compressor tech april 2013

7/22/2019 Compressor Tech April 2013

1/105

COMPRESSORDedicated To Gas Compression Products & Application

Mexicos case study: PuMPtech

GrowinG ThirsT Torsional analysis issue

APRIL 2013

Compressor Efciency

Drops With Black

Powder Build-Up

Managing

Screw Compressors

In The Field

compressormaintenance

www.compressortech2.com


2/105

HOERBIGER Engine Solutions

Click on company logo to see ad page

This issue Driven By


3/105

C O M P R E S S O R S n T U R B I N E S n G L O B A L S E R V I C E

EBARA CORPORATION

www.elliott-turbo.com

nCustomers: Global oil and gas producers.

nChallenge:Changing compression requirementsas felds mature and production peaks.

nResult: Flexible, reliable compressor designs

or extended, cost-efcient operations.

They turned to Elliottfor reliable compression solutions.

From Aberdeen to Rio de Janeiro, Calgary to Jakarta, Elliott compressors, turbines, andexpanders deliver the reliable, efcient perormance that producers and processors require.And every piece o Elliott equipment is backed by our unmatched global service network.

Customers throughout the world turn to Elliott or critical turbomachinery and servicebecause our resources are global and our execution is local. Who will you turn to?

The world turns to Elliott.


4/105

Ariel reciprocating compressors from 100 to 10,000 BHP are utilized in the upstream, midstream, and downstream

sectors. Our compressors are designed and built for long service life and ease of maintenance. Ariel is there every

step of the way, offering you the best customer service in the industry. For all your compression needs, choose

Ariel.

Learn more about unit F40,000 at www.arielcorp.com/unit40k

IF NOT, TALK TO US ABOUT YOUR COMPRESSION NEEDS.

WELL SHOW YOU THE ARIEL DIFFERENCE.

ARIEL CORPORATION

World Standard Compressors35 Blackjack Road Mount Vernon, OH 43050 www.arielcorp.com

40,000COMPRESSORS SHIPPED TO OVER 100 COUNTRIES SINCE 1966...

CHANCES ARE, ONE OF THEM IS YOURS.

Ariels 40,000th compressor being

assembled in November 2012.


5/105


6/105


7/105

Joe Kane

Compressortch

2

Fud

ou ttti i fcud tly

th cy, gvt dig,

tx, u til dbt d h f

th iu tht t b ubig

u .

a cb tx, tht u it tht

i xctd t k it th gv-

t vu qut gi, i tht

t t blw th ublic d. It

w tttd duig th Clit d-

iitti, but t with uch i-

ti tht it w dd.

Th tw xd f c-

b tx w t gi vu f

th fdl cktbk d t dd

clit chg. Th ublic w dvid

tht it wuldt hut th lg gy -

duc d it wuld vid th city f

iig tx aic citiz. Th

f ight b tu bcu big -

gy duc wuld th dditil

ct t cu. s th aic

ublic wuld ivitbly ft th bill.

Thi whl iu w dicud

uccictly lt lt y by Willi

oKf, Ceo f th Gg C. m-

hll Ititut, i clu f The Wall

Street Journal. H ttd tht gy i

ut t u til wll-big

tht y tikig with it tul duct-

t-kt flw culd b ditu.

H id gy tx wuld lc

u ufctuig ct t ct-

itiv didvtg glblly, cuig

futh hiftig f ducti d jb

utid th U.s. But, w, it wuld

hv it gtt ict th lw-

ic bckt f u ulti.

mv, oKf td, Th

clit-chg jutificti f c-

b tx i bgu. Ghu g

ii iig i Chi d th

gig ci, t i th Uitd

stt. Cb-dixid ii i th

U.s. hv b dcliig, d by 2035

will tu t 2005 lvl, th egy I-

fti adiitti jct.

advc i clit cic, -

whil, i v dubt but th

ti hu ctiviti th i-

y cu f wig. F nasa

citit ry sc, f xl, h

hw tht ttu ic 1976

hv i d tbilizd i lll

with th pcific Dcdl ocillti,

tul clit tt ffctig ll t

f tul h. a ic-

ig ub f xt w dit tht

tul vibility i ly udtd

d ly flctd i th dl tht

th fudti f uch clit-

chg dd.

sl i butiful wh it c t

th ight ti but big th-

wi. s l l thugh

cl. Thy l t tig. Thy

l duig cct. Thy wll,

but thy i ut th itt -

t f lif.

oth l thugh lif i th

wy. Thy uw f liticl

iu, uccd f th d f

th, dvid f , lf f

l kig thi ttti. s

l l thugh ltihi d

thugh vt tht iig u d-

td blif. I ht, thy liv i th

dk f igc.

ou -clld i li di c-

tibut t uch t thi z fct

by t ddig bth id f th

clit chg dbt.

my th Ld hld yu i th hllw

f Hi hd. CT2

An Issue We ShouldLose Sleep Over

Page4a mb of Th Dil & G Tubi publicti GuPresident & CEO .................... michl J. ogExecutive Vice President ...michl J. BzickPUBLICATION STAFF

CT2 Founder .......................... Jh m. KPublisher .................................Bt D. Hight

Associate Publisher ..............rbt ChlliiEditor ..........................................ptick CwExecutive Editor .............................. DJ sltSenior Editor ................. michl J. BzickSenior Editor ............................. mik rhdAssociate Editor ...............................Jck BukAssociate Editor ............................Chd elCopy Editor ............................... Jy Kwicz

Digital Content Manager...........Cti Btt

Advertising Manager ..........Chit L. JhCirculation Manager ..................shil LizdProduction Manager ............ mi J. rbtGraphic Artist .......................Bd L. BubchGraphic Artist ............................Cl D. LkGraphic Artist ..........................ad J. ryGraphic Artist ...............................aly L

PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS20855 Wttw rd, suit 220Wukh, Wici 53186-1873

Tlh: (262) 754-4100 Fx: (262) 754-4175

CONTRIBUTING EDITORSell Hki - midld, Txn shd - Cbidg, ohi

mu Bl schid - ri Gd du sul, Bzil

HOUSTON OFFICEBt D. Hight, publih

ptick Cw, editmik rhd, si edit

12777 J rd, suit 225Hut, Tx 77070

Tlh: (281) 890-5310 Fx: (281) 890-4805

GERMAN OFFICELi Hchkfl, advtiig mgGbil Dil, advtiig mg

nillt. 973760 otfild, Gy

Tlh: +49 711 3416 74 0 Fx: +49 711 3416 74 74

UNITED KINGDOM OFFICEI C, rgil mg/editLid C, advtiig mg

40 pi avuahbu, Dbyhi,

De6 1LH, Uitd KigdTlh: +44 20 31 79 29 79 Fx: +44 20 31 79 29 70

ITALIAN OFFICESrbt Chllii, acit publih

44, Vi Dll FbiciI-50133 Fiz, Itly

Tlh: +39 055 50 59 861 Fx: +39 055 57 11 55

rbt pdiVi Fitt, 21

I-38062 ac, Itly

Tlh: +39 0464 014421 Fx: +39 0464 244529SCANDINAVIAN OFFICE

B sv, Fild edit/Bui mgDudbckvg 20

612-46 Fig, swdTlh: +46 70 2405369 Fx: +46 122 14787

JAPANESE OFFICEakiyhi oji, Bch mg

51-16-301 Hku sti, nk-kuYkh, 231-0824 J

Tlh: +81 45 624 3502 Fx: +81 45 624 3503

CHINESE OFFICEs.H. mk, Bch mgr 1405, Kwl Buildig

555 nth rdKwl, Hg Kg

Tlh: +852 3118 7930 Fx : +852 3110 3572

COMPRESSORDedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications


8/105

More power on less fuelwith lower emissions.Recognized leader in the energy production industry.

GEs Gas Engines business has a track record of more than 170 years of reciprocating engine

technology experience. This legacy of innovation goes into each new engine developed to

meet the demands of future generations. Waukesha gas engines are a driving force to leverage

natural gas reserves and deliver powerful gas compression solutions for global applications.

For more information on GEs Gas Engines business, visit us at www.ge-waukesha.com.

GE Power & WaterGas Engines


9/105

Featured Articles16 Compressor Efficiency Drops With Black Powder Build-Up

24 Caring For A Compressor

42 Mexicos Growing Thirst

46 Mecos Acquisition Opens Opportunities For MAN

72 Lubes Evolve With Higher Turbine Performance

74 Turbine-Driven Compression For China

88 IEA Urges More Competition In Asia Pacific Gas Market

90 Case Study: Torsional Analysis

PUMPtech52 Warning: Contents Are Hot

58 Wrtsil Pumps It Up

62 Unusual PD Pump Pulsation Solutions

TECHcorner32 A Review Of Reciprocating Compressor Crosshead Pin Nonreversals76 Vector Analysis Of Crankshaft Web Deflections

Departments4 Page 4 An Issue We Should Lose Sleep Over

8 Global Perspective Russia Looks Toward Asia Pacific Energy Market

10 Meetings & Events

12 About The Business Compression Industry Reports Strong 2012 BusinessDespite Low Gas Prices

14 Monitoring Government Meltdown Looms For Europes CarbonTrading Program

40 Literature

73 Prime Movers

86 Featured Products

95 Snapshot Oklahoma School Tops Out Building

96 Scheduled Downtime

97 Marketplace

98 Advertisers Index

100 Cornerstones Of Compression Waukesha VHP Series Gas Engines

Compressortch2 (ISSN 1085-2468)

Volume 18, No. 3 Published 10 issues/year (January-February, March, April, May,June, July, August-September, October,

November, December) by Diesel & GasTurbine Publications, 20855 WatertownRoad, Waukesha, WI 53186-1873,U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 peryear/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicalspostage paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 andat additional mailing offices. Copyright 2013DIESEL & GAS TURBINE PUBLICATIONS.

