REEF MONITORING

SOUTH-WEST PACIFIC STATUS OF CORAL REEFS

REPORT

2007

COMPONENT 2A - Project 2A2 Knowledge, monitoring, management and

beneficial use of coral reef ecosystems

January 2009

Edited by

Cherrie WHIPPY-MORRIS

Institute of Marine Resources

Phot

o: E

. CLU

A

With the support of:

This CRISP component is funded by the following agency:

COMPONENT2A Knowledge, monitoring and management of coral reef ecosytems

CRISP contact person: Cherrie MORRIS

School of Marine StudiesFaculty of Islands and Oceans

Suva, FijiPhone: (679) 3232612

Fax: (679) 3231526

T (CRISP), sponsored by France and prepared by the French Development Agency (AFD) as part of an inter-ministerial project from 2002 onwards, aims to develop a vi-sion for the future of these unique eco-systems and the communities that depend on them and to introduce strategies and projects to conserve their biodiversity, while developing the economic and environmental services that they provide both locally and globally. Also, it is designed as a factor for integration between developed coun-

-land developing countries.

The CRISP Programme comprises three major components, which are:

Component 1A: Integrated Coastal Management and watershed management- 1A1: Marine biodiversity conservation planning - 1A2: Marine Protected Areas- 1A3: Institutional strengthening and networking- 1A4: Integrated coastal reef zone and watershed managementComponent 2: Development of Coral Ecosystems- 2A: Knowledge, monitoring and management of coral reef ecosytems- 2B: Reef rehabilitation- 2C: Development of active marine substances- 2D: Component 3: Programme Coordination and Development- 3A: Capitalisation, value-adding and extension of CRISP Programme activities- 3B: Coordination, promotion and development of CRISP Programme

The CRISP programme is implemented as part of the

Regional Environment Programme for a contribution to conservation and sustainable development of coral

CRISP Coordinating Unit (CCU)Programme manager : Eric CLUA

SPC - PoBox D5 98848 Noumea Cedex

New CaledoniaTel : (687) 26 54 71

Email : ericc@spc.intwww.crisponline.net

■ PROJECT 2A-1 :

restoking■ PROJECT 2A-2:Improvement of knowledge and capacity for a better management of reef ecosystems■ PROJECT 2A-3 :Synopsis and extension work on indicators for monitoring the health of co-ral ecosystems and developing a remote sensing tool

■ PROJECT 2A-4 :Testing of novel information feedback methods for local communitis and users of reef and lagoon resources

■ PROJECT 2A-5 :

health of coral formation and ii) the development of eco-tourism

The South West Pacific has the highest diversity of

coral reefs in the world. Coral reefs and their associ-

ated resources are essential to the livelihoods and

well-being of people of the South West Pacific. Reef-

associated resources form a critical part of the diet

of populations of the small islands and atolls of the

Pacific. Reefs support income- generating activities

such as fisheries and tourism and are, therefore, a

significant component of the economies of many

Pacific Island Countries and Territories.

Monitoring of the status of the coral reefs in the

South West Pacific node of the Global Coral Reef

Monitoring Network (GCRMN) has shown that

there have been variable changes (both positive

and negative) in the composition of coral reef com-

munities since 2004. In addition, there are special

challenges due to the large area of reefs, remoteness,

and limited monitoring resources. The quality and

comprehensiveness of country reports presented

here are a tribute to the hard work of the scientists,

local communities, tourist resort staff, students and

various other volunteers who have contributed and

assembled monitoring data. Such data has provided

important information to students, scientists and

fisheries managers in the region and beyond.

The reports in this book, overall demonstrate that

coral reefs of the Pacific are in good condition

when compared to reefs in Asia and the Caribbean.

Relatively fast rates of recovery seem to indicate

that the reefs of the South West Pacific appear to

be resilient in the face of continuing acute threats

from increased sea surface temperature, cyclones,

tsunamis, and crown of thorns. However, there are

suggestions that reefs are experiencing an increase

in exposure to chronic stresses such as overfishing,

sedimentation, coastal development and nutrient

enrichment. The impact of these factors remains

difficult to measure.

The Institute of Marine Resources (IMR) of the

University of the South Pacific has been pleased to

act as coordinator of the South West Pacific Node

of the GCRMN since 2000. IMR has coordinated

monitoring activities, facilitated training, provided

capacity building and functioned as a mentor to the

authors of the individual chapters. We are pleased

with the increase in capacity, frequency and cover-

age of monitoring that is reflected in this volume.

We call for the continued support of our partners

for both funding and collaborations that will en-

sure monitoring and documentation of the status

of these critical habitats are possible into the future.

We acknowledge the initial support from the In-

ternational Ocean Institute and the Canada-South

Pacific Ocean Development Program that initiated

this GCRMN node. The funding for coordination

of the network since 2006 and publication of this

book has come from the Coral Reef InitiativeS for

the Pacific (CRISP) with considerable thanks to the

French Government for this support, and the en-

couragement of Eric Clua the CRISP Programme

Manager.

The development and production of the country

reports presented here would not have been pos-

sible without the hard work and commitment of

the volunteer country coordinators who are the au-

thors of the individual reports. These reports have

ForEward

v

made an important contribution to the 2008 Inter-

national Year of the Coral Reef. We are confidant

that the information presented here will be useful

to donors, researchers, policy makers, community

members and all stakeholders involved in coral reef

conservation and management.

Kenneth T MacKay, PhD

Former Coordinator of the South West Pacific

Node GCRMN, and

Director, Institute of Marine Resources

University of the South Pacific

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement iv

Foreword v

Fiji 1

Helen Sykes and Cherie Morris

New Caledonia 56Laurent Wantiez, Claire Garrigue,

Sabrina Virly and Sébastien Sarramégna

Samoa 84Joyce Ah-Leong Samuelu and Maria Sapatu

Solomons 117

Nelly Kere

Tuvalu 154Tupulanga Poulasi

Vanuatu 170

Jason J.J. Raubani Acting Principal Fisheries Officer

The coordination of the South West Pacific Node

of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network

(GCRMN) is part of component 2A (Knowledge,

monitoring and management of coral reef ecosys-

tems) of the Coral Reef InitiativeS for the Pacific

(CRISP). We would like to acknowledge CRISP for

providing financial support towards this coordina-

tion, the end result of which is this book.

Acknowledgement also goes to the other key agen-

cies that have financially supported country-mon-

itoring programmes. These include the following:

The David and Lucile Packard Foundation

(Solomon Islands)

Australian Agency for International

Development - AusAID (Vanuatu)

The Government of Samoa

French Initiative for Coral Reefs

(New Caledonia)

Marine Ecology Consulting (Fiji)

The Government of Tuvalu and Funafuti

Island Council (Tuvalu)

Sincere gratitude to the six country coordinators of

the South West Pacific GCRMN Node who commit-

ted time and effort to coordinating and conducting

monitoring activities, and collating all the informa-

tion presented here. In addition, many thanks to the

various government departments, non-government

organisations and local communities in Solomon

Islands, Vanuatu, Samoa, New Caledonia, Fiji and

Tuvalu for their ongoing support.

Appreciation goes to Ms Philippa Cohen, of the

World Fish Center, Ms Prerna Chand, a former

staff of the University of the South Pacific, Emelita

Wendt-Wilson and Matt Wilson of SAMBA! for

their edits and proof reading of this report at vari-

ous stages.

