CONCRETETHE RESPONSIBLE CHOICE

Concrete is, quite literally, the foundation upon which our modern societies and economies are built.

Without concrete and its constituent parts – sand, aggregate and cement – we would not havethe roads, footpaths, bridges, schools, hospitals, homes and workplaces we take for granted.

In fact, a life without concrete is unimaginable. Next to water, it is the most consumedsubstance on the planet. Worldwide, three tonnes of concrete are used per person every year.

In Australia, the cement, concrete and aggregate industries are worth $7 billion in revenues tothe economy, and contribute $11.7 billion to GDP. They underpin building and construction andare therefore critical to the health of our economy.

Concrete – the responsible choice is the story of this industry, its products and its commitmentto sustainable development.

Concrete for a sustainable future 1

Concrete through the ages, for the ages 3

Concrete construction and the environment 4

Concrete, sustainability and the built environment 12

Sustainability in practice: what the industry is doing upstream 20

A safe working environment 27

Concrete – the responsible choice 28

CONTENTS CONCRETE – THE RESPONSIBLE CHOICE

The World Commission on Environment andDevelopment (WCED) defines sustainabledevelopment as development that meets theneeds of the present without compromisingthe ability of future generations to meet theirown needs1.

Sustainable development can beconceptually broken into three constituentparts – social, environmental and economic.

‘Social’ sustainability refers to the quality oflife of individuals and their communities;‘environmental’ references the managementand preservation of our air, water, land and

ecosystems; and ‘economic’ the level ofprosperity for organisations and individuals.

‘Sustainability’ is achieved where all three ofthese parts overlap Figure 1.

The cement, concrete and aggregateindustries are continually striving to ensuretheir processes and practices are consistentwith the principles of sustainabledevelopment.

CONCRETE FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

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Notes 1 Bruntland Report World Commission on Environment and Development 1987

Social

Sustainable

EconomicEnvironment

Figure 1 Sustainability depicted as the overlapping area between social, environmental and economic performance

Industry Fast Facts

As part of the Australian Government’sGreenhouse Challenge, the cementindustry voluntarily reduced CO2

emissions by 23% between 1991 and2009.

Town water used in premixed concrete,extractive industries and cementproduction has fallen as a result ofincreasingly sophisticated water-recycling initiatives.

In 2008/09, the concrete industrysupplied close to 24 million cubicmetres of concrete – enough to build293 Eureka Towers or three-quarters ofa million house floor slabs.

The industry has actively promoted thecontribution that concrete makes toenergy efficient building design, by wayof its thermal mass qualities.

The industry directly and indirectlyemploys nearly 100,000 Australians.

It contributes nearly $12 billion toAustralia’s GDP.

The industry has continuously improvedits workplace safety record.

Across the industry there has been anincreased uptake of environmentalmanagement systems.

Coupled with these industry achievements,the end-product, concrete, makes asignificant contribution to sustainabilitythrough its various properties and in itsapplications.

Concrete is fire-resistant, flood resilient,termite-resistant, robust and strong.

It is manufactured from abundant andreadily available materials – cement,aggregates and water.

It is durable. Concrete structures areincredibly long lasting – we still haveexamples from Roman times.

It is inert and non-toxic. Its chemicalcomposition is void of known carcinogenssuch as volatile organic compounds andformaldehyde.

It has high thermal mass, helping toreduce household and building energyconsumption.

It reduces sound transmission – makingfor quieter homes and buildings.

It affords design flexibility. In its fluid or‘plastic’ state, it can be moulded to justabout any form.

A wide range of finishes can be achieved.

Its use can negate the need for additionalfinishing (eg plasterboard linings, paintingor floor coverings) – supporting theimportant concept of dematerialisation.

It can be manufactured to a wide range oftechnical specifications to suit just aboutany application.

It is low-cost.

It is recyclable. Concrete can be recycledinto road base materials for pavingconstruction, or recycled as concreteaggregate.

It is manufactured in towns and suburbsAustralia-wide, close to its markets,supporting jobs and reducing transportimpacts.

The use of natural sand in concrete canbe replaced by manufactured sand.

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What is concrete?

In its simplest form, concrete isa mixture of cement,aggregates (rock and/or sand)and water. The cement andwater react in a chemicalprocess known as hydration,binding the other ingredientstogether as the compoundhardens. The resulting rock-likemass is concrete.

Concrete has had a huge impact on the riseof civilisation across the millennia.

One of the oldest examples was found on thebanks of the River Danube. Here, fishermen’shuts dating back to 5600 BC used a form ofconcrete – a red lime glue – to bind stonetogether.

Later the Egyptians, followed by the Greeksand Romans, used various forms of natural‘cement’. The Egyptians favoured mixtures oflime, gypsum and water, while the Greeksand Babylonians used lime, clay and water.

The Romans went a step further, using anatural pozzolan sourced from near MountVesuvius, together with lime and water, tobuild sewers, water pipes, baths, piers,breakwaters, aqueducts and other finestructures. On many of these structuresconcrete was used as an infill between outerskins of masonry or stone, thus adding bothstrength and weight to the structure.

In more recent times, the story of concrete isclosely related to the development ofportland cement. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, abricklayer from Leeds, took out a patent forPortland Cement, so named for itsresemblance to the stone quarried on the Isleof Portland.

But others had been working on similarproducts well ahead of Aspdin. One of thesewas an engineer called John Smeaton, whosome 60 years earlier developed cement that

would set under water. This was used tobuild the Eddystone Lighthouse off the coastof Cornwall in 1756. (The lighthouse wasmoved to Plymouth Hoe in 1882, where itremains to this day.)