Canadian Publication Mail Agreement # 40035419.

Return Undeliverable Canadian Addresses to:

P.O. Box 456, Niagara Falls, ON L2E 6V2, Cana-

da. E-mail: [email protected].

POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: Cir-

culation Manager, Compressortch2, 20855

Watertown Road, Suite 220, Waukesha, WI

53186-1873 U.S.A.

Fllw Compressortch2

at www.ctch2.c

COMPRESSORDedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications

April 2013

Cover Designed ByAmanda Ryan

MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDEPRINTED IN THE U.S.A.


10/105

Catalyst elements work hard under extreme conditions, and even with regularmaintenance, a failure is always possible. And a plant operation shutdown is

never a good thing.

A quick replacement with top quality DCL Metalcor products is the key to

getting you out of trouble. We stock a wide range of products in our Dallas

warehouse, ready for rush delivery anywhere in the U.S.

So you wont be on the spot we will.

877.897.9759 dcl-inc.com

D A L L A S H O U S T O N L O S A N G E L E S O K L A H O M A C I T Y

WHEN CATALYST ELEMENT

FAILURE PUTS YOU IN A BIND,

DCL WILL BE ON THE SPOT.


11/105APRIL 2013 8 ComPRessoRtch2

For many years, Europe has been the primary ex-

port market for Gazprom, the Russian natural

gas monopoly.

If on one side, the European marketplace is seen as a

slow-growing area with high competition from North Sea,

African and Middle East gas source. On the other side, the

growing economies of the Asia Pacific region ensure a fast-

growing demand for energy. Thats especially true for lique-

fied natural gas (LNG), since Japan and South Korea are

the worlds largest LNG importers.

Strong energy demand has brought very lucrative prices,

and several international oil companies are investing in LNG

plants to monetize the gas reserves of Indonesia, Australia,

the Middle East and the East African coast. The low price

of gas in the United States has even prompted proposals to

export LNG to Asia Pacific.

Russia is looking at this market area with great interest. It

has significant hydrocarbon resources in East Siberia and

on the Russian Continental Shelf (RCS). The easiest, and

the most economical, option would have been a gas pipe-

line from East Siberia to South Korea through North Korea.

Although technically feasible, the political situation in the

area could jeopardize the substantial investment required.

Instead, on Feb. 21, Gazprom decided to invest in the Vladi-

vostok LNG export project. The three-train export terminal will

be built at Perevoznaya Bay on the Lomonosov Peninsula and

will have annual export capacity of about 15 mtpa (20.7 x109

m3/year). The first train is scheduled to start up in 2018.

Last October, Russia had finally decided to invest in the

development of the Chayanda gas and condensate field.

It will build a 2000 mi. (3200 km) pipeline from Yakutia to

Vladivostok to provide feedstock gas for the Vladivostok

LNG project.

The Vladivostok terminal also will draw on gas from

Sakhalin Island area gas fields and from the Irkutsk produc-

tion center (also in East Siberia), which will be linked to the

Yakutia-Vladivostok (Power of Siberia) trunkline.

Gazprom did not disclose a construction cost of the Vladi-

vostok venture. However, it is likely to be greater than the

US$12.7 billion originally estimated, given the increased

scale of the project. The final cost, including the develop-

ment of Chayanda and pipeline construction, likely will be

more than US$50 billion over five years or longer.

The gas export monopoly that Gazprom holds is in-

creasingly threatened by pressure from Russian Presi-

dent Vladimir Putin, whose political allies include Rosneft

chairman Igor Sechin. In fact, Rosneft has made over-

tures to ExxonMobil, as well as Chinese and Japanese

companies, for possible LNG collaboration in its conces-

sions, although a liberalization of Russias gas export

framework has yet to occur.

Gazprom is wise to speed its entry into Asia through the

Vladivostok LNG project while Russian politicians consider ex-

tending its export monopoly. However, rising competition in the

Asia Pacific LNG market could give consuming nations more

bargaining power. Gazprom could find it difficult to secure

long-term contracts at prices that would give it a comfortable

profit margin for the expensive Vladivostok LNG investment.

Rosneft has also offered opportunities for cooperation on

the RCS to Chinese companies and is expected to make

similar offers to Japanese firms. Those deals will probably

follow the pattern of agreements it had inked with ExxonMo-

bil, Eni and Statoil: entry into the prospective Russian shelf,

which could hold 733 billion barrels of oil equivalent (BOE)

of resources, in exchange for the capital and expertise to

develop the fields.

These promise to be beneficial partnerships for the oil

giant Rosneft. Thanks to legislation in 2008 that effectively

granted it and Gazprom exclusive rights to the RCS, the two

firms have been sitting on licenses that could be rich with

hydrocarbon potential.

However, due to the high costs of exploration and produc-

tion, as well as the specialized knowhow needed to operate

offshore a relatively new area of operations for both com-

panies they have been slow to develop the RCS.

In recent months, both firms have been under increas-

ing pressure from political figures such as Prime Minister

Dmitry Medvedev and Natural Resources and Environment

Minister Sergei Donskoy to speed development of the RCS

or risk a forfeit of their licenses. CT2

Russia Looks Toward

Asia Pacific EnergyMarket >BY ROBERTO CHELLINIASSOCIATE PUBLISHER

Global Perspective

Gazprom, Rosneft underpolitical pressure to exploitgas, oil resources


12/105

They may display a proud old name on the outside,but the driving orce within the worlds best-engineered,

most efcient, pipeline gas compressors is Rolls-Royce.

The heritage name, Cooper-Bessemer, still carried by older

machines, echoes the engineering excellence that has

earned Rolls-Royce an unparalleled reputation or quality.Today, in a business where productivity and dependability

mean so much, the unsurpassed engineering experience

o the past makes Rolls-Royce the compressor name

o the uture.

A proud past leads to a new future

Trusted to deliver excellence

Its all inthe name...

Cooper-Bessemer is a registered trade name of Cameron Corporation, used under license by Rolls-Royce plc

www.rolls-royce.com


13/105

APRIL

April 7-10

*Gas Processors Association

Annual Convention San Antonio

Tel: +1 (918) 493-3872

Web: www.gpaglobal.org

April 10-11

*Turkish International Oil & Gas

Conference 2013 Ankara, Turkey

Tel: +44 207 596 5147

Web: www.turoge.com

April 15

*Gas Compressor Association

Expo & Conference

Galveston, Texas

Tel: +1 (972) 518-0019

Web: www.gascompressor.org

April 15-17

North Africa Technical Conference

& Exhibition Cairo

Tel: +971 4 390 3540

Web: www.spe.org/events/natc

April 16-17

*Gas Compressor Institute

Liberal, Kansas

Tel: +1 (620) 417-1171

Web: www.gascompressor.info

April 29-May 3*Gulf South Rotating Machinery

Symposium Baton Rouge,

Louisiana

Tel: +1 (225) 578-4853

Web: www.gsrms.org

MAY

May 1-4

Baghdad International Oil & Gas

Conference and Exhibition Baghdad

Tel: +90 212 356 00 56

Web: www.baghdadoilgas.com

May 6-9

*Offshore Technology Conference

Houston

Tel: +1 (972) 952-9494

Web: www.otcnet.org

May 14-16

*Eastern Gas Compression

Roundtable

Moon Township, Pennsylvania

Tel: +1 (412) 372-4301

Web: www.egcr.org

May 14-16

*Sensor+Test Nuremberg, Germany

Tel: +49 5033 9639-0

Web: www.sensor-test.de

May 14-16

Uzbekistan International Oil & Gas

Exhibition Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Tel: +44 207 596 5233

Web: www.oguzbekistan.com/2013

JUNEJune 3-7

*ASME Turbo Expo San AntonioTel: +1 (404) 847-0072

Web: www.asmeconferences.org/

TE2013

June 4-6

*Power-Gen Europe Vienna

Meetings & EventsFor a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com

HIGH-SPEEDCOMPRESSOR VALVES

DOWNLOAD THE FLYER!

Ariel

White Superior

Dresser-Rand

and more!

CECOs rMAXTM* high-speed compressor valves are

proven to increase run-time, handle entrained liquids

better and radically reduce valve failure!

Works with these high speed compressors:

CALL: 713-663-1668 WWW.TRYCECO.COM/rMAX EMAIL: [email protected]

ITS ONE TOUGH VALVE

*U.S. Patent Pending

!

!