Cherie Whippy-Morris

Fellow – Coral Reefs

Coordinator of the South West Pacific

GCRMN Node

Institute of Marine Resources,

Division of Marine Studies

School of Islands and Oceans

Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment

ACkNOwLEdgEmENTS

iv

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE FIJI ISLANDS, 2007

Helen Sykes and Cherie Morris

Marine Ecology Consulting/Resort Support, Suva, Fiji

Institute of Marine Resources, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji

FIJI

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4

1 COUNTRY INFORMATION 6

2 CURRENT PHYSICAL CONDITION OF CORAL REEFS 7

2.1 Monitoring methods and issues 7

2.1.1 Monitoring regions 9

2.2 Results 9

2.2.1 Current Monitoring Period (2005, 2006, 2007) by region 9

2.2.2 Substrate 10

2.2.3 Fish 10

2.2.4 Invertebrates 10

2.3 Long-term Monitoring 12

2.3.1 Substrate 12

2.3.2 Fish 14

2.3.3 Invertebrates 14

2.3.4 Water Temperature 16

2.3.5 Water Temperature related to coral bleaching and coral cover 17

3 DISCUSSION 19

3.1 Substrate 19

3.2 Fish 19

3.3 Invertebrates 20

3.4 Water Temperature 20

4 CURRENT RESOURCE USE 21

4.1 Community resource use 21

4.2 Coral reef species 21

4.3 Turtles 22

4.4 Mangroves 23

4.5 Seagrass 23

4.6 Deepsea species 23

4.7 Endangered species 24

5 THREATS TO CORAL REEFS/MANGROVES/SEAGRASS 25

5.1 Integrated threat analysis 25

5.2 Coastal development 25

CONTENTS

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5.3 Pollution 26

5.4 Sedimentation, nutrient enrichment and eutrophication 26

5.5 Overfishing 27

5.6 Destructive fishing and coral harvesting 27

5.7 Bleaching, coral disease and predators 27

5.8 Hurricanes/tsunamis 28

5.9 Outbreaks of organisms 29

6 CURRENT CORAL REEF CONSERVATION EFFORTS 30

7 FUTURE OF CORAL REEF HEALTH 31

8 RECOMMENDATIONS 32

REFERENCES 33

APPENDICES 37

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND CONTACTS 52

FIJI

4

The Fiji branch of the Global Coral Reef Monitor-

ing Network (GCRMN) was started in Fiji in 2000,

when Reef Check and the GCRMN began a co-op-

erative project to train a network of survey teams

that could report on the health of the country’s

coral reefs.

Fiji is a large archipelago with a great variety of reef

types, in various states of health. By examining a

network of sites across the country, it has been pos-

sible to determine the regional status and overall

trends as well as local changes.

In 2000, the Fiji Islands were at the northern edge of

a large pool of unusually warm water, and suffered

extensive hard coral death due to coral bleaching.

By 2007, coral health across the islands was gen-

erally good on most reefs monitored, with many

areas recovered to, or even higher than pre-2000

bleaching levels. Where recovery was found to be

slow, probable causes were that reefs were either

physically remote from areas of healthy coral, and

so from sources of new coral spawn, or that algae

domination prevented coral settlement. Certain ar-

eas that escaped major bleaching have been seen to

have regularly lower water temperatures than areas

displaying more extensive bleaching.

Coral bleaching is not the only stressor on Fiji’s

reefs, which are also regularly affected by cyclones

and large storms. There are, as well, more localised

factors such as over-fishing, nutrification, algal

overgrowth and coral predation from Acanthaster

plancii (Crown of Thorns Starfish - COTS) and

coral-eating snails such as Drupella. More serious

factors threatening coral health are over-fishing,

increased nutrients from land-based sources result-

ing in algal dominance (eutrophication) in coastal

areas.

Across Fiji, on reefs close to villages, the numbers

of large edible fish and invertebrates are relatively

low as a large proportion of the populace de-

pends on subsistence-level fishing. Giant Clams,

Triton Trumpet Shell and decorator urchins

are collected for food and, in some cases, for

the tourism souvenir trade. In addition, sea

cucumbers are gathered for the Asian market,

and lobsters for local tourism.

Local subsistence fishers normally use spears, hand

lines, or small nets, and often walk on the shallow

reef tops. Destructive methods such as dynamite or

poison fishing are not frequently used, with the ex-

ception of a plant poison used on shallow reef flats

to stun fish. The collection of small fish and corals

for the aquarium trade creates additional pressure

on the reefs in limited areas.

The main finding from six years of monitoring

since the 2000 bleaching is that, on the whole, Fiji’s

reef system has coped well and there has been coral

re-growth in many areas. Many reefs returned to

pre-bleaching coral cover levels in around five years.

This would suggest that corals in Fiji can survive

quite catastrophic events.

However, human-generated impacts such as over-

fishing and poorly planned coastal development

have the potential to seriously harm localised coral

health in the long term, and need to be managed. In

particular, Fiji’s remaining stands of coastal man-

ExECUTIvE SUMMARy

FIJI

5

groves are under serious threat from coastal devel-

opment. This could possibly create widespread and

long-term fisheries depletion.

It has become obvious from these studies that there

is a need for continuity of long-term monitoring,

if changes in coral reef assemblage are to be clearly

understood. Six years of monitoring has shown

recovery from a single bleaching event, and some

consequences of storm damage, but it will probably

take 10 to 15 years of data collection to make regu-

lar cycles apparent. Short-term projects allow snap-

shots of reef health but, without long-term support,

these are only disconnected data spots. The value of

long-term monitoring of regularly visited sites has

become apparent, but cannot be carried out unless

resources are committed well into the future.

FIJI

6

The Fiji archipelago has an estimated land area of

18,500 km2, spread over 320+ islands and more

than 500 islets and cays, with 106 of these being in-

habited (South & Skelton, 2000).

Viti Levu and Vanua Levu are the two largest is-

lands, followed by Taveuni and Kadavu, and the

Mamanuca, Yasawa, Lomaiviti, Ringgold, and Lau

island groups.

The archipelago extends from the island of Ro-

tuma, with its inhabitants of Polynesian origin,

(Long. 177 0E; Lat 150’S) well north of the main

group, to Ceva-i-Ra in the south (Long. 174036’E;

Lat 210 45’S). To the west is Viwa I., part of the Ya-

sawa Is. (Long. 176056.5’E; Lat 170 08’S). The east-

ernmost extent is Vatoa I. in the Lau Group (Long.

178013’W; Lat 190 51’S).

The country’s population increased by 52,823

over 11 years from 775,077 in 1996, to 827,900 in

2007 (Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics, 2008). Fiji

has a traditionally-governed marine tenure system

whereby coastal waters are divided into customary

fishing rights areas (i-qoliqoli), under traditional

ownership of the indigenous population.

Fiji’s diverse reef system includes fringing reefs,

barrier reefs, platform reefs, oceanic ribbon reefs,

drowned reefs, atolls and near-atolls, forming an es-

timated 10,000 km2 of coral reefs (Zann, 1992). The

Cakaulevu Barrier Reef or Great Sea Reef, north of

the two largest islands, is exceptional in that it is one

of the world’s longest barrier reefs. (Jenkins et al.

2004)

Fiji’s reefs have a relatively high level of biodiversity

(Lovell and Sykes, 2007) compared to other Pacific

Island countries. To date, there have been 219 spe-

cies of stony corals identified, but no endemic spe-

cies, (Lovell, 2002; Obura and Mangubhai, 2003; Pi-

chon, 1980 unpubl.), and 1198 species of coral reef

fish, including at least 4 endemic species (South &

Skelton, 2000) (Table 1).

1 COUNTRy INFORMATION

Current information Sources (references)

vertebrates

Bony fish 162 families, 1,198 species Baldwin and Seeto (1986)

Reptiles 3 species Guinea (1980)

Seabirds 10 species Clunie (1985)

Whales 4 species Zann (1992)

Invertebrates

Stony Corals 219 species Pichon 1980; Lovell 2002; Zann and Lovell 1992

Gorgonians 5 species Muzik & Wainwright (1977)

Zoanthids 15 species Muirhead & Ryland (1981)

Molluscs

Gastropods

Opisthobranch

Bivalves

123 species, 12 families

253 species

102 species, 25 families

Parkinson (1982)

Brodie & Brodie (1990)

Parkinson (1982)

Ascidians

Sea squirts 60 species

Kott (1981)

Ryland et al.(1984)

Marine plants

Algae 422 taxa

39 Cyanophyceae

113 Chlorophyceae

42 Phaeophyceae

228 Rhodophyceae

N’yeurt et al. (1996)

Seagrass 4 species Morton and Raj (1980)

Mangrove 9 species Whippy-Morris & Pratt (1998)

Table 1: Biodiversity of marine faunal and floral groups in Fiji (Vuki et al.2001)

FIJI

7

Figure 1: 13 core regions of Fiji’s islands permanent transects were set up for annual monitoring.

2.1 Monitoring methods and issues

As the central base of the University of the South

Pacific, Fiji has a considerable amount of data and

reports on reef populations and condition. Moni-

toring methods have varied over time and geo-

graphic area, depending on the focus of monitoring

programmes and contributing agencies.

Reef surveying has become more standardised and

concentrated over the past eight years with the for-

mation of the Fiji branch of the Global Coral Reef

Network (GCRMN), and the Fiji Locally Managed

Marine Areas Network (FLMMA). In addition there

are now many marine conservation and research

projects operating through educational and non-

government organisations.

