&e, di#erse. So0e ???????????????????)'neel,

and??????????????????)pra*,+ (hile others????????????)shout, and ?????????????)applaud, in

euphoria. The reaction of the ani0als??????????????)&e, &asicall* instincti#e. Chic'ens+ co(s+ anddo-s+ that ???????????????????)(ander,freel*+ ???????????????)run, to their shelter (hen the

&rief ni-ht????????????????)fall,. 2i#e 0inutes later+ the sun???????????)a-ain+ shine, &ri-htl*.

THE PER!E,T TENSES

@e co0pose the present perfect tense (ith the au%iliar* )aveplus the past partiip$eof the 0ain

#er&.

2or04 ha#e past participle

1eanin-4 The perfect tenses all -i#e the idea that one thin- happened &efore

Another ti0e or e#ent.

3. Present per%et4

The present perfect e%presses the idea that so0ethin- happened )or ne#er happened, &efore no(+ at an

unspecified ti0e in the past. The e%act ti0e it happened is not i0portant.

. If there is a specific 0ention of ti0e+ the si0ple past is used.



CHAPTER 8


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)I sa( that 0o#ie last ni-ht,

3. To descri&e an action that too' place in the past )re0ote or recent , &ut that still has rele#ance inthe present.

5e has alread* seen the 0o#ie.

The 0ail has :ust arri#ed. I ha#e flo(n on an airplane 0an* ti0es.

@e ha#e had four tests so far this se0ester.

6. to sho( that an acti#it* &e-an in the past and still continues in the present. The 0ost co00on

prepositional phrases used (ith this tense are the ones introduced &* the prepositions forK and

sinceK

I ha#e (or'ed there for three *ears.

)I &e-an to (or' there three *ears a-o+ and I still (or' there,

Qate has 'no(n Paul since 3D.

)Qate and Paul 0et in 3D+ and the* are still friends,5e has &een a la(*er since last *ear.

)5e &eca0e a la(*er last *ear+ and he is still practicin- la(,

ther ad#er&ials of ti0e that are often used (ith the present perfect are the follo(in-H a fe( ti0es+

alread*+ e#er+ finall*+ latel*+ 0an* ti0es+ not *et+ so far+ up to no(+ up to the present+ *et+ durin- thepast ) da*s+ 0onths+ *ears+ seasons ,+ and all the ad#er&s of fre$uenc*.

. The* ha#e 0o#ed into a ne( apart0ent.

. 5a#e *ou e#er &een to En-land>

. I ha#e alread* seen sno(.. The &o* has cou-hed 0an* ti0es toda*.

. @e ha#e -one on se#eral outin-s durin- this su00er.

6. Past Per%et4

The past perfect tense is a structure 0ade up of the past tense of the au%iliar* )ave)had, and the past

partiip$eof the 0ain #er&. The past perfect tense descri&es an acti#it* that (as co0pleted at or &efore

so0e definite plan in the past+ that is+ &efore so0e other action in the past.

The store had closed (hen the fire &ro'e out.

)The store closed first and then the fire started,

Sharon said that she had lied durin- the trial.)Sharon lied first and then she confessed to it,

@e also use the past perfect tense in the su&:uncti#e 0ood to e%press contrar*tofact situations. 2orfurther reference.




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I (ish *ou had #isited us (hen *ou (ere in to(n.

If I had 'no(n the ne(s+ I (ould ha#e told *ou a&out it.

1. !uture Per%et4

The future perfect tense is a structure 0ade up of the 0odal au%iliar* 7i$$ plus )aveplus the pastpartiip$eof the 0ain #er&. This tense descri&es an action that (ill ta'e place or (ill finish &efore

another e#ent or ti0e in the future. So0e e%pressions that (e usuall* use (ith this tense are the

follo(in-4 &* that ti0e+ &* )se#en, ocloc'+ in )three, hours+ in )t(o, *ears )ti0e,+ &* this ti0e ne%t)*ear,.

B* se#en ocloc'+ I (ill ha#e (or'ed for fi#e hours.)I &e-an at t(o ocloc'+ and I a0 still (or'in-,

I (ill ha#e finished 0* studies in three *ears.

)I still need to stud* three *ears &efore -raduatin-,&* this ti0e ne%t *ear+ he (ill ha#e co0pleted his 0ission in Central A0erica.

)5is 0ission finishes ne%t *ear on e%actl* the sa0e da* and 0onth as toda*,

THE PER!E,T PRO;RESSIVE TENSES

The present perfect continuous is a construction 0ade up of the au%iliaries )ave and *eenplus the Fin2

for0 of the 0ain #er&. This tense e0phasies the duration of the action the action throu-hout a periodof ti0e.