:

. . i


14/105

Tel: +44 1992 656 617

Web: www.powergeneurope.com

June 4-6

Sensos Exo & Confeence

Rosemont, Illinois

Tel: +1 (617) 219-8375

Web: www.sensorsmag.com/

sensors-expo

June 4-7

Caspian Oil & Gas 2013

Baku, Azerbaijan

Tel: +44 207 596 5000

Web: www.caspianoil-gas.com

June 5-6

Enegy Exosiion

Gillette, Wyoming

Tel: +1 (307) 234-1868

Web: www.energyexposition.com

June 11-13

Calgary Oil & Gas Expo

Calgary, Canada

Tel: +1 (403) 209-3555

Web: www.gasandoilexpo.com

SEptEmbEr

Se. 17-19

*Gas Coesso Confeence

Norman, Oklahoma

Tel: +1 (405) 325-3891

Web: www.engr.outreach.ou.edu/

gascompressor

Se. 18-20

*Wyoing Naual Gas Fai

Jackson, Wyoming

Tel: +1 (307) 234-7147

Web: www.wyogasfair.org

Se. 25-26

ChemInnovations Conference & Expo

Galveston, Texas

Tel: +1 (713) 343-1884

Web: www.cpievent.com

Se. 30-Oc. 3

*Inenaional pu Uses

Syosiu Houston

Tel: +1 (979) 845-2924

Web: http://turbolab.tamu.edu

Se. 30-Oc. 3

*tuoachiney Syosiu

Houston

Tel: +1 (979) 845-7417

Web: http://turbolab.tamu.edu

Oc. 1

Pittsburgh Chemical Day Pittsburgh

Tel: +1 (855) 807-9814

Web: www.pittchemday.com

Oc. 2-4

*powe-Gen Asia Bangkok

Tel: +1 (918) 835-3161

Web: www.powergenasia.com

Oc. 6-9

Gas machiney Confeence

Albuquerque, New Mexico

Tel: +1 (972) 620-4026

Web: www.gmrc.org

Oc. 7-10

Agenina Oil & Gas Exo

Buenos Aires, Argentina

Tel: +54 11 4322 57

Web: www.aog.com.ar

*Indicat hw and cnfnc in which Compressortch2 i aticiating

isnt always better.

innovative emission solutions800.640.3141 | miratechcorp.com

Stay

clean.

ig db

k y

y f y. t

roi y .



Compression fabrication and contract services compa-

nies reported strong results for 2012 even though natu-

ral gas prices were subdued.

Enerflex recorded sales 22% higher than in 2011 due to

strong activity in the southern United States, South America,

and other international segments. Cameron Process & Com-

pression reported revenues were 21% higher, led by strong

process equipment sales. Dresser-Rands new-unit sales in-

creased 20%.

USA Compression Partners, which closed its IPO in Janu-

ary 2013, had record 20% higher revenues. Exterran Holdingss

revenues were 17% higher for the quarter and 7% for the year,

with growth in all business sectors, but especially in fabrication.

Compressco Partners increased its revenues 23% due to strong

international growth, primarily in Mexico. UE Compression, which

opened a facility in Denver to handle larger packages, reported re-

cord packaging sales in 2012. And SEC Energy enjoyed its highest

volume since 2008.

Nevertheless, tepid economies and low gas prices limited results

for a number of companies. Caterpillars Power Systems group re-

ported sales 6% lower in the fourth quarter of 2012, with soften-

ing in all geographic regions except Asia Pacific. Cat noted that

dealers are not building inventory like they did at the end of 2011.

Rolls-Royce Energy revenues decreased 11% due to the delay of

several large international projects. Small regional packagers, such

as Abby Services in the U.S., and Compass and Sage in Canada,

reported slower activity. That sent them searching for more interna-

tional business and new markets, such as vapor recovery.

Exterran reduced its contract compression fleet (the industrys

largest) by another 3% to 4,461,000 hp (3326 MW), but grew oper-

ating horsepower by 3% to 3,907,000 hp (2913 MW) as utilization

improved to 84%, nearer the industry average. International growth

rates were strongest.

USA Compressions fleet grew 27% during the year to

919,211 hp (685 MW), although utilization fell from 95.7% to

92.8%. Compressco reported 3149 compressor units in ser-

vice, up 8%, with growth focused on Latin American, European

and Asia Pacific markets, as well as unconventional applica-

tions supporting associated gas from liquids production, vapor

recovery and casing gas systems.

Year-end backlogs and order rates were mixed. Dresser-Rand

reported record new-unit orders, a gain of 9%, driven by stronger

worldwide energy infrastructure markets, especially oil produc-

tion and gas transmission. D-Rs year-end unit backlog was 14%

higher than 2011, and new unit orders are forecast to increase

another 10 to 20% in 2013.

Exterrans compression fabrication backlog was up 11%

from the third quarter and 3% from year-end 2011. Manage-

ment reported the highest profitability in more than three

years, and expects further progress in 2013, mostly in the

second half of the year.

Caterpillar and Ariel projected 2013 volumes would match

2012 levels. SEC Energy reported a six-month backlog with a

full shop and a large expansion of its Houston plant and offices

near completion. Camerons process and compression equip-

ment orders and backlog declined 2% and 4%, respectively.

Rolls-Royce Energy, dependent almost entirely on internation-

al markets, reported orders down 9% due to delays of several

large projects.

Enerflexs backlog decreased 31%, with orders slowing in all

areas due to lower gas prices, but especially in Canada and the

northern U.S. The decrease was also affected by a large Omani

gas processing plant that had been included in 2011 bookings.

The company expects continued softness during the first half

of 2013, but is optimistic about opportunities in the southern

U.S., South America and other international markets. Enerflex

doubled its Houston fabrication facility in 2012 to serve demand

in those markets.

Low gas prices sent many small, regional fabricators and con-

tract compression fleets searching for business in new markets.

For example, Bidell, Compass, Sage and Abby all reported their

2012 fabrication backlogs were down from 2011. Dearing Com-

pression, positioned uniquely in the Marcellus and Utica Shale

plays, was an exception.

Niche companies, such as Cobey and ANGI Energy Systems,

are benefiting from strong growth in natural gas vehicle refueling

infrastructure. Vapor recovery compression is also growing as op-

erators try to reduce fugitive emissions. CT2

Compression Industry Reports

Strong 2012 Business DespiteLow Gas Prices >BY NORM SHADE

About The Business

More-or-less flat outlook sendssmall, regional players search-ing for new markets

BY NORM SHADE

Norm Shade is president of ACI Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio.

A 43-year veteran of the gas compression industry, he has written

numerous papers and is active in the major industry associations.


16/105

on-site system analysis and troubleshooting

Our feld service teams can solve any hard to isolate or recurring problems with

your compressor. Downtime is lost money and to minimize it, engineers will do a

complete on-site system analysis, troubleshoot the root causes, and provide solutions.

The technical team also provides support by phone or email 24 hours a day.

The CPI lubrication group feld service teams have the advantage o

providing a ull service ready to tackle any lubrication repair, breakdown

or problem. When downtime matters, you wont be wasting time waiting

or system parts and accessories.

lube

feldservices

GCA - Gas Compressor Association -April 14-17, Galveston TX - Booth 116

High Performance Polymers for Oil & Gas - April 10-12, Houston, TX

visit us at...

evolving solutions

around your world

www.c-p-i.com


17/105

MonitoringgovernMent

Appval f a baladngfx n me easly

BY PAtrick crow

Meltdown Looms ForEuropes Carbon Trading

Program >

APRIL 2013 14 ComPRessoRtch2

Eurpes greenhuse gas emssns radng sheme s

near llapse, presenng he Eurpean Unn h

sme ugh hes.

the Emssns tradng Sysem (EtS) as he frs, and s

by far he larges, nernanal framerk fr radng green-

huse gas emssns allanes.

the fae f he EtS ll be lsely mnred n he

Uned Saes. Presden Barak obama s pressng cn-

gress fr glbal armng legslan and ms plans

redue greenhuse emssns nlude ap-and-rade pr-

grams lke he EtS.

cmpressr manufaurers als shuld be ahng h

neres. they uld lke see marke grh fr mpres-

srs used n co2 njen/sequesran prjes.

the EU launhed he EtS n 2005. i affes nearly half

f all co2 emssns n he 27 EU member nans, plus

craa, ieland, Lehensen and Nray.

wrkng frm a 2005 baselne, he prgrams gal s

u emssns frm argeed ndusral sers 21% by 2020.

EU nans have allaed free arbn perms 11,000

ndusral frms and per plans.

An allane perms a faly em 1 nne f co2 r

s arbn equvalen. cmpanes an sell any perms ha

hey dn need. the lm n he al number f allanes

avalable hereally ensures ha hey have a value.

the paper-radng sysem s a gd dea n paper. the

marke mehansm shuld all plluers eher nves n

emssns nrls r purhase allanes frm mpanes

h dn need hem, hhever makes enm sense.

Bu ap-and-rade sysems rk bes hen demand

fr allanes s brsk. thas n been he ase reenly

n Eurpe, here ndusral avy sll s reverng frm

he enm sldn. in parular, demand fr eler

per has drpped and generang plans are he majr

sures f co2 emssns.

Sne 2009, he supply f EtS allanes has nss-

enly surpassed demand buldng a surplus f abu 2

blln nnes and hus he pre f raded arbn reds

has rended dnards.

Earler hs year, he pre f reds slpped a l f

2.80 (US$3.75) fr eah nne allane f co2. tha

as dn frm 9 n 2012 and 30 n 2008.

in lae February, he mmnen llapse f he EtS fred

he EUs cmmee n Envrnmen, Publ Healh and

Fd Safey draf a balu plan. t ghen he marke,

prpsed bakladng fuure allanes: deferrng he

ssuane f 900 mlln nnes f arbn perms ha ere

due be auned frm 2013 2015. tha uld be

abu a furh f he planned fferng.

the envrnmen mmee has sen a lear sgnal n

favr f a srng and healhy emssns radng sysem,

cmmee charman Mahas Gre sad. A srnger

arbn pre ll help aalyze Eurpes ransn ards

a l-arbn enmy.

tha balu plan n mus be apprved by he Eurpean

cmmssn, hh represens all f he gvernmens f

EU member saes, and he Eurpean Parlamen. ther ap-

prvals may n me easly r may n me a all.