The surveys presented in this report are based on a

suite of Point Intercept Transects (PIT) for benthic

cover, and Belt Transects (BT) for fish and inver-

tebrate marine life. In the 13 core regions of Fiji’s

islands (Figure1), permanent transects were set up

for annual monitoring using four 20m Reef Check

PIT and BT transects as a minimum standard sur-

vey (Reef Check 2007). Where possible this was ex-

panded and enhanced to the Australian Institute of

Marine Science (AIMS) benthic lifeform categories

(English et al. 1997), and full fish species census.

These surveys were carried out by the Fiji GCRMN

coordinators and a team of contributing education-

al organisations, non-government organisations,

and tourism resorts. In practice not all sites were

visited annually, but have been surveyed frequently

over several years (Appendix 1).

It has been possible to standardise data and com-

pare sites at the levels of percentage cover and ani-

2 CURRENT PHySICAL CONDITION

OF CORAL REEFS

FIJI

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Benthic cover (Reef Check) Code Benthic cover (Lifeform categories) Code Fish groups (Reef Check)

Hard coral (live) HC Acropora branching ACB Butterflyfish

Soft coral (live) SC Acropora digitate ACD Parrotfish

Recently killed coral RKC Acropora tabular ACT Snapper

Sponge SP Acropora encrusting ACE Sweetlips

Nutrient indicator algae

(all algae except Halimeda, coralline and short turfs) NIA Acropora submassive ACS Grouper (in size categories)

Other biota OT

Non-Acropora coral

branching CB Moray eels

Rock RC

Non-Acropora coral

massive CM Humphead wrasse (C. undulatus)

Rubble RB

Non-Acropora coral

encrusting CE Bumphead Parrotfish (B. muricatum)

Sand SD

Non-Acropora coral

foliose CF Fish groups (Expanded Reef Check)

Silt SI Non-Acropora coral submassive CS Surgeon and Unicornfish

Non-Acropora coral

fungoid (mushroom) CMR Goatfish

Non-Acropora coral Millipora (fire) CME Jacks and Trevallies

Non-Acropora coral

Heliopora (blue) CHE

Soft coral SC Invertebrate groups (Reef Check)

Sponge SP Banded Coral Shrimp

Zoanthid ZO Lobster

Other biota OT Sea Cucumbers (to species)

Coralline algae CA Crown of Thorns (COT)

Halimeda algae HA Giant Clam (in size categories)

Turf algae TA Triton Shell

Macro algae MA Sea Urchins: Tripnuestes gratilla

Algal assemblage AA Diadema spp

Dead coral DC Heterocentrotus spp

Dead coral + algae DCA

Rock RC

Rubble RB

Sand SD

Silt SI

Table 2: Categories used in PIT and BT reef surveys

mal density per 100m2, since 1999. Data presented

here is disaggregated into basic Reef Check catego-

ries (used for analysis of regional comparisons and

over-time changes) and expanded life-form catego-

ries for benthic cover, and full fish species census

(used for detailed analysis of changes in population

diversity) (English et al. 1997) (Table 2).

Occasional data has been contributed by other

organisations and single-case studies using other

methods or transect sizes. In these cases, organisa-

tions were asked to supply data as summaries such

as percentage coral cover, fish and invertebrate

numbers per 100m2.

FIJI

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In-water temperature loggers were deployed in cer-

tain sites from 1996 by Drs Norm Quinn and Peter

Newell, in cooperation with the tourist diver live-

aboard ship “Nai’a” (Barrell, R., personal communi-

cation, January 2002). This network of loggers was

expanded in 2003 by the Fiji GCRMN, and by 2006

more than 15 loggers were set around the country.

Initially loggers were set to record water tempera-

ture every four hours, in 2005, the recording period

was then changed to sample every two hours and,

in certain more detailed studies, water temperature

was monitored every 15 minutes (Victor Bonito,

personal communication, December 2007). These

loggers were downloaded annually wherever possi-

ble, and less frequently in more remote areas.

2.1.1 Monitoring regions Sites were selected for monitoring to provide a

widespread picture of reef health across the coun-

try. “Core” monitoring sites are surveyed annually

or bi-annually depending on logistics. Other, less

frequent, opportunist surveys from more remote

regions are incorporated as “one-off” reports, but

not included in Fiji average figures.

2.2 ResultsIn this section, data from the current monitoring

period, 2005 – 2007, is presented first. Additional

long-term data is available for the years 1999 – 2004

(Lovell and Sykes. 2007). Sea surface temperature

data is also available for the current monitoring pe-

riod.

2.2.1 Current Monitoring Period (2005, 2006, 2007) by regionThe following figures indicate the relative abun-

dance of the substrate, fish and invertebrates in the

various monitoring regions of Fiji over 2005 – 2007.

However, as few regions were monitored in 2005,

that data is not considered an appropriate compari-

son against the data of 2006 and 2007.

2.2.2 Substrate

Figure 2 is a representation of the average coral cov-

er in regions of Fiji for 2005 - 2007. Highest coral

cover was seen in Namena, Rotuma and Vatu-i-Ra

Passage. Over most sites, from 2006 – 2007, there

was a constant pattern of increasing hard coral

cover. Three sites (Mamanuca, Savusavu and Suva)

showed decreasing coral cover, coincident with high

crown of thorns starfish (COTS) numbers (Figure

14). The bars represent +/- 1 standard deviation.

2.2.3 FishThe average key fish density in regions of Fiji from

2005 to 2007 is shown in Figure 3. Fish counts were

consistently higher in the Mamanuca and Taveuni

Islands. In Lomaiviti, the Mamanuca Islands and

Taveuni, large schools of snappers were seen. Apart

from these schools, the greatest density per 100m2

of fish in most regions was represented by parrot

fish and butterfly fish. Abbreviated region names

are Ltka for Lautoka, Nma for Namena, and Rtma

for Rotuma.

2.2.4 InvertebratesFigure 4 indicates the average key invertebrates

in regions of Fiji for 2005 to 2007. Macro-inver-

tebrates are generally very sparse on Fiji’s reefs,

with the exception of a small Diadema-like urchin

Echinostrephalus aciculatus. Sea cucumbers and gi-

ant clams were scattered in low numbers in most

regions. No invertebrates were found at three sites

surveyed (not represented in Figure 4). Large num-

bers of COTS were observed in the Mamanucas Is-

lands in 2006 and 2007; their presence was signifi-

cant in Lomaiviti, the Yasawa Islands, Suva and the

Coral Coast by 2007.

The dominance of Diadema urchins masks the

abundance of the other invertebrates, so it is pre-

sented separately in Figure 5. Significant numbers

are shown for Yasawas, Savusavu and Taveuni reefs.

FIJI

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Figure 2. Average hard coral cover in monitoring regions of Fiji from 2005 – 2007

Figure 3. Average key fish density in regions of Fiji 2005 – 2007

Beqa Coral Coast Kadavu LTKA Lomaiviti Mamanuca Rtma Savusavu Taveuni vatu-i-Ra yasawasSuvaNma

07 06 07 05 06 06 06 06 05 06 07 06 07 05 06 07 06 07 06 0707 07 07 0707

Beqa Coral Coast Kadavu LTKA Lomaiviti Mamanuca Rtma Savusavu Taveuni vatu-i-Ra yasawasSuvaNma

05 06 07 05 06 07 07 06 07 06 07 06 07 06 05 06 07 06 07 05 06 07 06 07 06 07

FIJI

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Figure 5. Average Diadema urchin density in regions of Fiji from 2006 – 2007

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

De

ns

ity

pe

r 1

00

m2

2007 2007 2006 2006 2006 2006 2007 2006 2007 2006 2007

Beqa Coral

Coast

Kadavu LautokaLomaiViti Savusavu Taveuni Yasawas

Region and Year




2.3 Long-term Monitoring

The various trends obtained from monitoring data

over the years from 1999 to 2007 for the diverse re-

gions around Fiji have been presented in this sec-

tion. The graphs concentrate on trends observed

throughout the above mentioned period. These are

represented as averages of the relative abundance

for substrate, fish and invertebrates for the regions

monitored in Fiji.

2.3.1 Substrate

Figure 6 below presents the average coral cover from

all core survey regions. There is a clear recovery

trend following losses from bleaching and COTS,

although high standard deviations reflect the con-

siderable variation in reef types. The line is a (trend

line) polynomial statistical analysis of coral cover.

At both depths, there was an observed decline in

hard coral cover from 1999 - 2001, and a subse-

quent increase from 2002 – 2007 with the exception

in 2005 of shallow reefs. These reached the lowest

cover in 2001, while deeper reefs had the least hard

coral cover in 2002. The average coral cover was

around 45% with a range of 8% – 60% across all

13 regions.