In Australia, two of the earliest examples ofconcrete construction are the LamingtonBridge at Maryborough, Queensland, and asewage aqueduct at Forest Lodge, NSW –both dating from 1896. Since then concretehas gone through many developmentphases, resulting in the product we knowtoday.

It enjoys a reputation for durability, efficiency,cost effectiveness and architectural flexibilitythat is unmatched by any other material.

CONCRETE THROUGH THE AGES, FOR THE AGES

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Eddystone Lighthouse (1756)

Sydney (2010)

As concern for the future of our planet hasgrown, so too has our understanding of theimportance of sustainable development andconstruction. Buildings are one of theheaviest consumers of natural resources, andaccount for a significant proportion of energyconsumption and greenhouse gas emissions.In fact, the building sector is responsible foraround 40% of global energy consumptionand over 30% of global greenhouseemissions2.

Achieving sustainable development requiresmethods and tools to help quantify andcompare the environmental impacts ofcreating and providing the goods andservices used by our society.

Every product has a ‘life’. It starts withdesign/development and continues throughvarious stages – resource extraction,production of materials, manufacturing and/orprovision of the product, use/consumption,and finally end-of-life activities(collection/sorting, reuse, recycling, wastedisposal). All of these stages, or processes,have environmental consequences.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool thatcan be used to examine the environmentalimpact of any building system or product.

To be truly meaningful, an LCA must be‘cradle to cradle’ (ie from the time theresources are first removed from the ground,

through their manufacturing stage,considering their effect on the operationalimpact of the building, to when they arerecycled and reused in material manufactureat the end of the system or product’s life). AnLCA must account for all relevant effects ofthe system or product on the energy andemissions associated with the buildingthroughout its life, ie an LCA must consider“whole of building – whole of life”.

Sometimes, data is collected for only part ofthe life-cycle, for example from “cradle to thefactory gate” Figure 2. It must be recognizedthat, while this is useful information (available

for use in a full LCA), it is only part of thestory. “Cradle-to-gate” information cannotaccount for the intrinsic environmentalbenefits such as thermal mass, ease ofrecycling, economic sustainability and thelike. The real benefits of these propertiesbecome apparent only in a full “whole ofbuilding – whole of life” LCA.

Across industry, environmental impacts arebeing measured in many ways – upstreamduring the manufacturing process anddownstream, and also how products aredesigned, built and operated. However,when viewed in isolation the assessment of a

single stage or process tells us very littleabout the overall environmental impact of theproduct. Each stage should be judged in thecontext of an overall assessment of theproduct in the context of the whole buildingduring the whole of the life cycle.

Relevant environmental impacts includegreenhouse effect, ozone depletion, heavymetals, nutriphication, acidification,carcinogenesis, summer smog and wintersmog, water usage, the depletion ofresources, land use – and others. Themeasured quantities may be counted in thelife cycle inventory when they pass throughthe system boundary. The collection of LCAinformation can be summarised as thequantification of inputs and outputs to asystem. Both the inputs and outputs canhave environmental impacts Figure 3.

The procedures to carry out an LCAassessment involve:

defining and describing the product orprocess, establishing fully the context inwhich the assessment is being made;

identifying all of the life cycle stages (rawmaterials extraction, manufacture,transport, construction, operational effect,demolition and recycling);

evaluating and quantifying the energy,water and materials usage and theenvironmental releases at each stage;

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

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Notes 2 UNEP Sustainable Buildings and Climate Initiative, Common Carbon Metric for measuring Energy Use & Reporting Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Building Operations, 2010. Reported in Public Discussion Paper: National Building Energy Standard-Setting, Assessment and Rating Framework National Strategy on Energy Efficiency, March 2010.

Reuse

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waste waste waste waste

Figure 2 LCA – Holistic measurement of environmental impact

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determining the impacts of the releaseand developing opportunities to effectenvironmental improvements;

summing all of the impacts, to gain anoverall view of the total environmentalimpact over the whole of the buildingduring the whole of its life.

LCA Case Studies

The results of a series of comprehensive LCAcase studies have been published on

Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia’swebsite, www.ccaa.com.au. These studieswere carried out for CCAA by theDepartment of Services, Technology andAdministration (formerly the NSW Departmentof Public Works and Services) todemonstrate the use of LCA as a tool forassessing and comparing the environmentalimpact of buildings over their entire life cycle.

The case studies were conducted on adetached house, an office building and a

Manufacturing

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Figure 3 Schematic diagram of the LCA process and system boundary

Melbourne, Victoria Great Southern Stand, Melbourne Cricket GroundPhotograph John Gollings

warehouse, with each study examining arange of construction material options toprovide an overall comparative assessment ofthe performance of the different materials inthe context of the fully functioning building.

LCAid™, developed by the Department ofCommerce’s own Environmental Servicesgroup, was used to conduct the studies. Thissoftware tool allows building designers toevaluate the environmental performance andimpacts of designs and options over thewhole life cycle of a building.

House

The study on the detached house Figure 4revealed that the energy used to producematerials to make the house itself (embodiedenergy) was generally less than 10 per centof the operational energy (energy used toheat and cool, provide lighting, heat waterand run other appliances and refrigeration)over a fifty-year life (Figure 5).

Note: The operational energy impact becameeven more significant when a longer life cycleof 100 years was considered.

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Figure 5 House Case Study – Embodied and OperationalEnergy

Figure 4 House Case Study – Optimised Floor Plan

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Office Building

The office building life cycle assessment wasconducted on a structure comprising 20storeys of office space, 2 basement levels ofcar parking and a net lettable area per floorof 1323 m2.