Sme members f Parlamen ppse bakladng be-

ause he emprary fx hreaens samp he marke hen

he deferred perms are ulmaely ssued n 2019 and 2020.

in he Eurpean cmmssn, nans ha benef frm

he urren l arbn pres ll argue agans hangng

he radng prgram. in he frefrn ll be Pland, a majr

nsumer f al, hh s he fuel ha generaes he ms

arbn emssns.

the Eurpean Assan fr cal and Lgne has m-

planed he EU ha bakladng n nly s nrary

he fundng prnples f he EtS, bu als uld make he

prgram a sheme subje plal manpulan.

Envrnmenal grups are dvded. Sme say he EtS

needs permanen sruural refrms be vable. ohers

argue ha he EtS shuld be srapped and replaed h

ugher mandaes redue pllun. they d agree ha

he abundane f heap perms has remved any nenve

fr pllung frms u her emssns.

the EU mgh nsder sme alernaves baklad-

ng bu all f hem are a leas as nrversal. i uld

redue he 2020 arge, permanenly remve a large

blk f allanes, nrease he annual emssns us,

brng mre ndusres n he prgram, r se a flr

pre fr he allanes.

only ne hng s lear. if he EU des nhng, EtS ar-

bn pres ll dp ard zer. Ct2


18/105

DistributionpartnerforDENSOsparkplugs

T

iredofWatching

TinyMonochromeDisplays?

Thedaysofgettingtiredwithworkingthroughtinymonochromedisplay

menusarehistory.

BesmartandtryMOTORTECHscutting-edge7"HMI

moduletovisualizeyourignitionanddetonationdata.

Compactand

exibleHuman-Machine-Interface

Colorful7"re

sistivetouchdisplay(800x480)

Completevisu

alizationofignitionanddetonationdata

(onmorethan

25screens)

Easyrecordin

gofoperatingdataviaUSBandS

D-Cardinterface

Noneedofan

extralaptop

PowerView3

VisualizeyourIgnitionandDe

tonationData

C

allyournearestMOTORTECHSalesPartner:

CypressEngineAccessories

Phone:1-281-256-9100

www.cypressengine.com

M

artinMachineryL.L.C.

P

hone:1-660-458-7000

s

[email protected]

ReaganEquipmentCompany

Tollfree:1-800-2

54-7767

www.reaganpower.com

DistributionpartnerforDENSOsparkplugs

T

iredofWatching

TinyMonochromeDisplays?

Thedaysofgettingtiredwithworkingthroughtinymonochromedisplay

menusarehistory.

BesmartandtryMOTORTECHscutting-edge7"HMI

moduletovisualizeyourignitionanddetonationdata.

Compactand

exibleHuman-Machine-Interface

Colorful7"re

sistivetouchdisplay(800x480)

Completevisu

alizationofignitionanddetonationdata

(onmorethan

25screens)

Easyrecordin

gofoperatingdataviaUSBandS

D-Cardinterface

Noneedofan

extralaptop

PowerView3

VisualizeyourIgnitionandDe

tonationData

C

allyournearestMOTORTECHSalesPartner:

CypressEngineAccessories

Phone:1-281-256-9100

www.cypressengine.com

M

artinMachineryL.L.C.

P

hone:1-660-458-7000

s

[email protected]

ReaganEquipmentCompany

Tollfree:1-800-2

54-7767

www.reaganpower.com


19/105

The formation of black powder

a chemical reaction of hy-

drogen sulfide (H2S), water and

iron is a problem for compressors

that can escalate if preventative and

removal actions are not taken.

Black powder is a common chal-

lenge that spans all phases of the

natural gas industry from the wellhead

to the burner tip. Its removal is nec-

essary to improve or maintain opera-

tional efficiency and safety.

This paper assimilates information

from several sources and provides ex-

periences from operators perspective

on the difficulties that foreign materi-

als in the gas stream pose for produc-

tion, gathering, processing and pipe-

line transportation.

Typical contaminants in the gas

stream are water, glycol, amine,

methanol, compressor lubricating

oils, salts, chlorides, liquid hydrocar-

bons, sand, dirt, production stimula-

tors and black powder.

Of those, black powder is the most

troublesome. Black powder contami-

nation manifests itself through re-

duced pipeline efficiency, clogged

instrumentation, fouled measurement

equipment and valves that cannot op-

erate due to an accumulation of debris.

It can clog compressor valves, com-

pressor cylinders, compressor pistons,

and filter/separators.

Additionally, black powder can af-

fect pipeline integrity programs that

rely on magnetic flux leakage inspec-

tion and geometry tools due to debris-

induced, liftoff of sensors. Sometimes

the contamination is dry and powdery.

At other times it is wet or has a tar-like

appearance. Black powder is not just

a corrosion issue; it is produced in the

gas stream from chemical reactions

or from microbial activity.

Black power can be an expensive

problem. One pipeline has stated that it

spends US$5.2 million a year in direct

costs associated with black powder re-

moval. A single compressor station that

has had a filter/separator compromised

due to filter collapse can have remedia-

tion costs of more than US$400,000.

Other expenses would include fil-

ter element replacement, solid waste

volume disposal of filter elements,

increased horsepower to pump the

same throughput, compressor valve

replacements and substitution or re-

pair of fouled instrumentation.

Chemistry

As stated earlier, black powder is

formed through the chemical reaction

of H2S, water and iron in a pipe. The

major components of these reactions

are iron sulfide (Fe + S) and iron oxide

(Fe + O). The resulting compounds

Compressor Efficiency Drops With Black

Powder Build-Up >Pvntativ, stoativ masuscan minimiz ion sufi, ion oxi

contamination

By Fred MUeller

Fred Mueller is president of Mueller Envi-

ronmental Designs Inc., Houston. Mueller

worked for several years in engineering,

operations, service and sales, incorporat-

ing his company in 1991. He holds a patent

for a helical coil separator used to remove

black powder from pipelines. E-mail him at

[email protected].


nThis compressor suction valve was fouled by black powder.

continued on page 18


20/105

Are YourCompressorControls& Instrumentation

Incomplete?

Fill in the missing pieces with our total compressor solutions.

Let us be your single source supplier for all your compressor control

& instrumentation needs liquid/uid level, temperature

and vibration detection and monitoring, fuel shut-off and more.Our complete line of compressor monitoring and control

devices helps take the guesswork out of compressor packages.

Find out more at:

http://www.fwmurphy.com/compressor_puzzle_ct2

or you can call+1 918-317-2604 or scan this QR

Visit us at: GCA April 15-17 2013 Galveston TX Booth #310P.O. Box 470248 Tulsa, OK 74147

by 1 3 1 1 2 0 7


21/105

are black in appearance, therefore the

term black powder.

H2S + Fe g FeS + H2Iron sulfide

2H + Fe g Fe2+ + H2Iron oxide

Iron sulfide and iron oxide particles,

whether wet or dry, are extremely

small. Laboratory analysis of both wet

and dry samples indicates a range 0.2

< particle diameter < 4 , with more

than 81.6% of the particle sample

being less than 1 with the greatest

concentration of that particle range

being 0.2 < particle diameter < 0.4 .

Subsequently, dry black powder has a

smoke-like appearance.

Wet black powder may exhibit as

clumps, but when it is subjected to high

velocity or impinges upon hard sur-

faces, it may shear into smaller submi-

cron particles. When black powder is in

suspension as a liquid, it presents the

same characteristics as when dry. Typi-

cal density for iron sulfide and iron oxide

are 151 lb./cu.ft. (1.9 kg/m3) and 355 lb./

cu.ft. (4.6 kg/m3), respectively.

The common chemical forms of

iron sulfide include pyrrhotite, troilite,

mackinawite, pyrite and marcasite,

mous surface area-to-volume ratio.

Subsequently, when exposed to air, it

is oxidized back to iron oxide and ei-

ther free sulfur or SO2 gas is formed.

This reaction between iron sulfide

and oxygen is accompanied by the gen-

eration of considerable amount of heat.

In fact, so much heat is released that in-

dividual particles of iron sulfide become

incandescent. This rapid exothermic

oxidation with incandescence is known

as pyrophoric oxidation and it can ignite

flammable hydrocarbon-air mixtures.

Iron sulfide in the chemical forms of

mackinawite, smythite and greigite are

typical indicators of microbial activ-

ity in the gas pipeline. Additionally, the

confirmation of sulfate-reducing bacte-

ria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria

(APB) in the pipeline is a positive indi-

cation that microbial corrosion exists.

The SRB microbes Clostridium and

Desulfovibrio desulfuricans consume

sulfates and produce H2S. While APB

microbes do not produce H2S, they

supply nutrients and provide hospi-

table environments for SRB to grow.

Reducing black powder

Regardless of the origin of H2S in the


nThis orifice plate also shows black powder fouling.

nThere are many forms of black powder.

ferric sulfide, smythite and greigite. Of

these forms of iron sulfide, pyrrhotite

exhibits pyrophoric tendencies.

Pyrophoric iron sulfide oxidizes

exothermally when exposed to air. It is

formed in the gas stream where H2S

exceeds the concentration of oxygen.

As stated, due to the submicron par-

ticle size of iron sulfide, it has an enor-



22/105

Need Simplifed EngineManagement?