The average algae cover in the regions surveyed was

low compared to that of hard coral as shown in Fig-

ure 7. No algae were found in the two sites surveyed

in 2001.

Figure 8 shows averages of the three main types

of coral: Acropora, non-Acropora and soft coral.

There was a sharp decrease in Acropora hard coral

cover from 1999 - 2001, then a gradual increase be-

tween 2002 and 2007, with the exception of 2006,

reflecting the impact, and then recovery from

bleaching respectively. On the other hand, non-

Acropora hard corals cover ranged from 17%-29%

in the years from 1999-2007. Soft corals decreased

in 2000 and from 2001 – 2003, and increased

between 2003 and 2007.

FIJI

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Figure 6. Average hard coral cover on reefs across the monitoring regions from 1999 -2007

Figure 7. Average algae cover on reefs across the monitoring regions from 1999 -2007

FIJI

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Figure 8. Average cover of Acropora coral, non-Acropora coral and soft coral across the monitoring regions from 1999 – 2007

2.3.2 Fish

Figure 9 shows the average indicator fish numbers

from 2000-2007. There were no obvious patterns in

fish quantities, apart from a sudden abundance of

snapper in 2006, affected by a very large school oc-

curring in one site (Vadravadra, a marine protected

area on Gau Island, Lomaiviti). Numbers of large

“food fish” such as grouper, sweetlips, large parrot-

fish and wrasse were low across the regions from

2002 to 2007.

2.3.3 Invertebrates

Figure 10 shows the average indicator invertebrate

numbers per 100m2 of reef substrate across the

monitoring regions from 2002 – 2007.

The data indicates that invertebrate numbers

(especially Diadema urchins and sea cucumbers)

have declined since 2002. Diadema urchins are

presented separately in Table 3.

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Figure 9. Average indicator fish numbers per 100m2 of reef substrate across regions from 2002 – 2007

Figure 10. Average indicator invertebrate numbers per 100m2 of reef substrate, across monitoring regions from 2002 - 2007

years

years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

FIJI

15

2.3.4 Water temperatures

The following graphs relate to the significance of

sea surface temperatures and the percentage coral

cover over an eight year period. An effort has been

made to correlate the sea surface temperatures with

the extent of coral bleaching events in one of the

monitoring regions – Vatu-i-Ra.

Figure 11. Number of days with temperatures above 29oC in the Vatu-i-Ra Passage 1997 – 2007

Table 3. Diadema urchin density across Fiji Islands 2002 – 2007

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Density:

Number/100m2 47.05 25.43 2.12 1.00 8.01 8.64

N sites 11 15 19 6 28 30

Table 4 shows the average density of COTS in moni-

toring regions from 2002 – 2007. (The 2005 data set

has been omitted as the data from the few surveys

carried out would not give a representation of Fiji

COTS data as a whole). The data indicates that there

has been a slight increase in COTS over the years

2002 to 2007.

Table 4. Average density of COTS in monitoring re-gions from 2002 - 2007

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Density 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.00 0.08 0.15

Std.Dev. 0.15 0.10 0.13 0.00 0.31 0.31

N sites 11 15 19 6 28 30

Table 5 shows the average catch per unit effort

(COTS removed per minute of search) on four dive

sites in the Mamanuca Islands between October

2006 and October 2007. There was a decrease in the

numbers of COTS found per minute’s search from

October 2006 to October 2007.

Table 5. Catch per Unit Effort for COTS at four dive sites in the Mamanuca Islands between October 2006 and October 2007

Month & Year Total No. COTS CPUE

Sept. ‘06 99 0.24

Oct. ‘06 1766 0.81

Nov. ‘06 3429 0.49

Dec. ‘06 1052 0.16

Jan. ‘07 5623 0.17

Feb. ‘07 2310 0.26

Mar. ‘07 593 0.09

Apr. ‘07 457 0.08

May ‘07 276 0.15

June ‘07 1831 0.18

July ‘07 938 0.10

Aug. ‘07 1668 0.09

Sept. ‘07 1147 0.07

Oct. ‘07 1072 0.04

Days over 29.0 degrees Consecutive days over 29oC

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16

Figure 12. Hard coral cover and extent of bleaching at time of survey in the Vatu-i-Ra Passage 1999 - 2007

2.3.5 Water temperature related to

Coral Bleaching and Coral Cover

Figure 11 shows the number of days with average

water temperatures above the bleaching threshold

in Vatu-i-Ra. This also indicates that the longest

periods with consecutive temperatures over 29oC

were during the years, 2000, 2002 and 2005. The

graph shows that in 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005 and

2006 a high number of days had temperatures over

29oC. The years with the highest number of con-

secutive days over 29oC were 2000 and 2002.

Figure 12 provides an indication of the condition

of hard coral cover in the Vatu-i-Ra Passage from

1999 – 2007. There is an increase in fully bleached

corals in 2000, and partly bleached hard coral cover

is evident in 2001, 2002 and 2006, corresponding

to the years with the highest number of consecutive

days over 29oC evident in Figure 13.

Figure 13 shows the average main coral types in

life-form categories on Mount Mutiny in the Vatu-

i-Ra Passage 1999 – 2007. The graph indicates high

percentage of data of massive coral and Acropora

branching corals over the years 1999 to 2007. It is

evident that reefs in the pre-bleaching year (1999)

had a lower diversity of lifeform categories than

reefs in post bleaching times (2006, 2007). (Note:

there were no surveys in 2003 and 2005.)

Figure 14 is the trend of hard coral lifeform cover

over eight years in all monitoring regions. It clearly

shows the sharp decline of the common coral types

Acropora branching and coral massive in 2000. It is

also indicative of the rate of recovery of the differ-

ent lifeforms after the bleaching event.

FIJI

17

Note: “coral” life-form categories refer to hard corals other than Acropora species

Figure 13. Average main coral lifeform categories on Mount Mutiny in the Vatu-i-Ra Passage 1999 -2007

years 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Figure 14. Average Acropora lifeform categories across monitoring regions from 1999 – 2007

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18

3.1 Substrate

The main issue of coral reef health in Fiji over the

past seven years has been the recovery from mass

bleaching in 2000 and 2002 when mortality of be-

tween 40% and 80% of hard corals was observed on

some reefs across the country. These events relate

to extended periods of water temperatures elevated

above 29oC, (Cumming et al. 2004; Lovell and Sykes,

2007). Smaller bleaching events in 2005 and 2006,

cyclones in 2001 and 2004, and COTS outbreaks in

2005 and 2006 caused some further damage, but

these occurred in certain regions of the archipelago,

not across the country-wide reef system.

By 2005, individual regions showed between 20%

and 60% coral cover. By 2006 coral cover of 80% on

some individual reefs was observed. In brief, coral

cover recovered from the mass bleaching within five

years, indicating a high resilience to such events.

In 2007 some localised coral damaging factors, such

as COTS and Drupella snail predation, and a small

amount of White Syndrome Disease, were observed,

and in some regions, coral cover had started to de-

crease (Mamanucas, Savusavu and Suva).

An increase in coral lifeform diversity was noticed

from 1999 to 2007. This may be due to the “forest

fire” effect, whereby large-scale removal of corals

such as the fast growing Acropora, which normally

occupy a large area of reef, allows settlement and

new growth of a wider variety of coral forms. In

time these corals may once more be overgrown by

new Acropora growth, or out competed by other

corals.

This pattern of increasing diversity was identified by

the use of “Lifeform” categories of corals (English et

al. 1997) during surveys, rather than simple “Reef

Check” substrate categories (Reef Check, 2007). The

“Reef Check” categories proved very valuable in al-

lowing non-specialist divers to collect data from a

wide variety of sites, thus allowing regional com-

parisons to be made. Where more specialised divers

were in the field, “Lifeform” category data provided

a much better picture of changes within the coral

communities. In particular, the vulnerability of

Acropora species to catastrophes such as bleaching,

COTS and cyclones was evident, and the following

swift recovery of these corals was documented (Fig-

ure 8). In some cases where overall coral cover did

not change very much, alterations in community

composition still showed responses to catastrophes

that would not have been picked up by simpler sur-

veys.

3.2 FishFiji has a wide variety of coral reef fish species (See-

to, J. and Baldwin, W.J. Unpublished) and in many

areas these occur in large numbers. The surveys in

this report were limited to “Reef Check” indicator

groups, which target the fish families most likely

to be impacted by small scale local fisheries. Reefs

in close proximity to villages showed the impacts

of heavy subsistence and small-scale commercial

fishing, in the lack of, or low numbers of grouper,

sweetlips, parrotfish and wrasse of any size.