Figure 7 Environmental Impact – office building case study

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Figure 6 Environmental impact of different building material solutions for the detached house case study

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The warehouse life cycle assessment wasconducted on building that included a smalloffice mezzanine and a net floor area of12,558 m2.

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Figure 8 Environmental impact – warehouse case study

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Notes 3 Arup reports (2005) as cited in Can we afford not to build affordable homes out of concrete? www.allbusiness.com/manufacturing/nonmetallic-mineral-product-manufacturing/1142576-14 Sustainable Concrete – The Concrete Centre www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/

Case study key findings

The case studies found that operation of thebuildings over their projected lives had a fargreater impact than the choice of buildingmaterials, which alone had only a very smallimpact.

In particular, the LCA case studiesestablished that:

there is no significant difference betweenthe alternative constructions for each ofthe three building types studied (detachedhouse, office building and warehousebuilding) in terms of the commonenvironmental indicators (energy andgreenhouse gas emissions);

a building’s environmental assessmentcannot be based on just one or twoindicators;

examination of only the building materialsor the building operation alone will notgive an accurate measure of the building’senvironmental performance;

operation of the building dominates mostof its environmental indicators; the choiceof building materials alone has a lesserimpact; and

LCA gives a broader view and hence amore balanced appraisal of theenvironmental performance of buildingsand their materials.

From a concrete perspective, the casestudies confirm that cement and concrete-based construction of houses, commercialand industrial buildings provides goodenvironmental performance.

The CCAA work in this area to daterepresents a major contribution to theongoing understanding of sustainabledevelopment. Perhaps more importantly, thestudies underline the need for regulators andconsumers to take a broader “whole ofbuilding – whole of life” view, and hence amore balanced appraisal of the environmentalperformance of buildings and their materials.

Passive Solar Design and Thermal Mass

Life cycle assessment shows that themajority of energy consumed by a buildingoccurs during the occupancy phase of its life,ie operational energy.

A universally accepted method for reducingthe energy required to ‘run’ a house or

building is to apply passive solar principles inthe design and construction processes.

One of the most important aspects of thisapproach is in the use of durable, long-lifematerials with high thermal mass.

It has been reported that the use ofheavyweight materials, such as concrete,with innate thermal mass, is one of the mosteffective ways of minimising greenhouse gasemissions3. The whole of life CO2 savingsprovided by the appropriate use of thermalmass can far outweigh any increase inembodied impacts resulting from the use ofconcrete4.

These materials work by absorbing, storingand then releasing heat in response tointernal temperature changes in the house orbuilding. This process of absorption, storageand release helps to stabilise conditionsinside the building, reducing the requirementfor energy-consuming air conditioning orheating.

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Figure 9 Sensitivity Analysis of construction and operation over various lifecycles – Commercial

For a material to provide a useful level ofthermal mass a combination of three basicproperties is required4:

High specific heat capacity – to maximisethe heat that can be stored per kg ofmaterial.

High density – to maximise the overallweight of the material used.

Moderate thermal conductivity – so thatheat conduction is roughly insynchronisation with the diurnal heat flowin and out of the building.

Concrete satisfies all thr ee properties Figure10.

To be most effective in terms of its thermalmass qualities, the use of concrete needs tobe integrated with other sound passive solardesign principles.

For example, simple design interventionssuch as north orientation (in southernhemisphere) and correct siting of thermalmass in the building can significantly reduceenergy consumption.

Cool in summer, warm in winter

Buildings that utilise thermal mass inconjunction with these broader passive solardesign principles are making a positivecontribution to the environment, both in theshort and long term, by reducing theconsumption of energy derived from fossilfuels, all year round.

Cooler in summer

In summer, thermal mass works effectively intandem with other passive solar designprinciples, such as natural ventilation andsolar shading. During the day, the mass inconcrete walls and floors absorbs the radiantheat from outside to help stabilise the internaltemperature. At night, as the external airtemperature drops, natural ventilationeffectively removes this accumulated heat.

To be most effective, concrete floor slabs andwalls must be thermally exposed to allowheat to move freely between the internalenvironment and the concrete5.

Warmer in winter

In Australia, solar energy – entering throughwalls and windows – provides a significantcomponent of heating in homes. This can beincreased by virtue of thermal mass andpassive solar design principles, includinglarger, north-facing windows combined with amedium-to-high level of thermal mass.

During the day concrete acts as a heat bank,storing solar energy. At night, as thetemperature drops, this stored heat is slowlyreleased, reducing the need for artificialheating6.

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Notes 5 Thermal Mass www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/main.asp?page=113 viewed 26 March 20106 Ibid

Building Density Thermal Specific heat Effective material (kg/m3) conductivity capacity thermal (W/mK) (J/kg.K) mass

Timber 500 0.13 1600 Low

Steel 7800 50 450 Low

Lightweight 1400 0.57 1000 Medium-high aggregate block

Precast and 2300 1.75 1000 Highin situ concrete

Brick 1750 0.77 1000 High

Sandstone 2300 1.8 1000 High

Source: Concrete Centre – Thermal Mass Explained

Figure 10 Thermal properties of common construction materials

Thermal Mass

Summer Sun

Winter Sun

Figure 11 Solar Access

Kew House Photograph Peter Bennetts

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Thermo House, Victoria

Case Study: Thermo House, Victoria.

An example of a low energy building isThermo House, Toorak, Victoria.

The predominantly concrete Thermo Houseis a three-level residence that showcasesthe benefits of high thermal mass. Thearchitects have achieved a feeling oflightness with heavyweight materialsthrough careful management ofproportioning and finishing of the buildingenvelope.