3. Present Perfect Pro-ressi#e4

The action &e-an in the past )re0ote or recent, and continues up to the present. The 0ost co00onprepositional phrases used (ith the present perfect tense are the ones introduced &* the prepositions

forK and sinceK

I ha#e &een stri#in- to &eco0e a doctor all 0* life.)I &e-an to stri#e *ears a-o and continue to (or' hard so that I can &eco0e a doctor so0eda*,

The priest has &een preachin- for o#er an hour.)5e &e-an an hour a-o and continues preachin-,She has &een ta'in- 0edication since she had the accident

)I00ediatel* after the accident+ she &e-an to ta'e 0edication+ and she is still ta'in- it,

6. Past Perfect Pro-ressi#e4




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This tense is a construction 0ade up of the au%iliar* )avein the past tense )had, plus the au%iliar*

*een and theBin2for0 of the 0ain #er&. This tense e%presses an action that &e-an in the past &ut

continued up to another action or ti0e in the past. The past perfect continuous e0phasies the duration

of the action throu-hout a period of ti0e.

The little -irl had &een cr*infor half an hour &efore her 0other ca0e ho0e.

The* had &een (aitin- for the tic'et office to open (hen it started to rain.The (o0an said that she had &een coo'infor an hour.

7. 2uture Perfect Pro-ressi#e4

The future perfect continuous tense is a construction for0ed (ith the 0odal au%iliar* 7i$$plus theau%iliaries )ave *een and theBin2for0 of the 0ain #er&. This tense indicates that an action (ill ta'e

place &efore another action or &* a certain ti0e.

B* 0idni-ht+ I (ill ha#e &een (or'in- on 0* paper for ten hours.)I &e-an at t(o ocloc'H I a0 still (or'in- on the paper and (ill ha#e (or'ed ten hours &* 0idni-ht,

@e (illshall ha#e &een stud*in- En-lish for t(o *ears &* No#e0&er.)@e (ill co0plete our second *ear of En-lish in No#e0&er,

E#ER,ISE - SIMP"E PAST F PRESEN T PER!E,T

Use the si0ple past or the present perfect. In so0e sentences. Either tense is possi&le.

3. I )attend+ not,????????an* parties since I ca0e here.

6. Al )-o,????????to a part* at Sall*s apart0ent last Saturda* ni-ht.

7. Bill )arri#e,????????here three da*s a-o.

8. Bill )&e,????????here since the 66nd

9. Tr* not to &e a&sent fro0 class a-ain for the rest of the ter0. /ou )0iss+ alread*,

???????????????too 0an* classes. /ou )0iss,????????????t(o classes :ust last (ee'.

E#ER,ISE 0: PRESENT PER!E,T PRO;RESIVE

Use the present perfect pro-ressi#e in the follo(in-.

3. The &o*s are pla*in- soccer ri-ht no(. The* )pla*,????????????????for al0ost t(o hours. The*0ust &e -ettin- tired.




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6. Ale% is tal'in- on the phone. 5e )tal',????????????????on the phone for o#er half an hour. 5e

should han- up soon. Lon- distance is e%pensi#e.

7. I0 tr*in- to stud*. I )tr*,????????????????to stud* for the last hour+ &ut so0ethin- al(a*s see0sto interrupt 0e. I thin' Id &etter -o to the li&rar*.

E#ER,ISE 1: PAST PER!E,T F SIMP"E PAST

Use the si0ple past or the past perfect.

3. 5e )&e,?????????????a ne(spaper reporter &efore he )&eco0e,?????????? a &usiness0an.

6. I )feel,?????????????? a little &etter after I )Ta'e, ?????????????the 0edicine.

7. I (as late. The teacher )-i#e+ alread*,?????????????? a $ui (hen I )-et, ????????????? to

class.

8. The anthropolo-ist )lea#e,???????????????the #illa-e (hen she )collect,

???????????????enou-h data.

9. It (as rainin- hard+ &ut &* the ti0e class )&e,???????????????o#er+ the rain

)stop,???????????????.

E#ER,ISE 4: fill in the &lan's (ith either the past perfect or past perfect continuous for0 of the #er&in parenthesis.

Prior to the solar eclipse of Jul*+ 33+ the astrono0ers??????????????????)esta&lish, its route fro05a(aii+ o#er the Pacific cean+ and do(n the A0erican continent. The* ??????????????? )calculate,

The precise ti0e of the eclipse in each location and ?????????????????)set up, their telescopes and

other scientific instru0ents to o&ser#e and stud* the solar flares. In other places+ special -roups?????????????????? )prepare, reli-ious festi#ities+ and an*one+ (ho ????????????????)(ait,

an%iousl* for the e#ent+ found (a*s to -et a -li0pse at the eclipse. The* ????????????? )read*,

sun-lasses+ s0o'ed -lass+ &inoculars (ith filters and+ of course+ their sophisticated ca0eras. Since note#er*one (as (illin- to see the eclipse+ so0e?????????????????? )ta'e, the decision to sta* indoors

to a#oid undesira&le conse$uences. 5e*+ (hat can I sa*M

E#ER,ISE G: %i$$in the &lan's (ith either the future perfect or future perfect continuous for0 of the

#er& in parenthesis.