No major changes in fish assemblages were noticed

over the period of survey, although more detailed

surveys (Sykes, H. and MacKay, K., personal ob-

3

DISCUSSION

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19

servations, January 2008) suggest that certain ob-

ligate corallivores and coral-dwellers were reduced

in numbers in the years immediately following the

mass coral bleaching of 2000 to 2002, but that num-

bers have since recovered.

Anecdotal accounts (Watts, A. and Hill, A., personal

communications, December 2007) suggest that

numbers of large pelagic fish such as mackerel, tuna

and sharks are decreasing across the country, pre-

sumably due to over fishing by larger commercial

boats such as long-liners.

3.3 InvertebratesThese surveys recorded “Reef Check” indicator

groups, which target macro invertebrates most like-

ly to be impacted by small scale local fisheries, and

those which affect algal cover (Diadema urchins)

and coral health (COTS). Reefs in close proximity

to villages showed the impacts of heavy subsistence

and small scale commercial fishing, in the lack of,

or low amount of sea cucumbers and giant clams.

Both sea cucumbers, which are actively collected,

and Diadema urchins, which are not, decreased in

density between 2002 and 2007.

Since October 2006, a dive operator in the Mama-

nuca Islands, (Mott, J., personal communication,

January 2008) has been carrying out a COTS re-

moval programme over four dive sites. They have

kept excellent data of number of COTS removed

and minutes of dive time spent, allowing calcula-

tions of total number of COTS seen, and also Catch

Per Unit Effort (CPUE), expressed as number of

COTS found per minute search (Appendix 18). Al-

most 2,000 COTS per month were removed from

four dive sites, with the highest numbers seen in the

warmer parts of the year, November to February

(Appendix 19). CPUE suggested that by late 2007

more time was needed to find each COTS, indicat-

ing that density had reduced. This could be due to

the combination of removal efforts and a decrease

of desirable food (Acropora coral species).

3.4 Water TemperatureNormal average daily sea water temperatures in

the Fiji Islands vary between 24 and 31oC annually,

but through the day temperatures may rise as far as

36oC and fall as low as 22oC, particularly on shallow

reefs (Bonito, V., personal communication, Decem-

ber 2007). Temperatures vary with latitude; reefs

above 17o South experiencing temperatures one to

two degrees higher than those at 19o South.

In the past there has been a correlation between

elevated water temperatures in the South West Pa-

cific and “La Nina” events associated with the ENSO

oscillations. (Khan, Z., personal communication,

December 2007). A strong La Niña is predicted for

2008, (McGree, S., Fiji Meterological office, person-

al communication, December 2007) and in 2007

the water temperature patterns were very similar

to those of 1999, preceding the elevated water tem-

peratures and mass bleaching event of 2000, sup-

porting this prediction.

Extensive hard coral mortality due to coral bleach-

ing has been experienced in Fiji when daily summer

average water temperatures above 29oC occur for

more than 75 consecutive days. This is predicted for

2008, unless cyclones and storms significantly lower

sea water temperatures.

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20

4.1 Community resource use

The Fiji Locally Managed Marine Area (FLMMA)

network comprises resource practitioners from

government, non-government organisations and

communities, which started in 2001, but formally

registered in 2004. Currently, FLMMA is working in

around 270 villages throughout Fiji’s provinces.

Averages of socioeconomic survey results from the

29 Institute of Applied Science (IAS) co-managed

LMMA sites are presented.

For a typical site or village, the average number of

houses 54 (SD of 73), with an average household

size of five and an average village population of 312

people. Village composition by gender showed that

around 64% of the village populations are females.

In-migration into a village is low (5.2%) and is usu-

ally through marriage. Out-migration by village

members is also low (7%) and can also be attribut-

ed to marriage and/or a search for better education

and standard of living.

Average monthly income for all 29 villages is

FJD$636, mostly from the sale of root crops (kava,

taro, etc) and marine resources (fish, sea cucum-

bers), and other paid employment. Most house-

holds in a village harvest marine resources for con-

sumption at home and partially for selling, whilst a

small proportion of a community are solely com-

mercial fishers. The main fishing gear used by men

include spear and nets, while women mainly use

nets and fishing lines and glean the reef.

Major threats to fishing grounds, as noted from

village management plans, include overfishing (re-

sulting in the rare to no sighting of certain fish and

invertebrates), dumping household wastes into the

sea or along the coast, sedimentation as a result of

logging and forest clearing, and poor farming prac-

tices. Poaching in marine protected areas is also a

problem. Other threats include liquid pollution

from piggery waste and washing effluents. Villages

are working with partner organisations to imple-

ment practical solutions to such problems (Ron

Vave and Alifereti Tawake, personal communica-

tion, September, 2008).

4.2 Coral Reef Species

Near-shore coral reefs are the most exploited ma-

rine ecosystems in Fiji, targeted by subsistence and

small-scale commercial fisheries, coral harvesting,

and tourism.

Customary marine resource owners rely heavily on

the reefs for subsistence, livelihood and sources of

income. Fishing is the main source of protein for

rural communities, and as such finfish and macro-

invertebrates, are actively harvested. In addition,

licensed commercial fishers target finfish and in-

vertebrates for local markets, sea cucumbers for the

Asian market and Trochus shell for button produc-

tion. An estimated 5,994 tonnes of fish and inverte-

brates were recorded from market outlets in 2005

(2005 draft Annual Report, Fiji Fisheries Depart-

ment).

Small fish, invertebrates, corals, and fossil substrate

covered with coralline algae (“Live Rock”) are col-

lected, mainly along the coast of the main island of

Viti Levu, for the aquarium trade. This is managed

4

CURRENT RESOURCE USE

FIJI

21







under the Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species (CITES) (Lovell 2001, Sykes et

al 2002,). In terms of volume, live rock and coral are

two of the most important products in the marine

aquarium trade, and interest in these two products,

and in other ornamental species, is growing world-

wide. In 2004 Fiji supplied about 161,927 pieces of

hard and soft coral and 1.36 million pieces of live

rock to overseas markets, mainly in the USA, Hong

Kong, Japan and Europe. Fiji also exported 169,143

ornamental fish and 31,900 invertebrates (CITES

database with the Fiji Fisheries Department, July

2005). There is a growing international concern

over the environmental effects of live coral and live

rock harvests from the wild. Worldwide, harvest of

these products from the wild is generally considered

to have detrimental effects on the ecology of coral

reef ecosystems and on the coastal fisheries sup-

porting many rural communities (Lal, P. and Cere-

lala, A., 2005).

In the vicinity of the capital city of Suva, there is a

very active trade in extracting Porites boulder cor-

als, which are used for lining septic tanks.

Tourism is the largest overseas income generator

in the country, (Ministry of Information, 2005)

and also the largest non-extractive user of the coral

reef resource. Over 75% of all tourists entering the

country experience some form of marine based ac-

tivity, whether it be swimming, snorkelling or SCU-

BA diving, (Ministry of Lands, Industrial Relations,

Tourism and Environment, 2007a), and the image

of pristine beaches and clear water is central to the

industry. Some extractive activities are involved in

the trade, specifically hand-line fishing, game fish-

ing, and shell market visits.

4.3 TurtlesSeven species of turtles inhabit the Pacific with five

of these found in Fiji (Batibasaga et al., 2003). These

are Green (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill (Eretmoche-

lys imbricate), Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea),

Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and Olive Ridley

turtles. The endangered marine turtle not only

plays a key role in the ecology of the marine ecosys-

tem but, importantly, is also revered in culture and

customs around the globe (Guinea, 1993). Pacific

Islanders have strong cultural relationships with,

and traditional knowledge of marine turtles (Mor-

gan, 2007; Guinea, 1993).

The noticeable decline in marine turtles in the Pa-

cific has been a concern over the years (Weaver,

1996). Marine turtles have long been recognised as

vulnerable to development impacts, as well as be-

ing of considerable cultural importance to many

Pacific Island countries (Adam, 2003). Batibasaga et

al. (2003) estimated the population number of nest-

ing marine turtles in Fiji as follows: 50-75 nesting

Figure 18: Porites boulder corals for sale for septic tank construction in the Greater Suva district

FIJI

22

green turtles, 150-200 hawksbill turtles, and 20-30

leatherback turtles with no recordings of nesting

loggerhead turtles.