The principal concrete structural elementsare Thermomass, insulated concretesandwich panel walls, and Hollowcore,precast concrete planks for floor and roofslabs.

The home provides a high comfort level,requiring minimal heating and no cooling,except during extreme climatic conditions,due to the temperature lag of the system,and the ability of the exposed internal massto absorb and release excess energy asrequired.

This project exemplifies the potential forlow energy designs and the significantoperational cost savings that can beachieved through harnessing the thermalproperties of solid concrete construction.

The inherent qualities and unrivalled benefitsof concrete make it an ideal choice forsustainable housing and other buildings.

Sustainable developments have been definedas:

Places where people want to live andwork, now and in the future. They meetthe diverse needs of existing and futureresidents, are sensitive to theirenvironment and contribute to a highquality of life. They are safe and inclusive,well planned, built and run and offerequality of opportunity and good servicesfor all7.

Concrete contributes to sustainable living ona number of levels.

Indoor air quality and safe living

Increasingly, exposed concrete finishes are adesign feature of modern dwellings – thickwalls, floors and, in more recent times,furniture.

The beauty of concrete in these applicationsis that it not only looks good, but it is inertand non-toxic. Its chemical composition isvoid of known carcinogens, such as volatileorganic compounds and formaldehyde. Itsuse can therefore contribute to a healthierindoor air quality, as well as help to reducethe incidence of sick-building syndrome8.

Dematerialisation

The term ‘dematerialisation’ describes theprocess of using fewer materials to maintain

or improve a product or service – essentially‘doing more with less’. Because it cansimultaneously satisfy both structural andaesthetic needs off-form concrete makes aconsiderable contribution todematerialisation. For example, a polishedconcrete floor negates the need for carpetsor floating timber flooring; an off-form wallcan ‘stand alone’ as a design feature withoutthe need for painting.

Thermal mass

The thermal mass of concrete can beharnessed in design to contribute to theenergy efficiency of a building, both inresidential and commercial construction (seePassive Solar Design and Thermal Masspage 9.)

Acoustics

Apart from delivering thermal benefits, the‘mass’ of concrete also acts to reduce thetransmission of sound – be it sourced fromneighbours, traffic, nature or plant andequipment. Innovative composite systems,combining the performance of concrete withother materials, can economically achievelevels of sound insulation performance farexceeding expectations.

Vibration

When designed and detailed in accordancewith well established principles, concretewalls and floors are particularly good atresisting vibration.

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Notes 7 Maliene V, Howe J and Malys N (2008). ’Sustainable communities: affordable housing and socio-economic relations’ Local Economy 23 (4) pp 267–276. McDonald S, Malys N and Maliene V (2009). ’Urban regeneration for sustainable communities: a case study’ Technologic and Economic Development of Economy 15 (1) pp 49–59. 8 Social Credentials, Sustainable Concrete, <http://www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk/main.asp?page=94> viewed 26 March 2010

CONCRETE, SUSTAINABILITY AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Sea Cliff Bridge, NSW

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Notes 9 AS 1530.4-2005 Methods for fire tests on building materials, components and structures Part 4: Fire-resistance test of elements of construction 10 The Fire Resistance of Concrete Concrete Construction, Dec 2004, Bernard Erlin, William Hime http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mONSX/is_12_49/ai_n8590878/, viewed 26 March 2010 11 Concrete and Sustainability: An Introduction Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia n.d.12 Building in bushfire-prone sites, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2005

Fire resistance

Concrete structures provide excellentstructural adequacy, integrity and insulationwhen subjected to fire. When designedappropriately, concrete structures canprovide fire resistance well in excess of therequired Fire Resistance Levels (FRLs)specified in the Building Code of Australiaand AS 1530.49.

Bushfire resistance

Bushfires are the most common anddevastating natural disasters in Australia,resulting in loss of life and property. Houseson bushland fringes of urban areas, orindividual rural dwellings, face the greatestpotential exposure to bushfire. However,houses more than a kilometre away can bethreatened by wind-borne burning debris.

Concrete both insulates and resists structuraldeformation and failure when exposed tobushfire. Even at high temperatures, it doesnot fail dramatically. Its unique thermalproperties protect reinforcing steel andprestressing steel10. Concrete, unlike manycomposite manufactured building products,does not emit toxic fumes when subjected tohigh/extreme temperatures11.

Designers can be confident that concretebuildings will meet the bushfire requirementsof the Building Code of Australia and AS3959, the Australian Standard for building inbushfire-prone areas12.

National Portrait Gallery, Canberra

Durability

Concrete is a byword for durability. It has aninnate ability to withstand expected wear anddeterioration throughout its intended life, withonly minimal maintenance13.

The longer a product lasts and the lessmaintenance it requires, the more economicalit is and the lower its impact on theenvironment. Concrete is such a product. Itsuse helps conserve resources and reduce

waste otherwise associated with repair andreplacement. In fact, most concrete buildingscan last 100 years or more. When they aredemolished it is more likely to be because ofobsolescence rather than deterioration14.Even this can be avoided if structures arestrategically designed at the outset toaccommodate future possible uses.

High Compressive Strength

Concrete is characterised by highcompressive strength, which allows its use asa self-supporting system in domed or archedconstruction.

This characteristic was exploited by theRomans; and best illustrated in theconstruction of the Pantheon (c. 124 AD)featuring a hemispherical dome or cupola,which is predominantly insitu concrete,

spanning 42 metres. This remains aformidable achievement, given that it stillstands today. Along with other Romanlandmarks of antiquity, it lends a persuasiveargument to the life cycle performance ofconcrete construction.