B* the ti0e I -raduate+ I ???????????????????)practice, En-lish for four *ears. 5o(e#er+ since

practice is not enou-h to -et a de-ree in En-lish. I??????????????????????)also+ learn, a&out the

s*ste0 of the lan-ua-e+ I????????????????????)deal (ith, s*nta%+ 0orpholo-*+ phonetics and+needless to sa*+ I????????????????????????)stru--le, constantl* to con#e* 0* ideas since 0eanin-

is crucial in co00unication. 1ean(hile+ and in spite of the closer appro%i0ation of 0* interlan-ua-e




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to achi#e 0* tar-et lan-ua-e+ I???????????????????????? )repeatedl*+ (onder, (here to find the

0a-ic for0ula to -et rid of 0* accent+ &ut+ &* then+ I ???????????????)realie, that I still need to

(or' on 0* stress+ rh*th0+ and intonation

1"AL AUILIARIES

SHA""( AN5 WI""

In ordinar* con#ersation+ the idea of future ti0e is often e%pressed &* usin- an ad#er& of ti0e )he is

lea#in- soon,+ or &* usin- a for0 of the #er& *eplus 2oin2 to (hene#er an acti#it* has &een planned

&eforehand )(ere -oin- to 0eet at Johns house,. S)a$$ an+ 7i$$ also e%press future ti0e under

different conditions of for0alit*.

S)a$$ sho(s futurit* (ith the first person sin-ular and plural in for0al situations+ such as &usiness

letters+ pu&lic speeches and acade0ic (ritin-.

@e shall &e pleased to send *our order (ithin a fe( da*s.

I shall appreciate an* help concernin- the ne( pro-ra0.

3. S)a$$ is 0ostl* used in interro-ati#e sentences (ith the first person pronouns and carries a

se0antic co0ponent of a-ree0ent.a. @hen used (ithout and ad#er& of ti0e+ it refers to the i00ediate future+ ri-ht after the

0o0ent of spea'in-.

Shall (e open the (indo(>

Shall (e lea#e>



CHAPTER 9


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*. @hen used (ith an ad#er& of ti0e+ it refers to a 0ore distant future.

Shall (e -o fishin- ne%t (ee'end>

Shall I do the dishes toni-ht>

6. S)a$$ is also used to 0a'e prophecies a&out the future.

Nostrada0us said the (orld shall end in the *ear 7=.

If he continues to rise in the co0pan*+ he shall &e the General 1ana-er.

Wi$$sho(s futurit* in e#er*da* speech and (ritin-. In this sense+ it is used in si0ple+ continuous+ and

perfect tenses )5enr* (ill &e (or'in- late toni-htH 5e (ill ha#e read the chapters for to0orro(,. These0antic co0ponent of 7i$$produces so0e other 0eanin-s.

3. Wi$$su--ests pro0ise+ intention+ or (illin-ness.

If I (in the lotter*+ Ill &u* *ou a ne( dress.

5e sa*s that hell &e &ac' &* 8 ocloc'.@ho #olunteers to &u* the paper cups> I (ill.

6. Wi$$ so0eti0es e%presses deter0ination+ threat or ine#ita&ilit*.

Shell do it in spite of (hat *ou sa*.Please 'eep the secret+ or Ill ne#er trust *ou a-ain.

5ell -et in trou&le if he &rea's the (indo(.

7. Wi$$ ansho( inference )as a conclusion, or assu0ption )act of assu0in-,.

The stor0 is a&out o#er+ itll &e fine to0orro(.

So0eones at the door. Thatll &e Joe.

8.Wi$$ re#eals dou&t or in$uir* )re$uest for infor0ation,.

@ill he (in the co0petition or (ont he>

@ill *ou need *our u0&rella toda*>

9.Wi$$ is also used in re$uest and co00ands.

@ill *ou turn on the li-hts+ please>

Turn the radio do(n+ (ill *ou>

WOU"5

Wou$+ statesthe pro&a&le outco0e )result or conse$uence, of a h*pothetical condition or contrar*to

fact. This appears in the result clause of conditional sentences or their e$ui#alents

If I (ere *ou+ I (ould -o ho0e.




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It (ould &e foolish to -i#e up hope.

Jonathan (ould -o ca0pin-+ &ut his 0other (ont let hi0.

I0 -lad to0orro( is holida*H other(ise+ I (ould ha#e an e%haustin- da*.

3. It also occurs in 7is)sentences e%pressin- contrar* Ftofact actions.

I (ish it (ould stop rainin-.1ar' (ished his son (ould ha#e -one to colle-e.

6. It can also e%press an action that did not happen in the past or a past unreal condition.

@e (ould ha#e ta'en a picture+ &ut (e didnt ha#e a ca0era.

She (ould ha#e -otten a -ood -rade if she had studied harder.

7. Wou$+ is used in refusals.

Althou-h he (as hun-r*+ he (ouldnt eat an*thin-5e (as hun-r*+ &ut he (ouldnt eat an*thin-.

8. Wou$+ denote an action that occurred fre$uentl* in the past. In this sentence in e$ui#alent toused to.

@hen I (as a child+ 0* 0o0 (ould al(a*s tell us stories.In su00er if the (eather (as fine+ (e (ould all -o for a s(i0 in the near&*

ri#er.