In Fiji, there is a turtle moratorium in place under

the Fisheries Act. The moratorium lays a total ban

on the subsistence use of turtle, turtle egg and any

commercial trading of its meat and derivatives.

There is an exemption for traditional purposes or

utilisation of turtles granted on request to the Min-

ister. The continuing lack of enforcement of na-

tional legislation may enhance the increasing rate

of exploitation leading to the ongoing decline in the

turtle population (Jit, 2007; Laveti, 2008).

4.4 MangrovesMangrove forests fringe many of Fiji’s coastlines,

particularly in the north of Vanua Levu. Fiji has

nine species of mangrove trees: Rhizophora stylosa

(Tiri); Rhizophora samoensis (Tiri wai); Rhizopho-

ra selala (sterile hybrid); Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

(Dogo); Lumnitzera littorea (Sagali); Heritiera lit-

toralis (Kedra viv na yalewa kalou); Excoecaria agal-

locha (Sinu gaga); and Xylocarpus granatum (Dabi)

(Watling, D. and Chape, 1992).

Coastal mangroves are now considered so important

that in some areas attempts have been made to re-

plant cleared areas. This has been carried out under

projects run by organisations such as the Japanese

NGO, the Organization for Industrial, Spiritual and

Cultural Advancement (OISCA).

Traditional uses of mangroves include harvesting

of invertebrates such as the Mangrove Crab Scylla

paramamosain (Qari) and Mud Lobster Thalassina

anomala (Mana), for subsistence and small scale

commercial trade, and wood for fuel and building

purposes. On larger islands, much of the back forest

has been cleared to the high tide mark for agricul-

ture, and coastal development is now threatening

much of the remaining tidal and estuarine stands

through clearance and reclamation.

A proposed mangrove management plan is being

developed as a guideline for sustainable use of man-

grove areas within tourism developments (Sykes, H.

2007a).

4.5 Seagrass

Fiji has extensive seagrass beds on sandy areas of the

fringing reef flats. There are three main species, Sy-

ringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis and Hal-

odule pinifolia, plus smaller amounts of Halophilia

ovalis. These areas are important habitats and tradi-

tional collecting grounds for many fish and inverte-

brates, including shellfish such as ark shells Anadara

cornea (Kaikoso), edible sea urchins Tripnuestes gra-

tilla (cawaki), and Sea Hares Dolabella auricularia

(Veata). Fiji’s seagrass beds are important feeding

ground for turtles, and so are instrumental in the

survival of these species, including those from as

far afield as American Samoa and French Polynesia

which do not have such feeding beds (Craig 2002,

Craig et al. 2004).

The main impacts on seagrass beds over the past

few years have been from coastal and over-water

developments, mainly for tourism and residen-

tial properties, causing sedimentation from inad-

equately controlled construction activities and in-

creased boat traffic. In addition channel blasting,

lagoon dredging and over-water construction have

destroyed some seagrass beds. (Sykes and Reddy,

2007).

4.6 Deepsea species

The tuna industry is the largest export section of

the Fiji fisheries industry (Ministry of Information,

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23

2005), and large scale commercial fishing exists in

the region, ostensibly targeting tuna stocks, but

also involving catches of non-target species such as

dolphin-fish, mackerel and shark. The total catch

by domestic long-line fleet (catches inside and out-

side the Exclusive Economic Zone) during 2005 was

13,010mt of which 11,313mt were tuna species and

1697mt were non-target pelagic species. There was

a substantial reduction in albacore and bigeye tuna

catches and under-reporting of non-target species

during this year (2005 draft Annual Report, Fiji

Fisheries Department).

4.7 Endangered species

The Fiji Endangered and Protected Species Act was

passed by the government of the day in December

2002. This Act is a requirement of the Conven-

tion on International Trade in Endangered Species

(CITES) in order to regulate and control the do-

mestic and international trade of species protected

under CITES.

The humphead wrasse Cheilinus undulatus (Var-

ivoce) has recently been added to Appendix II of

CITES, through which trade must be controlled in

order to avoid utilisation incompatible with their

survival (CITES 2007). Under this regulation, all

trade in the humphead wrasse has been banned

throughout Fiji although this species still appears in

local market outlets.

The bumphead parrotfish Bolbometopon muricatum

(Ula rua) is facing extinction in Fiji due to overfish-

ing, and there has been an observed reduction in

the past decade in areas where large schools were

previously commonly sighted.

Turtles are heavily threatened in Fiji, as a result of a

long standing tradition and interest in turtle hunt-

ing, despite several government attempts at bans

and controls. (See previous section on turtles). In

addition, many nesting beaches are being targeted

by resort development, and there is no government

legislation to control or ameliorate this.

Sea cucumbers have been over-collected in many

areas (Batibasaga and Vana, 1995). Under present

conditions, collectors, using SCUBA or “Hookah”

surface supplied compressed air, travel to an area

and collect large numbers of commercially valuable

sea cucumbers in a short period, before moving on

to the next location. This practice results in the re-

moval of most sea cucumbers from a reef, result-

ing in adverse impacts on the reef ecosystem and a

reduction in breeding stock. In addition, there have

been human casualties in the form of permanent

paralysis from decompression sickness.

Giant Clams Tridacna squamosa and T. derasa (vas-

ua) are collected on shallow reef tops for subsistence

use and for sale. As a result, numbers are reduced on

many reefs.

Humpback whales pass though the islands in June

and July on their way to the breeding grounds of

Tonga. They do not remain in Fiji waters for long.

Minke, Pilot and False Killer whales are frequently

reported from scattered areas, as well as Bottle-

nosed and Spinner Dolphins. Dolphins and all

other Cetaceans (whales) are under Appendix 1 of

CITES, as species threatened with extinction. As

such, all trade in these species is banned, and they

cannot be imported into, or exported or re-export-

ed from, signatory countries, except in exceptional

circumstances. In particular, they may not be traded

in for commercial purposes.

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24

5.1 Integrated Threat Analysis An Integrated Threat Analysis was carried out using

a modification of the “Reefs at Risk” methods (Bry-

ant et al. 1998; Burke et al. 2000). Modifications re-

flect local conditions in the small Island states of the

South West Pacific Node, where detailed technical

information is often not available, or where threats

that may not apply in other regions may exist. In

this analysis, potential threats to reef health in areas

of the country where data is gathered are assessed

in five categories, and then integrated into a single

threat score, where threats are rated as High, Me-

dium, Low or Very Low (Appendices 9-17).

The integrated threat analysis shows that areas un-

der highest threat are those near centres of urban

development, or concentrated agricultural use. The

reefs with the lowest threat index are those remote

from shore and population centres. It should be re-

membered that this index does not reflect current

or past damage to reefs, but the potential damage

that could occur from the factors considered. These

threat ratings are a useful tool in reef management,

as they may be used as a focus for reef conserva-

tion policies. This is discussed further in the section

“Recommendations”.

5.2 Coastal development

Coastal development does not affect all the reefs

of Fiji, but has the potential to threaten reef health

in areas around cities, townships, and the regions

where large-scale tourism development is concen-

trated. In such regions, threats are largely related to

physical construction practices which may involve

direct reef degradation, reduced water quality due

5 THREATS TO CORAL REEFS/

MANGROvES/SEAGRASS

Table 5: Integrated threat index for 15 regions of the Fiji Islands

INTEGRATED THREAT INDEX

Reef Area Coastal Development

Pollution Sediment Damage

Over-fishing Destructive Fishing Overall Threat Index Score

viti Levu, Suva Medium very High High High Medium very High

viti Levu, Coral Coast Medium Medium High High High High

viti Levu, Momi Bay Medium High High High Medium High

viti Levu, Lautoka Medium very High High High Medium very High

vanua Levu, Savusavu Medium very High High High Medium very High

vanua Levu, Namena very Low very Low Medium Low very Low Medium

vatu-i-Ra very Low very Low very Low Low very Low Low

Lomaiviti Low very Low Medium Medium Low Medium

Kadavu Low very Low Medium High Low Medium

Beqa Low very Low Medium High Low High

Mamanuca Is Low Medium Medium High Low High

yasawa Is Low Low Medium High Medium High

Taveuni, Somosomo very Low Low very Low Low very Low Low

Taveuni, Waitabu Low very Low Medium Low very Low Medium

Rotuma Low High Medium High Medium High

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25

to inadequate sewage and waste water treatment,

and increased usage of the reef resource, such as for

subsistence, recreation swimming, and commercial

exploitation.