In Australia, the reinforced concrete dome ofthe Melbourne Public (now State) Library(1908-13), spanning 34.8 metres (byarchitects Bates, Peebles and Smart withinitial concrete design by John Monash) wasan unparalleled engineering feat, and thelargest reinforced concrete dome in the worldat the time16.

Termite-proof

The results of a number of studies conductedover the years all validate the deemed-to-satisfy condition in AS 3660.1, that is,

concrete slabs designed and constructed inaccordance with AS 2870 or AS 3600 canbe used as a termite barrier.

Design flexibility

The plasticity of concrete in its ‘wet’ stateprovides scope to mould and sculpt virtuallyany built form imaginable. This affordsarchitects and designers enormous creativelatitude in the design process.

This applies not just to form, but to finish.The introduction of colour additives anddifferent sized, shaped and colouredaggregates allows for the creation of uniqueconcrete mixes. The various finishingtechniques, from trowelling and stainingthrough to sandblasting and polishing, add tothe range of possible finishes.

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Notes 13 AS 3600 Concrete Structures Standards Australia, as cited in Durable Concrete Structures TN57, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia.14 Concrete stands up to natural forces, Portland Cement Association, n.d. <http://www.cement.org/newsroom/Greenbuild_2007/Durable.htm>, viewed 26 March 201015 Mora, E. Life Cycle, Sustainability and the Transcendent Quality of Building Materials, Science Direct, Building and Environment, 200516 Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia Concrete and Sustainability: An Introduction n.d.

The population challenge

The world population isexpected to increase by almost2 billion between 2000 and203015, placing huge demandson the natural environment. Inthe context of increasedconstruction activity, thedurability of concrete will beever more important to ensurethe overall impact on our naturalresources is minimised.

The Roman Pantheon 125 AD – a true testament to concrete’s enduring qualities

Case Study – High-rise addition

Condor Tower, a 29-level residential high-rise building in Perth’s CBD, is a goodexample of sustainable building practice inaction. It has quite literally ‘grown off theback’ of an existing10-storey officecomplex, with the old building structure re-used and incorporated into the newbuilding design.

In effect, the old structure has beenrecycled into something economically andsocially viable. At the same time, theproject clearly demonstrates the cost-efficiency, speed and versatility of concretein projects such as this.

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Notes 17 Rollo, J. Concrete Poetry, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2004

A magic is released that spiralsand soars and fliesbreathtakingly through the airon eggshell like surfaces.Lamellas, vaults, petals, flutes,drapes, hyperboloids, lendshape to signature names likeCandela, Saarinen, Nervi,Utzon; the, mystery ofRonchamp by Le Corbusier, thecantilevers of Fallingwater byFrank Lloyd Wright, probingspace in new ways. The rangeis extreme; the tallest buildingsneed concrete cores, minimumstorey heights are won withbeamless flat slabs. Foldedplates or a warp of any kindbuilds more readily in theplastic medium17.

Sydney Opera House Photograph Max Dupain

Autobus Station – Casar de Cáceres, SpainPhotograph Hisao Suzuki

Commercial and multi-rise solutions

The Australian commercial constructionindustry leads the world in concrete- frameda construction, design and technologies.

The economies and efficiencies derived fromthis innovation flow on in the delivery ofaffordable, high-rise residential buildings, aswell as non-residential buildings that supportbusiness and the economy, as well as vitalsocial services in education, health, roadsand railways, defence, and recreation andentertainment.

Multi-rise buildings in Australia arepredominantly concrete-framed structures18

with landmark projects such as Melbourne’sEureka Tower and Q1 in Surfers Paradiseranking among the tallest reinforced concretebuildings in the world.

Concrete-framed constructions haveconsistently delivered low cost, low risk, highspeed and high quality medium- and high-rise building solutions, in a highly competitivemarket. Indeed, a recent independent costingstudy by WT Partnership confirmed concreteconstruction’s competitive edge in Australiaover other systems Figure 12.

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Notes 18 Mills, A. Cost Performance of Multi-rise structures in Australia, The Building Economist, 2009

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30-storey high-rise building All cities, one grid

Grid size 16.80 x 7.20 m$/

m2

of s

uspe

nded

sla

b

RC frame; conventional soffit formwork

RC columns; PT floors; conventional soffit formwork

Steel frame; RC toppings on metal soffit formwork

Well designed concretestructures contribute toeconomic growth,environmental protection andsocietal well-being.

Figure 12 Comparative costs of high-rise construction systems

Q1 (meaning Queensland Number One) is a super-tallskyscraper located in Surfers Paradise, on the Gold Coast,the world’s tallest residential tower, and the tallest buildingin the Southern Hemisphere

< Melbourne’s Eureka Tower, a 300-m-high 92-storeytower, was the world’s tallest apartment tower at the timeof construction. In one lift concrete was pumped to the fullheight of the tower

Deutsche Bank Building in Sydney – concrete delivered alower risk, faster construction cycle, resulting in cost savings >

17

Case Study

A concrete-framed construction solution,chosen for its cost and time efficienciesand low risk, helped to deliver Australia’slargest office building, the ANZ Centre in Melbourne.

ANZ wanted an environmentallyresponsible building, in line with itsprogressive culture and values. BuilderBovis Lend Lease met these criteriathrough a range of innovative measures,including the provision of natural lighting tofloors via a central full-height atrium,displacement air handling, passive exteriorshading, water and waste management,and wind and solar energy collection.Concrete’s inherent thermal mass was alsoan important part of the ecollogicallysustainable development solution. >

Residential solutions

Apart from dominating the commercialconstruction scene, concrete also plays afundamental role in delivering residentialbuilding solutions.