9.Wou$+ acts as the past for0 of (ill in indirect speech.

Ann said+ I (ont &e lateK

Ann said that she (ouldnt &e late.

;. Wou$+is used to state a polite re$uest. In this pattern+ it sho(s 0ore for0alit* than (ill.

I (ould appreciate recei#in- *our chec' as soon as possi&le.

@ould so0eone please turn do(n the radio>

=. Wou$+ is so0eti0es stressed in ordinar* con#ersation to sho( that (e are not happ* a&out

so0ethin- that has happened.

/ou (ould -et dirt*+ (ouldnt *ou>The* (ould spend all our ta% 0one* on (eapons.

,AN

,ansho(s a&ilit*. In 0eanin-+ it is s*non*0ous of *e a*$e to.

3. In so0e cases+ it refers to ph*sical a&ilit*.




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To0 is so stron- that he can lift 9D 'ilos.

5ector has &een trainin- so hard that he can no( run fi#e 0iles (ithout -ettin-

tired.

6. So0eti0es+ it refers to a learned a&ilit*.

The ne( -irl in class can spea' three lan-ua-es.The s&orne &rothers can pla* se#eral 0usical instru0ents.

7. At other ti0es+ it e%presses the po(er to do so0ethin-.

A #olcano eruption can destro* tons of crops.

5istorical e#ents can often sha'e the #alues of a societ*.

8. ,analso sho(s possi&ilit*.

1rs. 5enderson cant see *ou no(+ &ut she can see *ou to0orro(.I can -o to Europe if I recei#e the &an' loan.

9. ,an is collo$uiall* used to as' for+ -i#e+ or to tal' a&out per0ission. It denotes less for0alit*than 'ay.

Can (e lea#e no(>The* cannot 0eet in that roo0.

I (onder if I can ta'e 0* #acation ne%t (ee'.

;. ,ant is so0eti0es stressed in e#er*da* speech to sho( that (e thin' so0ethin- is (ron-.

I ,ANT stand so 0uch litter in the cit*.5e (as cr*in- :ust a 0inute a-o+ he ,ANT&e sin-in- alread*.

@hat he said ,ANT&e true.

,OU"5

,ou$+ also e%presses a&ilit*. It refers to a past a&ilit* that does not e%ist in the present. It is+ in thissense+ e$ui#alent to *e a*$e to.

To0 (as so stron- that he could lift 9D 'ilos.

5e could s'ate #er* (ell (hen he (as *oun-.The land (as so flat that *ou couldnt see a 0ountain for 0iles.

3. ,ou$+sho(s possi&le actions or happenin-s in the future. In this case+ it is 0ore for0al thanan&ut denotes less pro&a&ilit*. It is usuall* stressed in such sentences.

1rs. 5enderson cant see *ou toda*+ &ut she CUL" see *ou to0orro(.@here shall (e -o toni-ht> @e ,OU"5 -o to the 0o#ies.

There ,OU"5&e another earth$ua'e soon.




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6. ,ou$+ e%presses per0ission that (as once -ranted in the past+ &ut is no lon-er #alid in the

present. /ears a-o+ e#er*one could enter stores (ithout ha#in- to lea#e their &a-s at the counter.

So0e *ears a-o+ people could s0o'e in the cine0as and on the &uses.

7. ,ou$+is used to consult so0eone and thus+ se0anticall*+ it re#eals diffidence.

Could I &orro( *our pen>Could I as' *ou so0ethin-+ if *oure not too &us*>

8. ,ou$+ is also used to politel* as' so0eone to stop doin- so0ethin-. In such cases+ not 0odifies

the #er&.

Could *ou not s0o'e at the ta&le+ please>Could the* not tal' so loudl*>

9. ,ou$+ acts as the past for0 of an in indirect speech.

Alice said+ I can &e here at fi#e ocloc'K

Alice said that she could &e here at fi#e ocloc'.

;. ,ou$+appears in the result clauses in conditional sentences that sho( present or future ti0e.

If he (erent so old+ he could run faster.Janet could ha#e 0ore friends if she (ere 0ore socia&le.

MUST

Must e%presses o&li-ation or necessit* in the present or future if the o&li-ation lies (ith the spea'er+ or

su&:ect+ of the sentence. If the o&li-ation arises fro0 so0eone else+ then )ave to is used and stressed in

the sentence. Stud* the follo(in- e%a0ples4

I 0ust -o no(. )I dont (ant to &e late,

I HAVE TO&e at the &an' &efore it closes.)The &an' sets the (or'in- hours,

@e 0ust eli0inate all sources of 0alaria.

)Its an o&li-ation,International tra#elers HAVE TO sho( their passport and tic'et at the &oardin-

-ate. )The airport ad0inistration re$uires that the* do so,

3. Ha+ to e%presses o&li-ation or necessit* in the past.

@e had to sta* o#erni-ht &ecause the fo- (ouldnt lift.1* &rother had to dri#e 0e to the hospital *esterda*.