In Fiji, development is largely concentrated on the

coast, and is increasing rapidly, in particular for

tourism. There is relatively little development in-

land. Increasing urbanisation means that a higher

percentage of the population is concentrated in the

towns and cities every year. In the Suva city area,

“reclamation” of reef flats to create new coastal land

is occurring and, in some tourism areas, there is an

increase of reef flat dredging and channel cutting

(Sykes, H. and Reddy, C., 2007).

There is a relatively new trend towards large “inte-

grated resort developments” (IRDs), where resorts

are paired with dense areas of residential house lots,

involving concentrated development along coastal

frontage. The new Tourism Development Plan for

Fiji (Ministry of Labour, Industrial Relations, Tour-

ism and Environment 2007a) suggests zoning these

IRDs towards the Coral Coast and Nadi-Lautoka

corridor on Viti Levu, and limiting development on

more pristine areas to lower density developments.

5.3 Pollution

Fiji is fortunate in being physically remote from

large industrialised landmasses, and in not having

large-scale manufacturing processes. Industrial pol-

lution is confined mainly to small industrial areas

in the main cities and towns. In addition, decrepit

boats litter areas of Suva Harbour, and regular

groundings and sinkings occur, adding oil and

other pollutants to the marine environment. In

Lautoka and Savusavu, pollution risks are relatively

low and limited to small-scale spillages from broken

fuel drums etc, although occasional ferry ground-

ings on reefs in Rotuma and Ba have occurred in

recent years.

Large amounts of litter and rubbish can be found

in port areas, often washed down from poor rub-

bish disposal in neighbouring urban areas. Inad-

equate sewage treatment has resulted in extremely

high bacterial levels in many harbours (Coreless, M.

1995). Such poor waste management practices lead

to high levels of domestic rubbish finding their way

into the marine environment.

5.4 Sedimentation, nutrient enrich-ment and eutrophicationOne of the largest threats to coastal fringing reefs,

especially in the most populated and developed

urban areas, the coral coast of Viti Levu, and the

islands of the Mamanuca and Yasawa chains, is eu-

trophication (algal overgrowth). This is attributed

to a combination of nutrient enrichment, over-fish-

ing of herbivorous animals, and/or sedimentation.

On the north and west coasts of the two largest is-

lands, it is probably related to large-scale sugar cane

agriculture. This has caused soil erosion into rivers

and creeks, and an influx of nutrients from the use

of chemical fertilizers, that wash into waterways

during high rainfall (Mosley and Aalbersberg, 2003,

Pareti, S., 2006).

These factors have resulted in long-term ecologi-

cal shifts away from coral reefs to alga-dominated

platforms along the coral coast, and large season-

al algal drifts in the Mamanucas and Yasawa Is-

lands. In Beqa lagoon, water clarity is usually high,

except at times of high rainfall, when sediment-

loaded water from the Navua River on Viti Levu

is washed down (Sykes, H., 2007b).

In more remote areas, the influence of these factors

is minor, and water quality is high, except around

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26

bird islands, where sea bird nesting colonies have

resulted in high levels of nutrients retarding coral

growth (Sykes, H., 2007b).

5.5 Overfishing

As with other Pacific Island countries, a large pro-

portion of Fiji’s rural dwellers depend on subsist-

ence fishing for their daily protein, and fishing on

fringing reef flats is frequent (Bell et al. 2008). Fiji’s

population has increased dramatically, and fishing

gear and techniques have improved, resulting in in-

creased fishing pressures for subsistence and com-

mercial purposes, ultimately leading to over-fishing

of stocks, especially those of high commercial value.

One of the major threats to customary owned fish-

ing grounds, as noted from village management

plans, included overfishing (resulting in the rare to

no sighting of certain fish and invertebrates) (Ron

Vave, personal communication, August 2008).

5.6 Destructive fishing and coral harvesting

Dynamite (blast) fishing is not normally used in Fiji,

except for a small number of fishers in the north-

ern and western parts of Viti Levu. The practice

has diminished due to dynamite becoming harder

to obtain (as mining decreases) and through better

enforcement by the Fisheries Department. Cyanide

fishing is not practiced, but “Duva” or Derris vine

is used as an herbal fish-stunning poison in shal-

low rock pools. This practice may retard new coral

settlement on limited areas of reef flats. In addition,

household bleach is sometimes used to kill freshwa-

ter prawns in rivers.

The aquarium trade is responsible for removing

ornamental fish and corals from collection areas

around the coastline of Viti Levu, but this is largely

done using best practices on a small scale in rela-

tion to the entire fishing ground. Collection of “live

rock” from reef flats along the Coral Coast involves

deliberate breakage of the fossil reef substrate in

order to collect dead coral covered with pink and

purple coralline algae. This results in localised dam-

age to shallow areas of fringing reef flats. Some live

coral is inevitably broken during this process, but is

not deliberately targeted. Research into the impacts

of this activity has suggested that it involves habitat

disturbance (Lovell E., 2001a) and is certainly in-

compatible with tourism activities concentrated in

the same areas. Some traders are now concentrat-

ing on culturing “artificial” live rock to reduce the

amount of natural rock collected in this way.

Reef walking and coral trampling during subsist-

ence fishing activities results in localised coral dam-

age on shallow water reef flats close to communities.

Anchoring of small boats for small scale commer-

cial fishing also creates considerable coral breakage

on near-shore reef slopes (Helen Sykes, personal

observations, December 2007).

5.7 Bleaching, coral disease and predators

In 2000, 2002 and, to a smaller degree, in 2005, the

South West Pacific was exposed to long periods of

elevated sea water temperatures, resulting in dif-

fering degrees of coral bleaching across the region.

In Fiji the 2000 event resulted in between 40% and

80% mortality of hard coral across the archipelago

(Cumming et al. 2002). In 2002 another bleach-

ing occurred in certain areas and in 2005 a much

smaller event affected reefs surrounding only a few

islands. The coral bleaching threshold for Fiji is

considered to be 29.5oC (NOAA 2008), and large-

scale mortality occurred when water temperatures

remained consistently above 29oC for periods of

FIJI

27

three months (Lovell and Sykes 2007).

Long term monitoring of coral cover showed that

on many reefs coral cover returned to pre-bleaching

levels within five years of the main bleaching event

(Sykes, H., 2006). NOAA Sea Surface Temperature

Data (SST) suggests that the past decade has been

significantly warmer than the previous one (NOAA

2008), and the trend appears to continue, with 2007

temperature data from in-water loggers being one,

to one and a half degrees higher than the normal av-

erage (Appendix 6 and 7). Overall, Fiji’s reefs appear

to be very vulnerable to temperature-related coral

bleaching, which probably occurs to some degree

every year (Sykes, H., 2006 and personal observa-

tions Jan 2008). Fiji reefs also show resilience, with

enough resistant and tolerant areas to assist full re-

covery from mortality within five years.

Little coral disease has been observed on Fiji’s

reefs, probably due in part to the physical remote-

ness from large land masses and other reef systems.

White syndrome has been observed more since the

2000 bleaching, but it is possible that this is due

more to increased levels of observance during reef

surveys, than to an actual increase in incidence.

Predation from Crown of Thorns (COTS) and

corallivorous snails occurs across the archipelago

in what appears to be regular outbreaks, probably

linked to increasing coral cover. This has been best

documented on the Suva reefs (Zann and Brodie

1992) and in the Mamanuca Islands (Sykes, H.,

2006; J Mott. Personal observations. January 2008)

where there were outbreaks in times of high coral

cover (pre bleaching mortality), followed by reduc-

tion in numbers when coral cover was low, and sub-

sequent new outbreaks once coral cover, particular-

ly Acropora corals, increased. This appears to occur

every eight to 10 years, but is probably more closely

linked to coral cover (ie. food supply) than any oth-

er factor. Removal and poisoning programmes have

been tried in the Mamancua Islands, with limited

success.

5.8 Hurricanes/tsunamis

As an island nation, Fiji is theoretically vulnerable

to tsunamis, but these have not occurred very fre-

quently or with major damaging consequences

in the recent past. Two Tsunami warnings in the

past five years did not eventuate in actual tsunami

waves.

Eleven tsunamis have been recorded in Fiji, three of

these generated within Fiji waters. The most dam-

aging tsunami, caused by an earthquake offshore

Suva, was in 1953 with wave heights in the capital of

about 2m and about 5m in Kadavu. A small tsunami

was generated in 1975 by a moderate earthquake in

the Kadavu Passage. (Ministry of Lands and Min-

eral Resources, 2008).