Let Murphy products solve your engine management puzzle.

We offer all the parts-ignition, air/fuel control, speedgoverning, and more. We even integrate them into a

total engine management solution for specic engines.Let us take the guesswork out of your enginemanagement system.

Find out more at:

http://www.fwmurphy.com/engine_puzzle_ct2

or you can call+1 918-317-2618or scan this QR

Visit us at: GCA April 15-17 2013 Galveston TX Booth #310P.O. Box 470248 Tulsa, OK 74147

by


23/105

gas stream, a concentration of 1 ppm

and a throughput of 500 MMscfd (14 x

106 m3/d) potentially could produce as

much as 3600 lb. (1630 kg) of black

powder in a month.

Operators who can minimize the

introduction of water and reduce the

H2S content in their gas stream will

see a resulting reduction in black pow-

der formation.

Microbiologically influenced cor-

rosion cannot exist without water, so

water should be removed wherever it

is known to accumulate.

The best barrier to black powder

production is tariff enforcement. Un-

fortunately, even when some con-

stituents in the gas stream (such as

CO2, H2S, oxygen, water, and sulfur

compounds) meet the existing tariff

requirements of a few percent to a few

parts per million, they still can allow

significant corrosion.

The greatest impediment to black

powder formation is a conservative

tariff that limits H2S to 1 ppm, total

sulfur content of five grains per 100

scf, 5 lb. of water per MMscf, 1.4% by

volume of CO2 and 10 ppm of oxygen.

Removal methods

Under current technology, black pow-

der can be removed from gas pipelines

through chemical or physical means.

In the chemical process, water or

an oil-soluble chemical agent is inject-


ed into the gas stream. The chemical

agent should be compatible with the

solids to be removed and is based

on pipeline operating parameters.

The important operating parameters

include the type of compressor, dew

point, and waste disposal plans.

In addition to operating parameters,

the nature of the deposit is critical. Hy-

drocarbon deposits comprised of waxes

and paraffin are easier to remove with

an oil-soluble chemical while salts are

easier to clean with an aqueous clean-

ing solution. It is important to remember

that when using a water-soluble chemi-

cal agent, the pipeline must be thor-

oughly dried after debris is removed.

Another important aspect of injecting

a chemical agent into the gas stream is

solvent compatibility. Solvents include

water and methanol for water-soluble

cleaners or diesel and hydrocarbon

condensate for oil-soluble cleaners.

An effective cleaning agent must form

either a stable dispersion or a complete

solution. A solution is clear or translu-

cent in appearance with no distinct

phases. A stable dispersion for pipeline

injection applications must remain in a

homogenous single phase for a mini-

mum of 72 hours to be effective. Should

the cleaning solvent separate from the

cleaning agent, its performance will be

significantly reduced.

Physical removal of black powder

is accomplished through pigging and

filtration/separation. In the pigging pro-

cess, a tool is inserted and pushed

through the pipeline using compression.

There are two methods of pigging:

dry and chemical. The cleaning action

of the pig is a function of brushes or

cups that scrape the pipe wall. The

scraping action loosens black powder

on the metal and pushes loose debris

ahead of it.

Four aspects of chemical pigging

are important for optimal cleaning

results: solids penetration, solids sus-

pension, mixture viscosity and mix-

ture separability.

Solids penetration is the ability of

the chemicals to break the surface

contact of debris and loosen it from

the pipe sidewall. After the debris is

loosened, it must be carried down the

pipe in suspension in large quantities.

The carrying capacity of the chemi-

cal agent and solvent is much greater

than the original density. Therefore,

the mixture viscosity is extremely im-

portant; it must not increase greatly in

viscosity or surface tension.

The final aspect, mixture separa-

bility, is the tendency of the debris to

separate into distinct phases in order

to facilitate disposal. Should an emul-

sion be present, the entire quantity of

material will require disposal.

Optimally, three phases will pres-

ent oil, aqueous, and solids. This

will enable the capture of the cleaning

agent for a subsequent chemical pig-

ging project and the removal of solid

debris for reduced volume of hazard-

ous waste material.

Physical removal of black powder

also involves a filtration/separation

function that typically is installed up-

stream of a compressor station or

gas processing facility.

Multiple filters in parallel are placed

in the gas stream to capture and retain

solid particles. They must be suitable for

submicron particle retention and they

must be able to coalesce and pass liq-

uids for capture by the mist extraction

section of the filter/separator.

Most filter element designs are un-

able to perform both processes. A

primary problem with a filter element

that is designed to remove submicron

nThis pig run removed a pile of moist black powder.



24/105

www.ccsia.com HEADQUARTERS: 11275 Aurora Ave., Des Moines, IA 50322, USA +1 515.278.9655

TURBO MACHINERY

CONTROL APPLICATIONS

SURGE PREVENTION CONTROLLE

COLD RECYCLE CONTROLLER

STATION CONTROLLER

GAS TURBINE CONTROLLER

STEAM TURBINE CONTROLLER

POWER UTILITY CONTROLLER

PROCESS CONTROLLER

EXTRACTION CONTROLLER

VALVE MANAGEMENT CONTROLL

For direct questions and project inquiries, please E-mail [email protected].

CONTINUOUS CONTROL SOLUTIONS (CCS)

provides the next generation of control

technology and solutions inclusive of

design, implementation and commissioning

of reliable, high-quality control systems

for industrial TURBO MACHINERY control

applications.

Our systems are fexible, transparent and

robust, focusing on our customers entire

processes, rather than simply protecting

machines, providing a true and proven

continuous control engineering solution

tailored individually to each project.

SURGE PREVENTION CONTROLLER (SPC)

CCSs patented SPC protects your centrifugal or axial

compressor from damages, costly repairs and production

losses induced by surging. The SPC allows you to denethe surge line under variable conditions giving you

optimum surge protection without unnecessary recycling

or blow-off.

CCSs patented SPC provides two independent control

loops based on ow (dP) and pressure ratio (Rc), unlike

anyone else in the market. If at any point in the process

either measurement becomes unavailable, CCS provides

true continuous control by automatically selecting the

available control loop. The controller provides fully-

integrated, multi-loop, multiple-body compressor surge

control on any IEC61131-compliant hardware platform,

eliminating the need for a costly black-box solution.

THE NEXT GENERATION OF

TURBO MACHINERY CONTROL


25/105

particles is that it can become plugged

rapidly and require frequent changing.

If operating conditions do not allow

bypassing or shutdowns, the filter

element pressure differential may

become so great that the elements

collapse, compromising the filter/

separator completely.

Several manufacturers of helical

coil, swirl tube, and cyclone separat-

ing elements are working on technolo-

gies to address these issues.

Sampling

Testing of black powder in pipelines

and compressors is essential to de-

termine the chemical pigging and/or

cleaning process that will be required.

Analysis of the chemical constituents

and particulate sizes of pipeline debris

is needed for the selection of new filtra-

tion/separation equipment.

When samples are taken for test-

ing, they must be sealed immediately.

As soon as the debris sample is ex-

posed to atmosphere, it begins oxidiz-

ing and potentially forming magnetite

(Fe3O4). If that occurs, when the pipe-


The FlexBoreline of cylinders from ACI provides a simple solution

to one of the most labor-intensive problems of compressor

reconguration. With a FlexBore cylinder, you need only change

the internals to recongure a cylinder for a new application.

No Need to Remove or Replace Cylinders No Need to Recongure Piping No Need to Change Out Bottles

Simply Change FlexBore internalsThe FlexBore cylinders offer low xed clearance while

providing optimal performance characteristics over a

wide range of bore diameters. For information, visit

our website or call ACI Services at (740) 435-0240.

ACI Services, Inc. Cambridge,Ohio www.ACIServicesInc.com (740) 435-0240Patent Pending

The FlexBoreline of cylinders from ACI provides a simple solution

to one of the most labor-intensive problems of compressor

reconguration. With a FlexBore cylinder, you need only change

the internals to recongure a cylinder for a new application.

No Need to Remove or Replace Cylinders No Need to Recongure Piping No Need to Change Out Bottles Simply Change FlexBore internals

The FlexBore cylinders offer low xed clearance while

providing optimal performance characteristics over a

wide range of bore diameters. For information, visit

our website or call ACI Services at (740) 435-0240.

ACI Services, Inc. Cambridge,Ohio www.ACIServicesInc.com (740) 435-0240Patent Pending

line debris is sampled and analyzed,

it is often presumed that sulfides do

not exist and only pipeline corrosion

byproducts are present.

Type of analysis performed on the

debris should include full particle iden-

tification, bulk density, and particle size

and distribution. Minimum capabilities of

the laboratory should include:

Polarized light microscopy,

Epi-reflected light microscopy,

Scanning electron microscopy,

Energy-dispersive X-ray

spectrometry,

X-ray diffraction,

Attenuated total reflection-Fourier

infrared spectroscopy,

IMIX image processing software,

and ASTM D 854-98 standard test

methods for specific gravity of soils.

Conclusion

Pipeline and compressor operators

should take a two-pronged approach

to battling black powder.

They should minimize the content

of water and H2S in the pipeline, pref-

erably through effective tariffs that

restrict the foreign constituents of the

gas of the gas stream.

When necessary, operators should

use chemical processes and pigging

methods to remove black powder

build-up from gas pipelines.