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6. Ha+ to also functions as t he past for0 of 'ustin indirect speech.

The doctor said+ /ou 0ust lose (ei-ht.K

The doctor said that I had to lose (ei-ht.

7. Must not sin-le out a positi#e prohi&ition. It is usuall* contracted in con#ersation and states

the o&li-ation or necessit* not to do so0ethin-.

/ou 0ust NT (al' in the 0iddle of the road.

/ou 1USNT spend too 0an* hours under the sun.)Not 0odifies the #er&,

8. Must is used for lo-ical deductions or stron- suppositions.

a. to e%press an indifference in the present+ 'ust is follo(ed &* the si0ple or the

continuous for0 of the #er&.

Paul recentl* finished hi-h school. So+ he 0ust &e a&out ei-hteen *ears old.

The Ro&ertsons ha#ent returned fro0 their trip *et. The* 0ust &e ha#in- a -reat ti0eM

*. 2or ne-ati#e deductions in either present+ future or past+ 'ust is stressed &ut ne#er

contracted (ith not.

That store char-es 0ore than others.It 0ust &e an e%clusi#e store. )Positi#e deduction,

It MUSTnot &e #er* honest in its dealin-s. )Ne-ati#e deduction,

5ellen loo's a little sad.She MUST not ha#e passed the test.

9. Must( stressed in the follo(in- sentences denotes sarcas0.

If *ou MUSTs0o'e+please step outside.

If he MUSTche( -u0+ couldnt he do it $uietl*>

;. Must can state a -eneral truth if used (ithout ti0e e%pressions.

ne 0ust sleep (ell to (or' (ell./ou 0ust lo#e to &e lo#ed.

SHOU"5

S)ou$+ e%presses dut* on the part of the spea'er or su&:ect of the sentence.

/our tooth aches so &adl* that *ou should -o to the dentist this afternoon.

Children shouldnt pla* (ith 0atches.

S)ou$+ is also used to e%press a dut* at the present 0o0ent. In this case+ it is follo(ed &* thecontinuous for0 of the #er&.




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Sarah li'es to ar-ue so 0uch that she should &e stud*in- la( instead of dra0a.

5e should &e doin- his ho0e(or' and not (atchin- tele#ision.

-. S)ou$+ su--est ad#isa&ilit*. In $uestions as'infor a-ree0ent or offerin- help+ it isinterchan-ea&le (ill s)a$$(hen used (ith first person sin-ular and plural.

/ou should &e careful (ith stran-ers.5e should e%ercise 0ore.

Should I help *ou (ith those &a-s>

Should (e hand in our report t*pe(ritten>

0. S)ou$+ has no past for0 in indirect speech. It does not chan-e.

2ather said+ /ou should 0o( the la(nK2ather said that I should 0o( the la(n.

1. S)ou$+ is used in conditional sentences to replace the (ord i%.

S)ou$+ the* decide to in#est in the co0pan*+ the* (ould ha#e to do it &efore the (ee' e%pires. S)ou$+ he co0e+ please -i#e hi0 these papers.

E#ER,ISE -: choose the alternati#e that &est co0pletes the sentence lo-icall*.

3, The stea' )shall+ (ill+ (ould, &urn if *ou dont turn it on the other side.

6, I ad#ise hi0 not to -o too fast+ &ut he )shall+ (ill+ (ould, not listen. No(+ loo' (hat hesdone to his &i'e.

7, ) shall+ (ill+ (ould , I do this for *ou>

8, After their last dispute o#er propert* ri-hts+ the &rothers )shant+ (ouldnt, tal' to eachother.

9, She thin's that (e )shall+ (ill+ (ould, &e friends for a lon- ti0e.

E#ER,ISE 0: choose the alternati#e that &est co0pletes the sentence lo-icall*.

3, "id *ou 'no( that !CR cassettes )can+ could, hold si% hours of continuous recordin->

6, The &all rolled do(n the hill+ &ut the &o* )cant+ couldnt, catch up to it.7, The &an' cler' said that I )cant+ couldnt, cash the chec' &ecause the account had no funds.

8, A flood )can+ could, cause considera&le da0a-e to &oth land and houses.

9, There )can+ could, &e dire conse$uences to hostile acts.

E#ER,ISE 1: fill in the &lan's (ith anor ou$+.

3, Boo's ????????????????????stir the i0a-ination.6, To sit and (atch the sea roll in ????????????????????produce a #er* soothin- effect.

7, ????????????????*ou cli0& a tree (hen *ou (ere little>

8, A po(er sur-e protector???????????? protect electrical e$uip0ent fro0 e%cessi#e #olta-e.9, The secretar* said that she????????????? ha#e the in#oices read* on ti0e.




42/59

PREPSITINS AN" PREPSITINAL

P5RASES

The preposition

Prepositions are connecti#e (ords+ so0eti0es a -roup of t(o or three (ords that relate a noun or

pronoun to one or another of the &asic ele0ents of the sentence )the su&:ect+ #er&+ o&:ect+ orco0ple0ents,.