The cyclone season is considered to be between

November to April each year, although in reality

cyclones rarely reach the islands outside January

to May. They cause terrestrial damage to Fiji every

two or three years. However, to date, cyclones have

apparently not had major adverse impacts on the

marine environment. (Fiji Meteorological Service

2008).

Cyclone and high storm wave damage was observed

on limited areas of shallow reefs in 2001, 2003 and

2004 confined to small areas of shallow, Acropora-

dominated coral, which have usually returned to

high cover levels within a couple of years (Sykes, H.,

2006).

FIJI

28

After the mass bleaching-related mortality of 2000,

Cyclone Paula of 2001 (Fiji Met. Service Office

2008) appeared to serve a positive function by re-

moving dead coral rubble and scouring away algae,

creating clean substrate for new coral settlement in

2002. (Helen Sykes, personal observation February

2002) In addition, this cyclone occurred at a time

when water temperature had been elevated above

29oC for over a month, and some coral bleaching

had appeared. During the cyclone, the water tem-

perature fell by over 1oC and did not return to pre-

cyclone levels, which may have prevented a more

severe bleaching event (Appendix 6).

5.9 Outbreak of organisms

COTS and Drupella are discussed in the previous

section.

Colonial Ascidians (Didemnum spp) occurred in

large single-species overgrowths in some areas, par-

ticularly shallow, degraded reef flats. Initially this

was presumed to be an end-stage of reef damage, as

natural control mechanisms such as predators ap-

peared to be small. However, in most cases, these

overgrowths disappeared within four years of being

noticed, although detailed surveys were not carried

out and no explanation is available (Helen Sykes,

2005, personal observations, February 2001 and

December 2007).

Encrusting sponges were also to be found in some

reef flat areas and have the potential to smother new

coral growth. To date such overgrowths have been

locally confined and do not represent a large threat

to coral reef health, but have presented a problem to

some coral restoration projects.

FIJI

29

Many NGOs and educational organisations (Uni-

versity of the South Pacific) are involved in their

own conservation projects, and some coral culture

and restoration projects are in their second or third

years (Lovell and Sykes 2007).

Fiji is a signatory to several conservation-based

conventions, including the Convention on Inter-

national Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and

the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Un-

fortunately, the country’s political problems over

the last few years have resulted in actions and leg-

islation attached to such conventions being repeat-

edly deferred.

The Department of Environment produced a Na-

tional Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (Min-

istry of Labour, Industrial Relations, Tourism and

Environment 2007) which draws together several

reports on Fiji’s biodiversity, along with recom-

mended plans of action, including an initial list of

sites of national significance. This document could

become the basis of future environmental protec-

tion plans.

The Department of Tourism has published a Tour-

ism Development Plan to coordinate development

policy over the next eight years (Ministry of Labour,

Industrial Relations, Tourism and Environment

2007), which includes zoning tourism in different

regions of Fiji. This is intended to minimise envi-

ronmental impacts in the more pristine regions.

The plan has been accepted in principle, but regula-

tions have yet to be drawn up.

The Fiji government has committed to protect and

sustainably manage 30% of its marine ecosystems

by the year 2020 (Tawake A, personal communica-

tion April 2008). As yet a firm definition of exactly

what this will entail has not been formulated, but a

large part of the commitment is being met by gov-

ernment support of the Fiji Locally Managed Ma-

rine Areas network (FLMMA).

In the last 10 years, community-managed marine

protection has spread across the islands through

FLMMA. There are now more than 205 known

community-managed marine sites in 116 of the

411 traditional fishing grounds (i-qoliqoli). These

“tabu” or protected areas range in size from 0.3 to

40.5 km2, with an average size of 9.7 km2, involving

28.8% of Fiji’s i-qoliqoli area (Tawake A, December

2007). Some are open-ended, fully protected no-

take areas. Others are of limited duration, or for a

limited number of species, but all involve utilising

traditional systems of management to protect ma-

rine resources for both biodiversity conservation

and preservation of future fishing stocks for the

communities involved.

To date, full government recognition (gazetting)

has been slow, but many areas are recognised at

the level of their local provincial council and tra-

ditional leaders. Through these small reserves, ad-

joining fishing grounds, fish and invertebrates have

the chance to grow to breeding size and popula-

tions may be preserved into the future. Although

their ecological function may be slight, there is now

a move to consolidate these areas into larger Eco-

logical Based Management zones (EBMs) (Macuata

WWF and WCS Fiji project). Small FLMMA sites

are being organised into larger functional groups

under Yaubula Management Support Teams in

the provinces of Kadavu and Cakaudrove (Ta-

wake, A., and Meo, S., personal communication,

December 2007).

6 CURRENT CORAL REEF CONSERvATION EFFORTS

FIJI

30

Fiji could be regarded as having two types of stres-

sors on coral reef health: “chronic” and “acute”.

The “chronic” conditions are local man-made con-

tinual stresses that occur over long periods of time,

and vary only in severity of onslaughts. Into this

category come over-fishing, coastal development,

sedimentation and nutrient enrichment. The effects

of these pressures are gradual, and insidious, slowly

degrading coral health over time, thus creating a

“shifting baseline”. They are often treated as an una-

voidable or even acceptable cost of economic devel-

opment, and are often overlooked or unaddressed.

“Acute” problems are largely global issues im-

pacting reef health quite severely but for short

periods of time, allowing for some recovery between

onslaughts. These include predation, variations

in temperature, and cyclones. Because these

stresses affect reef health suddenly, they are more

dramatic, more noticeable, and attract more

attention than the “chronic” conditions, and are

frequently blamed for coral reef degradation.

It is likely that Fiji will experience one or two

“acute” coral reef damaging events within the next

10 years, and cycles in coral cover will become

apparent. Widespread coral bleaching and in-

creasing COTS outbreaks are predicted for 2008

and/or possibly 2009/2010. If the reef follows

the patterns observed since 1999, this would

result in one or two years of poor reef health

across the country in 2009/2010, after which a

period of regeneration could return coral cover to

current levels by about 2014. This presumes that

COTS outbreaks and La Nina conditions do

not start to occur more frequently than current ob-

servations suggest.

“Chronic” conditions could have greater effect than

the more obvious “acute” events, particularly if po-

litical instability continues to hinder implementa-

tion of environmental measures to control impacts.

Coastal development is expanding; without proper

legislation and action, sedimentation, nutrient en-

richment and overfishing are likely to reduce some

coastlines currently enjoying reasonable or good

coral reef health, to degraded and fish-poor areas

similar to those already seen on the Coral Coast of

Viti Levu. Uncontrolled mangrove clearing could be

one of the greatest threats to Fiji’s reef population in

the next 10 years.

The FLMMA network expands exponentially,

and this is probably the most effective measure in

Fiji’s reef “first aid kit”. As community knowledge

spreads, and customary owners of fishing rights be-

come more active in conserving their own resourc-

es, more practical protection for reef populations

is achieved. Small, isolated “tabu” areas are start-

ing to join up into larger managed areas, as on the

island of Kadavu and in the district of Cakadrove.

Hopefully, as this trend continues, the people of

Fiji will become responsible custodians of the reefs

on a larger scale. In this case although overfishing

and development may continue along much of the

coastline, small “oases” of protected reefs may be

able to conserve reef stocks, both for biodiversity

and local fishing resource purposes.

7 FUTURE OF CORAL REEF HEALTH

FIJI

31

Fiji’s marine environment is constantly changing

in response to the numerous stressors. However,

its reefs have shown remarkable levels of resilience

to various stresses and impacts. There is an urgent

need for government policymaking support and

commitment, but this can only be useful if it is

coupled with adequate resources for education and

compliance enforcement.

Reef management and conservation initiatives

have proliferated in Fiji over the past decade, and

within the FLMMA network the value of coopera-

tion between agencies working in the field has been

achieved. Better communications and cooperation

between agencies reduces duplication of work and

enables centralisation of data and lessons learned.

If Fiji is to have an effective and united marine con-

servation policy, such cooperative efforts must be

strengthened and enhanced.

It has also become obvious from these studies that

there is a need for continuity of long-term moni-

toring if patterns are to be made visible. Six years

of monitoring has shown recovery from a single

bleaching event, and some consequences of storm

damage, but it will most likely take 10 to 15 years

of data collection to make regular cycles apparent.

Short-term projects allow snapshots of reef health.

Without long-term support, these are only discon-

nected data spots. The value of long-term monitor-

ing of regularly visited sites has become apparent,

but can only be realised if resources to fund moni-

toring are committed well into the future.

8 RECOMMENDATIONS

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