BIS Shrapnel, one of Australia’s leadingproviders of industry research, analysis andforecasting services, has confirmedconcrete’s dominance of flooring market(77%) and (market paving-87%), and agrowing share of the external walling market(11.1%).

Although one of the oldest and most popularconstruction materials, concrete continues tooffer up new and innovative solutions.Concrete wall panel technology, widely usedin the civil, commercial, industrial andresidential apartment sectors for decades, isincreasingly being adopted in the housing

industry.

In particular, concrete panels have found aniche on narrow inner-urban sites and inarchitecturally distinctive homes. Since 2001,the use of precast concrete wall panels inAustralian residential construction has morethan tripled19 underscoring the market’sincreasingly positive predisposition towardsan integrated sustainable concrete solutionfor housing.

Infrastructure solutions

Concrete is used prolifically in vitalinfrastructure such as wharves, dams,bridges, buildings, warehouses, roads,airports, water and sewerage lines, andprocessing plants. Without concrete, efficientand affordable infrastructure to servicesociety would not exist.

At the same time concrete has beensuccessfully integrated into our urbanlandscape, enhancing the liveability of ourcities and towns. Virtually any public space,parkland or streetscape features concrete insome form – pathways, stairways, seating,retaining walls, public artworks. Thesevarious forms take advantage of concrete’sinnate ability to deliver solutions that are atthe same time functional and aestheticallypleasing.

Many of these unique and beautifullandscape solutions are celebrated in thebiennial CCAA Public Domain Awards.

It is critical that building materials/systemsused in infrastructure projects are durableand, in particular, resistant to corrosion,insect attack, abrasion, collision, impact,explosion, vandalism, flooding, drought, lowand high temperature extremes, wind, fire,earthquake and salt, acid and chemicalattack. In addition, the material must be inabundant supply, readily available andaffordable.

Concrete clearly satisfies these performancecriteria.

18

Notes 19 Building Materials and Fittings in Australia - External Wall Cladding, BIS Shrapnel, 2000/01 and 2008/09

Kew House Photograph Peter Bennetts

Case Study

< Concrete was central to thesustainability solution chosen toreinvigorate the main courtyard at Sydney’sMacquarie University.The Courtyard features a pavement ofpermeable concrete unit pavers. Thisprovides not only a durable and easilymaintained surface, but also helps sustainthe established urban forest.This project won the 2009 CCAA PublicDomain Award for Sustainability.

19

Roxburgh Park Railway Station, in Victoria, demonstrateshow concrete, as a robust material, can achieveexperiential interest as well as longevity.

The heavy construction materials industry hasmade great progress in terms of sustainableproduction practices.

Extractive Resources

Extracted resources – commonly known asaggregates – include sand, gravel and rock.Aggregates are an essential ingredient inconcrete and therefore critical to the buildingand construction industry, and to the healthof the broader economy.

As with all production processes, there is anenvironmental cost to the extraction andsupply of these resources. The quarryingindustry understands this and is working hardto reduce the impact of its processes –through its own initiatives and in co-operationand consultation with relevant governmentagencies.

The industry is committed to continuousimprovement in water conservation, wasteand resource management, recycling and re-use, land protection, remediation andrehabilitation, environment and ecosystemprotection and community engagement.

With a structured, long-term approach to theplanning and development of quarrying sitesand the land that surrounds them, quarryingsuccessfully co-exists with other land uses,both during and after the economic life of theoperations.

Recycling

All three industry sectors – extractive, cementand concrete – are committed to recyclinginitiatives aimed at reducing their usage ofnatural resources.

Water recycling

With growing pressure on potable watersupplies around Australia, the concreteindustry is taking action to source suitablealternative supplies. For example, concreteproducers are making more use of recycledwash water and slurry from the concreteproduction operation itself. The South EastQueensland concrete industry achieved a 7%reduction in town water use between 2004and 2007.

The cement and quarrying industries are alsoplaying their part by decreasing their mainswater consumption, through the use of on-site captured water, improved storagefacilities and technological solutions.

SUSTAINABILITY IN PRACTICE: WHATTHE INDUSTRY IS DOING UPSTREAM

20

Notes

Case Study

Remediation on the Nepean

Among the best examples of quarrying siteremediation is the award-winning PenrithLakes Scheme. Covering an area of 2000hectares, the Penrith Lakes Scheme is theresult of three quarrying companies Boral,Holcim and Hanson coming together in1979 to achieve the coordinated extractionand rehabilitation of the flood plain north ofPenrith.

The site has supplied nearly 75% ofSydney’s sand and gravel requirements,provided 450 jobs and injected over $50million annually into the local economy.Quarry operations were expected to ceasein 2010.

While the Olympic rowing and white-water-rafting venues at Penrith are the bestknown examples of rehabilitation on thesite to date, other significant achievementsinclude the planting of more than 40000native trees, the successful introduction ofnative fish, the restoration of heritagebuildings, and the construction of anenvironmental education centre and anAboriginal cultural centre.

Eventually the site will provide 400 hectaresof residential/commercial development, 900hectares of open space and 700 hectaresof lakes. This includes five majorrecreational lakes and a series of smallerlakes covering an area of about one thirdthe size of Sydney Harbour, offeringswimming, boating and other water sports,as well as 55 km of foreshore and 11 kmof walking tracks along the Nepean River.

Manufactured sand

Manufactured sand can be produced as adedicated product, or as a by-product of theaggregate crushing process. This approachhas been steadily growing over recent years,particularly along the eastern seaboard ofAustralia. As a supplement to natural sand,its use helps prolong the life of our naturalsand stocks. At the same time, it is arecycling success story.