Prepositions ha#e &een called the &i--est little (ords in En-lish. The* are usuall* $uite short and

insi-nificant loo'in-+ &ut the* ha#e #er* i0portant functions+ ta'e a loo' at this sentences and noticeho( co0pletel* different the 0eanin- of the sentences is.

A letter (as sent to1ar*.

A letter (as sent *y1ar*.

A letter (as sent %or1ar*.

A letter (as sent %ro'1ar*.

The prepositions chan-e+ &ut that is enou-h to chan-e the 0eanin- entirel*.

Read the follo(in- con#ersation and o&ser#e the use of prepositions.

Tr* to i0a-ine ho( *ou could -i#e the sa0e 0eanin- (ithout usin- an* preposition. It (ould &e #er*difficult. As a 0atter of fact+ it (ould &e al0ost i0possi&le.

1r. and 1rs. S0ith (ere dri!ing a$on2a countr* road.The* ca0e toa ri#er "itha &rid-e overit.



CHAPTER 10


43/59

5ere is the ri#er that (e noticed onthe 0ap+K

1r. S0ith said no( (e 0ust ta'e this road that runs a$on2itK.

No+K 1rs. S0ith said+ (e should -o arossthe ri#er.

1a*&e (e should ta'e the road *eyon+the ri#er.K@ellK+ said 1r. S0ith+ I0 confused no(. I dont 'no( (hether (e should ta'e the road

a$on2the ri#er+ arossthe ri#er+ or *eyon+the ri#er.K

1r. S0ith (as confused. 5e didnt 'no( (hich direction to -o. But he did understand the 0eanin- of

each preposition.

Prepositions

The follo(in- list sho(s so0e of the 0ost co00on uses of preposition.

W)ere: p$ae( position.

Aross 5er house is across the street.

At 5e used to &e a student at an A0erican U.

A2ainst 5is &ic*cle (as leanin- a-ainst the fence.

@e)in+ The -ara-e is &ehind the house.

@y That house &* the la'e is 0* drea0 house.

5o7n @e sa( her (al'indo(n 2ifth A#enue this

afternoon.

In She (as doin- in an ar0chair (hen (e -ot there.

In *a9 o% The ta%i is par'ed in &ac' of the &us.

In %ront o% The &all rolled in front of the &us.Insi+e Co0e in. Its (ar0er inside the house.

Near /ou shouldnt s0o'e near -asoline.

On 5e put the &oo' on the ta&le.

On top o% I (ant ca'e and ice crea0+ and on top of that I (ant(hipped crea0.

Over The 0other pulled the &lan'et o#er the &a&*.

Outsi+e Theres a &irds nest outside 0* (indo(.

To She (ent to the -rocer* store.

T)rou2) The &ird fle( throu-h the open (indo(.

Un+er I found that &oo' under the des'.

Un+erneat) Put a pad underneath that hot coffee pot.Up 5e (as (al'in- up the street.

Upon 5e placed his hat upon his head.

A'on2 If *ou loo' carefull*+ *ou 0i-ht find the letter a0on-those papers.

@et7een 5is shop is &et(een the &an' and the post office.

A%ter @al' strai-ht aheadH then ta'e the first street after the

&rid-e.




44/59

@e%ore I ha#e *our letter &efore 0e no(.

@e$o7 The* li#e in the apart0ent &elo( ours.

Opposite The school is opposite the church

W)ere: +iretion.

Into I sa( her -oin- into the theater a fe( 0inutes a-o.

Out o% 5e too' so0e 0one* out of his poc'et

To7ar+ This road leads to(ard the sea

@y 7ay o% Cant (e -o to Ne( /or' &* (a* of Philadelphia>

Aross 5e is &uildin- a house across the street

Opposite The post office is opposite the court house

W)en: ti'e

At I told her to 0eet us at si% ocloc' sharp

@y Alice should &e &ac' &* se#en at the latest

In Ill 0eet *ou in an hour

!or The* are li#infor three (ee's

5urin2 "urin- the su00er+ I thin' Ill -o to 2lorida

A%ter @ould *ou please call after ei-ht

@e%ore Ta'e this 0edicine &efore 0ealti0e

Unti$ ti$$/ @e 0ust (ait until noon

On ti'e "o *ou thin' the train is arri#in- on ti0e>

In ti'e Please hurr* up or (ell ne#er &e in ti0e for the first

act

Aroun+ I -et to 0* office around nine e#er* 0ornin-

A*out I thin' she (ill &e a(a* a&out a (ee'

!ro'to The office (ill &e open fro0 one to nine e#er* da*

!ro'unti$ She (or's fro0 ei-ht a0 until si% p0.

W)y: purpose( reason.