References

Baldwin, R.M.: Black powder in the

gas industry sources, characteristics

and treatment, Gas Machinery Re-

search Council (1997). See: www.gmrc.

org/technology-reports.html

Brownlee, J.K.; Dougherty, J.A.;

Salma, T.; and Hausler, R.H.: Solv-

ing iron sulfide problems in an off-

shore gas gathering system, Nace

International (2000).

Campbell, S.: The ins and outs of

pipeline cleaners: testing and evalu-

ation for chemical cleaners, Nace

International (2000).

BJ Services: Improved black pow-

der removal. See: www.bjservice.com

Sahdev, M.: Pryophoric iron fires,

Cheresources Online Chemical En-

gineering Information (1991). See:

www.cheresources.com. CT2


26/105

Insight onsite.


27/105


28/105



The separation of the liquids from the gases

There are two separation systems on a typical natural

gas screw compressor package the gas suction separa-

tor from the well and the oil discharge system to separate

the gas and oil after the compression process. We will dis-

cuss both because they both have to be working properly

to insure success.

The majority of the liquids from the well should be sep-

arated prior to the gas stream coming to the compressor

package. Sometimes this is not the case for wellhead com-

pression systems. The gas suction separator should be de-

signed with the four stages of separation working properly;

this will ensure the minimum amount of liquid carryover to

the compressor. It does not matter if the system has a hori-

zontal or vertical separator system as long as it is designed

correctly for the application.

The first stage of separation is to have the gas enter and

immediately hit an inlet deflector, which forces the gas to

expand, change direction and slow down in velocity. This

will drop out a lot of the heavier fluids. The second stage

is to have the gas change direction and continue to slow in

velocity. The third stage is to have a mist pad so the finer

droplets of liquid can collect and drop out. The fourth stage

is to have the gas stream run through a filtration system.

The filtration system

The filtration system removes any particulate matter from

the gas stream so as to not damage the screw compressor.

The suction filtration filters should have a minimum rating

of no larger than 10 to 20 , the smaller the better. If you

have iron oxide or coal dust in your system then it is recom-

mended no larger than 1 to 3 . If your filters keep getting

plugged up, that means they are working properly.

Filters are designed very differently and have maximum

differential pressure allowances. Be sure to check with your

filter supplier and never allow the differential pressure to ex-

ceed the maximum design for that filter. If it does exceed the

maximum, the filter could collapse and send particulate mat-

ter into your compressor to damage the rotors and bearings.

That is not good and normally will lead to excessive down-

time and a screw compressor rebuild or replacement. Filters

should be checked regularly for proper operation.

Once the gas passes through the separator and is head-

ed to the screw compressor it should be free of liquids and

particulate matter. This is not always the case with an open

ended natural gas application.

The temperature of the gas

This is where the gas analysis is required. The operating

temperature must be 10 to 20 above the highest dew point

in the gas stream. This will ensure that the gas variables

will stay in a vapor state and not liquefy. By keeping the gas

stream variables in vapor form, they will move out of the

system with the discharge gas. If any of the gas variables

liquefy and stay in the oil, they will dilute the oil and create

lubrication problems.

TheThirdS

TageofSeparaTion

Gas Passes ThroughMist Pad

TheS

econdS

TageofS

eparaTion

Gas Slows AndChanges Direction

IllustrationbyKathyBuxkempero

fPROSCo.

IllustrationbyK

athyBuxkemperofPROSCo.



30/105

New Patented glass lled polymer insulator

provides 30% greater dielectric strength and has

a maximum service temperature over 50%

higher than competitive OEM products!!!

Impervious to corona damage

Eliminates dielectric failure

Resistorized models available

NEW PATENTED BLACKJACK

Spark Plug Extensions & Leads

Last Longer & Cost Less

See BGs online catalog for complete information on extensions & cable

products, connectors, spark plugs, turbine leads, and service equipment

including coil and primary testers, fring indicators, timing lights and tools.

IGNITION PRODUCTS

The BG Service Co., Inc

1400 Alabama Avenue West Palm Beach, Florida 33401

(561) 659-1471 Fax (561) 659-1728

Email: [email protected]



Prior to the gas stream entering the

screw compressor, it is mixed with the

oil. The oil serves multiple functions in

the screw compressor compression

process. It is the lubricant, sealant and

coolant. It will lubricate the bearings

and other moving parts. In the screw

compressor, there are very tight toler-

ances and the oil will act as the sealant

between moving parts to create a seal

for compression. As with any compres-

sion process, heat is created and the oil

will help disperse the heat and remove

it from the compression process to pre-

vent excess heating. If the compressor

has too much gap in the clearances be-

tween the rotors and housing from ex-

cessive wear or damage, the oil cannot

seal and there will be a loss in efficiency.

After the compression process, the

oil and gas must be separated so the

gas can be sent down line and the oil

can be reused. The oil must be kept

clean and free of foreign material,

whether it is liquid or particle, therefore

the importance of the discharge sepa-

ration system being designed properly

and well maintained. The discharge

system works similar to the suction gas

separation system with a more refined

fourth stage of separation. On the dis-

charge separation system the filtration

is designed specifically for separating

the oil and gas. This is called a coalesc-

ing filtration system. The coalescing fil-

ter is designed for the separation of the

oil from the gas and will allow the oil to

return to the system. Coalescing filters

should not be rated for greater than 1 to

5 microns and should be checked reg-

ularly. In the opinion of the author, the

smaller the better. This will prevent ac-

cumulation of particulate matter in the

oil and damaging bearings over time.

The oil is the life fluid of the screw

compressor package. Selection of the

right type of oil for your application

is very important. Please consult a

trusted oil supplier to get the right kind

of oil for your application. If the screw

compressor package is designed for

petroleum-based oil and a decision

is made to change to synthetic-based

oil, you could experience many prob-

lems, because the discharge sys-

tem was not designed for the lighter

synthetic oils. Be aware that a major

change in the type of oil will also come

with a major change in the discharge

oil separation system.

Regularly scheduled oil analysis is

the key to maintaining consistent oil

throughout the life cycle of the oil. Oil

analysis is the method for determining

the useful life cycle of the oil and com-

pressor. By analyzing the components

in the oil you will be able to determine

problems before they become cata-

strophic events. Oil analysis will point

you in the direction where issues need

to be addressed, whether they are ex-

cessive liquids in the oil (separation

and temperature) or too much particu-

late matter (filtration). If there is a high

metallic flag on the analysis, this may

tell you that the compressor is getting

near the end of its life cycle, parts are

wearing out and that a rebuild or ex-

change needs to be scheduled.

TheFourTh

STageoFSeparaTion

Coalescing AndFiltration

No well-balanced, preventative

maintenance program can be com-

plete without the incorporation of the

vibration analysis. Vibration analysis

can show the operator the existence

of an issue well before it becomes a

major problem.

In summary, a well-designed and

implemented preventative mainte-

nance program will incorporate oil

analysis, vibration analysis and con-

trol of the separation, filtration and

temperature of the screw compres-

sor system. These factors will allow

the operator to schedule downtime

for maintenance and equipment ex-

changes, eliminating the midnight call

alerting the operator to a catastrophic

event. When all this is done properly,

the screw compressor will become a

very dependable and profitable asset

for natural gas production. CT2

IllustrationbyKathyBuxkemperofPROSCo.


32/105

When you need the optimal solution for your gas

compression application, look to Kobelco. We offer

all types of compressors, so we can custom-engineer

the best possible combination of reliability, efficiency,

economy and environmental benefits. Whether you need

the operating cost savings of a screw compressor, the

large volume of a centrifugal compressor or the high

efficiency of a reciprocating compressor were the

ones to call.

Ask Kobelco! The Best Solution for Any Gas Compression.

The Best Compressors for Productivity

and the Environment

Kobelco Compressors America, Inc.

Houston, Texas

+1-713-655-0015

[email protected]

Kobe Steel, Ltd.

Tokyo +81-3-5739-6771

Munich +49-89-242-1842

www.kobelcocompressors.com


33/105

Celebrating30YearsofService

www.kbdelta.com

800-632-3994Torrance,CaliforniaUSA

Ask for Genuine KB Delta Parts

Discover Us!KB Delta is the premier manufacturer ofcompressor valve parts to the natural gas,air, refrigeration and P.E.T. industries.

NorthAmericaslargestpartsinventoryandon-sitemanufacturingprovideKBDeltacustomersthefastestjobturnaroundavailable.

KBDeltasmanufacturingcapabilitiesinclude:

On-siteengineering,re-engineeringandknowledgeofmostOEMcompressorvalveinternals.

InjectionmoldingCarbonPEEK,PEEK,MT,NylonandX-typematerialparts

PrecisionCNCmachiningofthermoplasticvalveplates

Flatandprofilethermoplasticringswithprecisionsealingsurfaces

CompressionmoldingofTeflonbuttonsforvalvesandlanternringsforpumps

Lasercuttingandfinishingofstainlesssteelplates

Manufacturingprecisioncompressionsprings(OEMstandardandcustomspringsavailable)

Unparalleledcustomerservice-Wepickupthephoneeverytime.


34/105

Valve Kits MajorOEMStyles:Ariel,Hoerbiger,Dresser,Manley,GE/Geminiandothers.

KitsincludeallOEMKitspecifieditemsintheircorrectquantitiessuchas:plates/

rings,springs(coilorplate),buttons,liftwashers,gaskets,ORings,SpirolPinsandother

itemsasapplicable.