Recyclable concrete

While there is plenty of evidence of theindustry’s commitment to recycling in theproduction process, arguably its greatestsuccess story is the end product itself. In the

past, concrete from demolished buildingsand infrastructure was crushed and dumpedas landfill. ‘Old’ concrete is now reused in avariety of products and applications – as the‘aggregate’ for new concrete, as road basefor highways and roads, and otherapplications20.

Cement Manufacture

Reductions in greenhouse gases

Cement is a major constituent of concrete;and the cement manufacturing industry hascontributed to the sustainability of concrete ina number of key areas.

Clinker production in cement manufacturingcontributes around 1.2% to Australia’scarbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, with fifty percent of this amount being attributed to thecalcination process 21

Between 1991 and 2009 the cement industryvoluntarily reduced its CO2 emissions bymore than 23%22, equivalent to almost 1.5million tonnes of CO2 per annum, as part ofthe Australian Government’s GreenhouseChallenge. This result was achieved by theadoption of advanced technologies, the useof alternative fuels and raw materials, and astrong commitment to the principles ofsustainability.

Technology

The Australian cement industry has investedover one billion dollars in technologyimprovements in the last 15 years. This hasresulted in reduced emissions, improvedmanufacturing efficiency and better productinto the marketplace. Notwithstanding theconsiderable investment to date, the industryhas identified opportunities for furthertechnical improvements, with the aim ofreducing manufacturing costs, reducingenergy consumption (and greenhouse gasemissions), increasing the use of alternativefuels and cement additives, and creatingcommercial opportunities for by-products ofthe manufacturing process.

2121

Notes 20 CSIRO, http://www.csiro.au/promos/ozadvances/Series8ConcreteL.htm viewed March 20, 201021 Huntzinger, D. and Eatmon, T.2009 A life-cycle assessment of Portland cement manufacturing, Journal of Cleaner Production22 Cement Industry Federation, Australian Cement Industry Statistics 2009

Brisbane, Queensland Riverside Park, Brisbane, Queensland

Energy efficiency

Cement production is an energy intensivemanufacturing process. Fossil fuels (typicallynatural gas or coal) are used to fire themassive kilns that produce clinker, whileelectrical energy is consumed in powering thekiln and grinding the materials.

In recent years the industry has made greatinroads in reducing consumption of fossilfuels via the use of alternative fuels.Examples of alternative fuels that can beused to fire cement kilns include old tyres,demolition timber, tallow, carbon or anodefines, spent cell liners, waste oil, coke breeze,blended solvents and sewer sludge. Most ofthese products would otherwise end up aslandfill or require expensive processing andstorage.

Since 1991 kiln fuel efficiency has improvedby 32%23. These improvements in energyefficiency have contributed to the 23%reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from1991 to 2009.

Clinker re duction

There are two main types of alternativematerials used to supplement clinker -mineral additions and supplementarycementitious materials (SCMs).

Minerals such as ground limestone can beadded in small amounts at the finalgrinding stage of cement manufacturing.

Supplementary cementitious materialsinclude fly ash (from coal-burning powerstations), ground granulated blast-furnaceslag (from the steel industry) andamoprphous silica (eg silica fume). Theseare added to cement either throughintergrinding with cement clinker or byblending with cement after grinding.Alternatively, they can be added duringconcrete batching to supplement thecement.

By using these alternatives and reducing theamount of clinker produced, savings areachieved in raw materials, electricity, fuel, andemissions24.

22

Notes 23, 24, 25 & 26 Cement Industry Federation, Australian Cement Industry Statistics 2009

11

109876

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

23% reduction in CO2 emissions per tonne of production since 1991.

Million tonnes of cementitious material sold

Tonnes CO2 emissions per tonne of material

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

Extenders solddirect to market

Limestone used incement production

Slag used incement production

Fly ash used incement production

Figure 13 Cementitious material sales and CO2 emissions25

Figure 14 Cement extenders used in cement production and sold for concrete production (million tonnes)26

23

Notes 27 Australian Cement Industry Federation, Managing our Resources – use of alternative fuels at Blue Circle Southern Cement

7%

6%

5%

4%

3%

2%

1%

0%

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

Figure 15 Alternative fuel use as a percentage of total thermal energy use

Adelaide, South Australia

Case Study

Alternative Fuel – Used Tyres

Alternative fuels are energy rich materials,such as used tyres, used oil and wastecarbon, which can replace gas as a sourceof thermal energy in the cementmanufacturing process.

Trials conducted have shown in thecontrolled conditions of a kiln, tyres werefound to perform similarly to coal and that afuel substitution rate of between 20 and 25

per cent could be achieved without anyadverse impact on the process, product orenvironment.

The energy in these alternative fuels wouldotherwise be lost if these tyres werelandfilled or incinerated. The environmentalbenefits of using alternative fuels such astyres is two-fold: non-renewable energyresources are conserved through lowerfossil fuel use, and waste disposal problemsare alleviated27.

Environmental ManagementSystems

Increasingly environmental managementsystems are being adopted across thecement, concrete and aggregate industriesimproving both management of, andresponse to, environmental impacts.

Managing local impacts

Just as it is important that the industries takeactive measures to improve theirenvironmental performance, it is also criticalto build strong, transparent relationships withlocal communities. Investment in newtechnology and environmental monitoring,combined with active communityparticipation, are essential to buildingrelationships. Receiving and investigating acommunity report on impacts is important forany site in its effort to construct and maintainits relationship with that community.