!or Ta'e this 0edicine for *our headache

W)ose: possession

O% The leader of the scouts has not arri#ed *et

To Those &oo's &elon- to 1ar*

Ho7: 'anner

@y I en:o* -oin- there &* train

On I 0et her on the train

In /ou 0ust &e dressed in for0al clothes at that hotelWit) She 0et 0e (ith a sco(l on her face

"i9e She is not at all -racefulH she (al's li'e a duc'

Ho7: a2ent( 'ateria$

@y This fil0 (as directed &* an A0erican director

In The pla* (as ori-inall* (ritten in En-lish

Wit) I 0ust fill 0* pen (ith in'




45/59

W)at( 7)i):

At The shop at the corner sells sta0ps

On The apart0ent on the second floor is s0aller than

ours

@y That &oo' &* Capote is a 0asterpiece

In The 0an in the dar' suit is 1r. 5o(ardO% This 'ind of 0aterial cant &e found toda*

!or She (as -i#en an a(ard for her hi-h -rades

As in

apaity o%/

She (or's as a secretar*

Ho7 'u)( )o7 $on2: 'easure'ent.

!or @e (al'ed for 0iles and 0iles

5e has li#ed here for *ears

I paid si%t* cents for a doen e--sO% I (ant to &u* t(o &ottles of 0il'

@y 1eat is sold &* the pound or &* the 'ilo

E#ER,ISE -:Choose in( on( or at for the &lan' space in each sentence.

3, 1r. and 1rs. Qenned* li#e ??????? @est End A#enue.

6, "id *ou &u* *our ne( car ??????? "etroit or here>

7, The Bro(ns (ere ???????? Greece and Ital* t(o *ears a-o.8, 1r. 2oster (or's ???????? ;;= E+ =thStreet ???????? Ne( /or'.

9, The Johnsons -ara-e is ??????? &ac' of their house.;, @ould *ou please par' *our car ???????? the dri#e(a*.

=, 1r. and 1rs. S0ith sta*ed ??????? the Lincoln 5otel ????????? Boston., Ill 0eet *ou ?????????? the corner of 78thStreet and Broad(a*.

, 5o( did *ou en:o* *our #acation ??????? Europe last *ear>

3D, Alice isnt ???? ho0e ri-ht no(.

E#ER,ISE 0: select the ri-ht preposition for the &lan' space in each sentence. Ad: pre

3, 1r. Ada0s (ent ???????? a (al' ????? the par' this afternoon.6, I hope that the director (ill cooperate ??????? us ???????? that 0atter.

7, That restaurant ????????? 3Dthstreet is 'no(n ?????? its fine food.

8, I thin' that the *oun- -irl is afraid ?????? cats and do-s.9, The $ualit* of this is not e$ual ??????? the $ualit* of that one.

;, Are *ou read* ?????? the En-lish e%a0ination.

=, E#er*one feels #er* sorr* ?????? that poor old 0an., 5o( 0uch did *our friend pa* ???????those theater tic'ets>

, @hen did the Andersons e%pect to arri#e ??????? Ne( /or'>

3D, The 0en (ill pro&a&l* rel* ?????? *ou ???? so0e assistance.




46/59

E#ER,ISE 1: SIN,E vs. !OR

3, 1r. Ber- has studied En-lish in this class ??????????????????? ei-ht 0onths.6, 1* friend has studied En-lish in this class ?????????????????last cto&er.

7, The Bro(ns ha#e li#ed in this cit* ?????????????? 38.

8, The @ilsons ha#e li#ed in Ne( /or' ???????????? si% *ears.9, 1r. S0ith (or'ed for the A:a% Co0pan* ???????? one *ear.

E#ER,ISE 4: !OR vs. IN

3, 1r. S0ith (or'ed for the Container Corporation ?????????????? 393.

6, 1r. S0ith (or'ed for the corporation ???????????????????? one *ear.7, 1* (ife and I usuall* ta'e our #acation ??????????????? the su00er.

8, @e usuall* sta* in !er0ont or 1aine????????????????? a (hole 0onth.

9, Professor 1oore ca0e to this uni#ersit*??????????????? 37.

E#ER,ISE G: @& vs IN

3, Tho0as and Richard (ill &e there??????????????? ten ocloc'.6, 1* friends (ill &e there?????????????????? t(o or three hours.

7, @ill *ou finish the (or'????????????????? Septe0&er 3D>

8, Ill finish all of the (or'????????????????? three 0onths.9, Ill lend *ou 0* dictionar*??????????????? a da* or t(o.

E#ER,ISE : @& vs. !OR

3, @ell ha#e that report for *ou ?????????????? 84DD p.0.

6, @ell (or' on that report ?????? the ne%t t(o hours.

7, I0 lea#in- no(+ &ut Ill &e &ac' here ????? noon.8, Ill &e a(a* fro0 0* office ????????????? se#eral hours toda*.

9, The hi-h(a* depart0ent (ill finish that road ????? 6DD.