Metallic Plates and Rings Valveplates,spring,damping,waferandcushionplates

Highqualitystainlesssteels:420,410,300-Seriesand17-7PH(othersperOEM

specification)

NACEplatesandspringsavailableuponrequest

Thermoplastic Plates and Rings Allmakesandthicknessesofthermoplasticplatesandringsupto15diameter

Materialsinclude:Nylon,MT,PEEK-GlassFilled,PEEK-CarbonFilledandKBDeltas

versionoftheX-stylematerials:NYX,MTX,PKX,formulatedtomeetOEMstandardsfor

X-stylethermoplastics.

GradeAAThermoplasticPlatesandRingsavailableuponrequest.OurGradeAA

precisionsealingsurfaceisdesignedtopassthemostrigorousleaktestsrequiredby

refineriesandprocessgasapplications,eliminatingtheneedforon-sitelapping.

Profile Rings KBDeltamachinesprecisionradiusandotherprofilerings;specializinginManleyandHoerbiger-styleprofilerings,KBDelta

matchescolorandmaterialspecificationsaswellasallcriticaldimensions.

Springs

KBDeltamanufacturesandstocksspringsforeverymajorOEMvalvetype SpringShapes/Styles:Conical,Cylindrical,Barrel,Hourglass,andSpecialSpringShapes

Dresser-Randstylesprings(withandwithoutnylonbuttoninserts)

WireShapeTypes:Round,Flat,Oval,andSpecialShapes

MaterialTypes:StainlessSteel(17-7PH,302,304,316,),MusicWire,Inconel(600,X-750,718),Nimonic90,Hastelloy(C-

276,C-4),Elgiloy(Phynox),MP35N,Waspaloy,Monel400,TitaniumGr.5/6Al4V,PhosphorBronze,BerylliumCopper,andallothers

perOEMorcustomerspec.

Poppets KBDeltamanufacturesandstockscommonPeekandNylonpoppets.Sealingsurfacesareprecisionmachinedandeachpoppet

isinspectedforproperspringdeflectionandsealing.

Buttons, Nubs and Inserts Buttonsandnubsarecompressionmolded,injectionmoldedandprecision-machined.

Styles:Buttons,WearNubs,ValveStripWearInserts,Guides,StemGuides,Inserts

Materials:StainlessSteel,Teflon,Peek,Nylon,Moly,Carbon

KBDeltaInc.isanaftermarketsupplierofcompressorvalveparts.KBDeltamakesnorepresentationthatthepartswe

manufactureareOEMparts,howevertoourbestknowledge,OEMspecificationsareadheredtoonallofthepartswe

manufacture.


35/105

crankshaft can be converted to linear motion of the piston.

While the pin may appear to fit snugly, it must have some

clearance around it so that lubrication oil can prevent metal

to metal rubbing, and hence excess friction and the result-

ing undesirable extreme temperatures to 300, 500, 700F

(149, 260, 371C) and beyond. Repair costs can be minor

(downtime to replace bushings and/or crosshead shoes) to

daunting (extended downtime, new rods, new crossheads,

new cylinder liners, and new crankshafts). Damage-related

costs due to crosshead failures could exceed US$1 mil-

lion per unit. Therefore, safety and good business practices

would suggest that reciprocating compressor controls in-

clude the ability to keep a unit out of potential areas where

pin nonreversals may occur.

Pin reversal calculations and concepts can quickly be-

come complex, but the basic thing to keep in mind is that

the clearance between the pin and the connecting rod (Fig-

ures 1, 1A) changes sides as the piston moves out from

the frame, stops, and then moves back towards the frame.

If the side with the clearance does not change (Figure 2),

then little to no lubrication fluid can be introduced between

the two metal parts. And when metal rubs against metal, the

resulting friction forces will lead to increased temperatures

extremely fast.


Dwayne A. Hickman serves as director of

Software Development with ACI Services

Inc. He taught university math and com-

puter science courses for 13 years, and

has been in the reciprocating compressor

industry for the last 15 years.

A Review Of ReciprocatingCompressor CrossheadPin Nonreversals >

Many operators of reciprocating compressors are

very familiar with safety issues related to unit per-

formance, such as high pressures and high tem-

peratures, as these are fairly straightforward to conceptual-

ize and even measure in real time. Other issues, such as

low-volumetric efficiencies and static gas force rod loads,

can be readily explained and operators are often provided

a clear method, like a maximum differential pressure or a

maximum compression ratio, to help them identify safe from

potentially unsafe conditions.

Other issues, like calculating rod loads based on internal

gas pressures and inertia forces, or determining when a unit

is operating in pin nonreversal conditions, can be nonintui-

tive and complex. These issues become especially cumber-

some to manage when dealing with higher-speed units due

to their potential for operating over a very wide speed range.

For example, if a high-speed unit is rated at 1200 rpm, its

driver may be able to vary speed to the compressor across

a range of 900 to 1200 rpm. Within that range, 900 to 1075

rpm may be safe, from 1075 to 1100 rpm may be unsafe

as determined by the OEM, and from 1100 to 1200 rpm

may be safe again. Thus, even if your OEM or packager

had checked high (1200 rpm), medium (1050 rpm), and low

(900 rpm) speeds, they would have not identified the subset

of unsafe speeds. The only way to get from 900 to 1200 rpm

is to traverse through the 1075 to 1100

rpm range.

The fundamental mechanical issue

related to pin nonreversal is ultimately

just a lubrication issue. That is, proper

lubrication of the pin that connects the

connecting rod to the crosshead as-

sembly so that the rotating motion of the

TECHcorner

April 2013 32 Compressortch2

Operators should be alert toris operatig coditios

By DWAynE A. HICkMAn

nFigure 1. The clearance gap between pin and connecting rod switches sides when the

piston changes direction.


36/105

Reliable SwiSS QualityAPI 618

Rod load up to 1'500 kN/335'000 Ibs

Power up to 31'000 kW/42'100 HP

Full Range:

You get moRe than Just a

PRocess gas comPRessoR

Lubricated up to 1'000 bar, non-

lubricated up to 300 bar

For highest availability: We recom-

mend our own designed, in-house

engineered compressor valves and

key compressor components

Designed for easy maintenance

We are the competent partner

with the full range of services

worldwide

.rp./p618

YouR BeneFit:

lowest liFe cYcle costs


37/105April 2013 34 Compressortch2

OEMs typically specify at least two constraints when set-

ting safety limits based on pin reversals. First, each throw

must have a sufficient number of degrees of pin reversal.

The second constraint is that opposite forces (compression

vs. tension) must be sufficient to ensure that when operat-

ing in the face of real-world phenomenon like pulsations,

dynamic pressure drops and valve wear, the predicted

amount of pin reversal should be realized.

API618 section 6.6.4 states that the minimum degrees

of pin reversal range from 15 to 45, depending on

bushing designs. Most OEMs require at least 30, and

some require at least 60.

API618 section 6.6.4 also states that during one crank-

shaft revolution, at least 3% magnitude is required of

opposing forces, and as high as 20% magnitude de-

pending of bushing design. Most OEMs require at least

15%, and some require as high as 25%.

When calculating the degrees of pin reversal, the internal

dynamic gas pressures are applied to the outside piston

faces exposed within the head end and crank end portions

of the cylinder. These results are then applied when deter-

mining the effective gas forces acting on the pin via the pis-

ton rod (e.g. blue curve shown in Figure 3). Additionally, the

weights of the piston and rod assembly plus the crosshead

assembly contribute inertia forces acting on the same pin

(e.g. magenta curve shown in Figure 3). Those two forces

are combined to give the net forces acting on the pin (e.g.

black curve shown in Figure 3).

When forces act in the direction that stretches the rod,

they are called tension forces, while forces acting to com-

press the rod are called compression forces. To have any

degrees of pin reversal during a complete revolution, the

forces on the pin must reverse at least once between com-

pression and tension. This always happens when only the

inertia forces are considered (magenta curve in Figure 4).

However, since the cylinder is usually sealed and com-

pressing gas, the internal gas forces can make a good situ-

ation better, or a good situation bad.

nFigure 3. This chart displays 170 of pin reversal, with max tension

about 56% of max compression. All forces are within their limits (green

lines). This throws pin loading forces indicate safe operation here.

nFigure 4. This chart shows about 40 of reversal, but only about

3% opposite forces. Most OEMs would identify this as a condition

where unit operations are not permitted.

For the engineers and programmers, inertia forces are

readily calculated by the following equation:

Here, U represents the degree of crank angle and WRE-

CIP is the sum of the combined weight of the piston and

rod assembly and the crosshead assembly for the throw

being considered. (Note: No portion of the connection rod

weight is included in these calculations those additional

weights get used in other calculations such as torsional

forces. Equation also omits unbalanced rotating weights.

Units used are inches and pounds.)

Additionally, Internal Gas Forces are based on the equation:

The sum () is across all cylinders on the throw being

considered (e.g. in cases were tandem cylinders are used).

The head end (HE) and crank end (CE) pressures are in


nFigure 2. The clearance gap does not switch sides when piston

changes direction.

nFigure 1A. This cutaway shows the crosshead pin referenced in

Figures 1 and 2.


38/105

Bringing energy and the environment into harmony.

SYNCHRONY

MAGNETIC BEARINGS

A POWERFUL FORCE IN THE

WORLD OF ROTATING EQUIPMENT.