Cement manufacturers have regular contactwith their communities through various publicforums such as meetings, open days andnewsletters. Environmental improvementplans registered by state environmentalauthorities also offer opportunities forinterested stakeholders to participate andmonitor site improvements. As part of itslocal community, the industries also look foropportunities to celebrate events bysupporting local initiatives and celebratingtheir own milestones.

24

Sound Barriers Eastern Freeway Extension, MelbournePhotograph Tim Griffith

The Industries’ initiatives include:

Preservation and restoration of atraditional resting place of the localWatherong people in Waurn Ponds, Vic

Agricultural education project, Gladstone,Qld

Sponsorship of Conservation VolunteersAustralia and support of the BushcareGroup at Berrima, NSW.

Rehabilitation of Darra cement works siteto build the community Riverside Park inBrisbane, Qld

Funding world first research in deep waterseagrass rehabilitation at CockburnSound, WA

Seed collection for propagation in otherlocal areas from remnant vegetationlocated in a quarry at Angaston, SA.

Planting of over 100,000 native trees andestablishment of koala fodder plantation,Petrie

Development of Olympic rowing andwhitewater rafting venues, Penrith

Planting of more than 40,000 native trees,the successful introduction of native fish,the restoration of heritage buildings, andthe construction of an environmentaleducation centre and an Aboriginalcultural centre, Penrith

Industry sponsorship of Health WaterwaysAwards programs

Recognising outstanding examples of theprinciples of sustainability in landscapearchitecture design and construction inthe Sustainability category of the CCAAPublic Domain Awards

Recognising companies that demonstratethe highest standards of continualimprovement and long-term environmentalsustainability in their local operations in theCCAA Environmental Awards

25

Perth, Western Australia

Case Study

Engaging with the community

Queensland’s extractive industry has takena positive step to improving relationshipswith local communities with the launch of aCommunity Engagement Charter.

The initiative, developed through CCAA,pledges members to work closely andopenly with the communities in which theyoperate. The Charter sets out guidelines forindustry members to follow to ensure theircommunities are informed and involved. Italso provides a mechanism for communitygroups to raise issues of concern inrelation to the ongoing operation and futuredevelopment of extractive sites.

The Community Engagement Charter is allabout ensuring the extractive industrycontinues to supply Queensland with theconstruction materials it needs, in balancewith the community’s social andenvironmental values.

26

Hobart, Tasmania

Beacon Foundation’s Something Concrete project Kununurra, Western Australia

Case Study

Something Concrete for Kununurraindigenous community

A project to provide employmentopportunities in the construction industry forindigenous Australians living in the remoteEast Kimberley region of WA is a greatexample of sustainability in practice.

The Something Concrete project engages allthree parts of the sustainable developmentmodel – social, environmental andeconomic. The project is the initiative of theBeacon Foundation, a not-for-profitorganisation that helps set up sustainableprojects and programmes to tackle youthunemployment and encourage self-help atthe local level.

Beacon’s catchcry is ‘real jobs, no dole’.

Working with the local indigenouscommunity in Kununurra and the concreteindustry, Beacon has so far helped createtraining and employment opportunities forabout 30 locals. The original intake oftrainees cut their teeth on tilt-up concretepanel construction of four local homes.Subsequently, a small precast factory wasestablished in Kununurra to create further,on-going training opportunities. Trainees inthis facility have developed a range of

standard precast panels that can beadopted for a wide range of house designs.

Although external funding to build morehouses has so far not been forthcoming, theproject team is focusing on opportunities tosupply precast components for major localinfrastructure projects. In the meantime,many of the original trainees have used theirskills and experience to find localconstruction jobs.

The project has created wins on all fronts –in the use of environmentally friendlyconcrete technology for local houses, in thecreation of local training and employmentopportunities, and in the social andeconomic improvements that flow throughto the community.

The health and safety of workers is ofparamount concern to the cement, concreteand aggregate industries.

Across these industries many initiatives havebeen developed to improve safetyperformance. At an industry level, the CCAAEnvironment Health and Safety awardsreward and encourage best practice in theareas of environment and occupational healthand safety in the pre-mixed concrete andquarrying industries. Others include a rangeof safety brochures couched under theSafety – its No Accident banner, and ongoinginitiatives and guidelines addressing fatiguemanagement, safe site delivery, loading andunloading of cement tankers and workingsafely with concrete.

At an organisational level, programmes suchas health and safety management systemsand other initiatives encompassing policies,education, training and audits are allexamples of initiatives designed to provide asafe and healthy working environment

At a plant level, policies such as Zero Harm28

and A Decade of Learning29 have broughtabout significant and meaningful culturalchange aimed at reducing injury frequencyand promoting a healthy workplaceenvironment.

A SAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT

27

Notes 28 Hanson Quarries, Eastern Region29 Boral Emu Plains

The cement, concrete and aggregateindustries are enjoying great success inreducing energy, greenhouse gas emissionsand water use.

Concrete is fire-and termite-resistant, floodresilient, robust and strong; manufacturedfrom abundant, naturally-occurring andreadily-available materials. It is durable andlong lasting, without the release of toxicemissions. It is fire resisting and soundattenuating. Concrete can be formed into aninfinite number of shapes and can be used toconstruct an unlimited array of buildings witha multiplicity of attractive finishes.

Above all, concrete enhances our socialfabric, is environmentally beneficial, and it iseconomical. Concrete really is the foundationupon which our modern societies andeconomies are built – Concrete is theresponsible choice.

CONCRETE – THE RESPONSIBLE CHOICE

28

Melbourne University CarparkPhotograph John Gollings

29

Anzac Bridge, Sydney Photograph David Moore

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Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia(CCAA) is the peak body representing the $7billion a year cement, concrete andaggregate industries.

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