47/59

T5E PASSI!E

Acti#e and passi#e #oices are used in En-lish to e%press actions. @hile in the acti#e #oice+ the su&:ect

is the doer+ in the passi#e the su&:ect recei#es the effect of the action. Thus+ onl* transiti#e #er&s )those

that ta'e a direct o&:ect, can under-o the passi#e transfor0ation. This is one of the reasons (h* the

acti#e #oice is 0ore fre$uent in speech and in (ritin-. The passi#e #oice+ ho(e#er+ is especiall* useful

for st*listic reasons in official docu0ents+ :ournalistic articles+ and scientific (ritin-.

!or' or t)e passive4 #er& to &e past participle

To transfor0 an acti#e sentence into a passi#e one+ follo( these three steps.

-. 1o#e the direct o&:ect of the acti#e sentence to su&:ect position.

Both -o#ern0ents si-ned the agreement.

#.O

The agreement (as si-ned &* &oth -o#ern0ents.

S

0. Insert a for0 of *ein the tense of the acti#e sentence+ and (rite the 0ain #er& of theacti#e sentence in its past partiip$e for0.

Ro*gro"spotatoes in the far0.Potatoes are gro"n on the far0.



CHAPTER 11


48/59

The telephone co0pan* is installing ne( lines.

Ne( lines are eing installed &* the telephone co0pan*

The doctor has alreadye$amined the pre-nant (o0en.The pre-nant (o0an has already een e$amined&* the doctor

The cha0pion must dri!e that race car.

That race car must e dri!en&* the cha0pion.

1. 1o#e the su&:ect of the acti#e sentence to the end of the passi#e sentence. The su&:ectof the acti#e sentence &eco0es the a-ent of the passi#e one. The a-ent is then headed &*

the preposition *y.

The oy told a (eird stor*.

SA (eird stor* (as told &* the oy. A-ent

The a-ent is+ ho(e#er fre$uentl* o0itted (hen it does not contain infor0ation (hich (e

specificall* (ish to include.

scar Arias fro0 Costa Rica (as a(arded the No&el Price for peace in 3=.

)@e o0it the *yprepositional phrase,

nl* transiti#e #er&s )#er&s that are follo(ed &* an o&:ect, are used in the passi#e. It is not possi&le touse #er&s such as happen+ sleep+ co0e and see0 )intransiti#e #er&s, in the passi#e. E%.

ACTI!E4 An accident happened.

PASSI!E4 )none,

VER@ TENSE

Si0ple Present 1ar*

John

5elps

Is helped

John

B* 1ar*

A

P

Present Pro-ressi#e 1ar*

John

Is helpin-

Is &ein- helped

John

B* 1ar*

A

P

Present Perfect 1ar*

John

5as helped

5as &een helped

John

B* 1ar*

A

P

Si0ple Past 1ar*John

5elped@as helped

JohnB* 1ar*

AP

Past Pro-ressi#e 1ar*John

@as helpin-@as &ein- helped

JohnB* 1ar*

AP

Past Perfect 1ar*John

5ad helped5ad &een helped

JohnB* 1ar*

AP




49/59

Si0ple 2uture 1ar*

John

@ill help

@ill &e helped

John

B* 1ar*

A

P

Be -oin- to 1ar*

John

Is -oin- to help

Is -oin- to &e helped

John

B* 1ar*

A

P

2uture Perfect 1ar*

John

@ill ha#e helped

@ill ha#e &een helped

John

B* 1ar*

A

P

The pro-ressi#e for0s of the present perfect+ past perfect+ future and future perfect are #er* rarel*used in the passi#e.

T)e Passive !or' o% Mo+a$s an+ Si'i$ar E3pressions:

The Passi#e 2or0: 'o+a$ *e past partiip$e

MO5A" PASSIVE

To0

The (indo(Children

This &oo'

This letter1ar*

2red

@ill

CantShould

1a* I

5ad &etter

u-ht to5as to

Is supposed to

Be in#ited

Be openedBe tau-ht

Be e%cused

Be returned

Be sentBe told

Be told

To the picnic

To respect their elders

2ro0 class>

To the li&rar* soon

Before June 3st

A&out our chan-e in plans

A&out the 0eetin-

These Past Passi#e 2or0: 'o+a$ )ave *een past partiip$e

MO5A" PASSIVE

The letter

This houseJac'

Should

1ustu-ht to

5a#e &een sent

5a#e &een &uilt5a#e &een in#ited

Last (ee'

#er 6DD *ears a-oTo the part*




50/59

E#ER,ISE -: Chan-e the acti#e to the passi#e &* suppl*in- the correct for0 of BE.

E%.

To0 opens the door.The door ????is???? ????opened &* To0.

3. To0 is openin- the door.The door ?????????????? opened &* To0.

6. To0 has opened the door.The door ??????????????? opened &* To0.

7. To0 opened the door.

The door ?????????????????? opened &* To0.

8. To0 (as openin- the door.

The door ??????????????? opened &* To0.

9. To0 had opened the door.

The door ??????????????? opened &* To0.

;. To0 (ill open the door.


=. To0 is -oin- to open the door.

The door ???????????????? opened &* To0.

. To0 (ill ha#e opened the door.


E#ER,ISE 0: Chan-e the acti#e to the passi#e

E%.

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