Make your rotating equipment cleaner, more efficient and more reliable with our Synchrony

magnetic bearings. These best-in-class bearings can make a world of difference by improving

the performance and reducing life cycle costs of your rotating equipment. Because the shaft

is positioned and supported with magnetic forces and without contact, bearing losses

and wear are minimized. In addition, the need for an oil lubrication system is completely

eliminated. So make the switch to Synchrony magnetic bearings, and add a powerful force

to your rotating equipment.

www.dresser-rand.com www.synchrony.comCompressorsTurbo & Recip / Steam Turbines / Gas Turbines / Engines / Control Systems / Expanders

a em, rg n a: nt + - - n o resser-ran .com


39/105April 2013 36 Compressortch2

gage pressure units, not in absolute pressure units. Crank-

case and tailrod catcher (when present) assumed to be at

atmospheric pressure.

Actual prediction of specific head end and crank end in-

ternal pressures (PressHE(u) and PressCE (u)) during thecompression cycle depend on current line pressures, gas

temperatures, unit geometry, valves, pressure drops, gas

being compressed, unit operating speed, and a few other

items. OEMs develop their own unique approach for mod-

eling these internal pressures, albeit most are very simi-

lar. Figure 5 and 6 show some typical internal pressures

(known as pressure-volume and pressure-time diagrams).

The compression (suction to discharge) and expansion

(discharge to suction) sections follow the thermodynamic

rules for the gas being compressed, are exponential, and

tend to be very consistent across the OEMs. The discharge

and suction valve open events tend to vary a bit more be-

tween OEMs (based on valve designs, passageways, valve

porting, liner restrictions, piston masking).

nFigure 5. PV diagram: blue = head end pressures, magenta =

crank end pressures.

nFigure 6. PT diagram: blue = head end pressures, magenta =

crank end pressures.

Since the results from both equations are required to de-

termine the effective forces at the crosshead pin, whenever

any condition of the unit changes (suction pressure, dis-

charge pressure, suction gas temperature, speed or load

step) these forces must be recalculated. API Standard 618,

Fifth Edition (2007) section 6.6.3, requires checking these in

at most 5 increments. If we had a six-throw unit, we would

need to calculate 12 PV diagrams (two ends per cylinder,

one cylinder per throw) and then six throws of inertia data.

Also, all load steps should be calculated so that the PLC

knows which ones are safe and which ones are unsafe.

Convolute this with the thermodynamic modeling needed

for the gas pressure calculations and you can potentially

slow down even a fast desktop PC. And as for PLCs, the

slowdown would be completely unacceptable. Most PLCs

do not consider pin nonreversal issues as they control the

unit. And this omission is not good.

Fortunately, pin nonreversal issues are not that common,

especially when the packager or OEM size the compressor

frame and cylinders to best meet your operating require-

ments. In general, pin nonreversals tend to happen when a

crank end is deactivated or significantly unloaded via added

clearance volume, or when tandem cylinders are used and

one of the tandem cylinders is double acting, or when small-

bore, high-pressure cylinders are used.

Unfortunately, because high-speed units typically allow for

more significant speed turndown, high-speed units are poten-

tially more susceptible to pin nonreversals. Also, due to industry

changes in lubrication fluids to meet environmental needs,

some slow-speed units that survived running units near or at

pin nonreversal areas in the past may now have problems. Fi-

nally, the number of degrees of pin reversals can change quick-

ly with pressures changes and speed changes (Figure 7).

nFigure 7. Degrees of pin reversal can fall quickly shown above

falling from 180 down to about 40 when suction pressure varies

only about 50 psig (3.4 bar) in some areas.

Thus, severe compressor-based dangers can lurk quietly

and then suddenly wreck a unit with little warning. Coding

these unsafe areas into a PLC can be a challenge since

prediction of unsafe areas is nontrivial (Figure 8). Fortunate-

ly, there are some reasonable options available for dealing

with potential pin nonreversal concerns: real-time online

measuring systems, and preventative performance control.

One option is to install real-time internal pressure sensors.

Once calibrated, correctly installed and programmed to each

throws appropriate reciprocating weights, these devices



40/105

CompressorsTurbo & Recip / Steam Turbines / Gas Turbines / Engines / Control Systems / Expanders

The Americas: (Intl +1) 713-354-6100/EMEA: (Intl +33) 2-35-25-5225

Asia-Pacific: (Int l +60) 3-2093-6633/ datum.dresser-rand.com

WE MAKE MORE THAN COMPRESSORS.

WE MAKE YOURCOMPRESSOR.

More than 1,000 DATUM compressors producedeach one engineered for

your specific application. The DATUM compressor boasts the ideal mix of standardized

components and custom-tailored featuresresulting in a compressor solution as unique as

your challenge. Our solutions are designed to deliver maximum performance, efficiency and

reliability for your specific flow and pressure applications. In fact, a single DATUM casing can

deliver high compression ratios where others may require multiple casings to do the same

work. So, give yourself a competitive edge by choosing the compressor that will give you

the highest performance and lowest total cost of ownershipthe DATUM compressor.

For more information visit datum.dresser-rand.com

Bringing energy and the environment into harmony.


41/105

For more than 53 years, Universal has built a solid foundation of silencing, emissions

and filtration expertise in the Oil and Gas industry by guiding customers through the

most complex projects. We have earned our reputation by taking the time to listenand understand your specific requirements. With performance and reliability of utmost

importance, we provide design consultation, multiple solution options and supporting

documentation. We validate our design with state-of-the-art modeling and analysis, and

we prove our performance with documented testing procedures.

Tut Uv t t, , utu pv utut yu uqu pjt.

ProdUcT solUTions foroil and gas aPPlicaTions

silencing | emissions | filTraTion

(888) [email protected].

Visitusat

GCAGasCo

mpressor

Association

GSRMSGul

fSouthRotatin

g

MachinerySym

posium

happen. By preventing the unit from even operating in or near

areas of concern, the probability of a pin nonreversal incident

is minimized, with risks also significantly reduced.

nFigure 8. Unlike gas rod loads, discharge temperatures, and low

volumetric efficiencies, the predictability of where unsafe areas ex-

ist due to pin nonreversals is not a trivial task.

Reference: A Discussion of the Various Loads Used to Rate

Reciprocating Compressors, K.E. Atkins, Martin Hinchliff,

Bruce McCain.CT2

can alarm and/or trigger a shutdown whenever internal cyl-

inder conditions approach desired limits of safety. In fact,

even if something else, such as a broken valve, creates pin

nonreversal issues, these real-time systems can often react

fast enough to prevent serious unit harm. For compressors

running near areas of pin nonreversals, or for units where a

review has indicated that damaged valves can quickly put a

unit in pin nonreversals, these real-time systems are ideal.

Another option is to actually prevent unit operations of a

healthy unit near or at conditions leading to pin nonreversals

by having the unit controller change load steps, adjust speed

or adjust pressures to avoid letting the unit damage itself.

OEM performance software determines safe and unsafe

areas based on hardware configuration (load step), speed,

pressures, temperatures, and gas thermodynamics. A con-

trol panel does not have the luxury of being able to run such

sophisticated calculations if it was programmed to model

complex thermodynamics, then by the time it calculated the

results the unit might already be severely damaged. Howev-

er, those supplying the units or the performance can prere-

view millions of potential operating points across the defined

operating map and develop reasonable constraint equations

to prevent operations at undesired conditions.

For packagers, operators, and owners concerned with the

damages that pin nonreversals can cause, there are reason-

able options available to mitigate those concerns. Remember,

quantitative risk is defined as the probability that an accident

will happen multiplied by the expected loss if the accident does


42/105

NEAC Compressor Service

Utilize NEACs GlobalRepair Coordination Centers

(RCC)

Overhaul of valves, gas packingsand oil wipers

Cylinder repair and liner replacement

Complete assessment of allcompressor parts and evaluation

versusoriginalOEMspecifcation

Crankcase re-machining

Foundationretrofts

PENNProcessCompressors

Bring Your Compressor

Back to OEM Spec


43/105

AC Dvs

Toshiba Mitsubishi-Electric

Industrial Systems Corp.

has literature on its TM-

drive MVG, a medium-volt-

age, variable-frequency AC

drive for industrial power

ratings up to 10 MW. The

drive works with existing or

new induction or synchro-

nous motors.

www.tmeic.com

Vca Pmps

Afton Pumps has printed

literature on its model MPV

pumps, which are medium-

pressure vertical pumps

that combine a diffusor

bowl assembly and a steel

outer case. The literature

includes technical data and

construction details of the

pump model.

www.afton-pumps.com

Pogssv

Cavy Pmps

Netzsch has released a

capability brochure, which

highlights the companys

products, technology and

application areas. The com-

pany manufactures a range

of pumps, such as progress-

ing cavity pumps, immers-

ible pumps, and rotary lobe

pumps, as well as joints and

other accessories.

www.netzsch.com

Mag-Dv Pmps

Warrender Ltd. has pub-

lished a brochure on its

mag-drive pump range.

That pump range includes

compact horizontal, process

horizontal, vertical sump,

horizontal molded thermo-

plastic, vertical sump ma-

chined thermoplastic, and

multistage cast. The compa-

ny also offers replacement

spare kits and components.

www.warrender.com

literAture


Shaping the future of digital ignition todayThe CPU-XL VariSpark ignition, eaturing Altronics exclusive, patented,

directed-energy technology, has been ully feld-tested by large gas engine

operators across North America, and has been ound to outperorm

all expectations, delivering assured combustion on both low-emissions

applications and on units operating at light loads.

Soon to be available in

other horsepower range

compressor tech april 2013

Documents