conflict crisis and change (china)

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Section C: Conflict, Crisis and Change (China | 1934 to 1989) a) Background b) The triumph of Mao and the CCP c) China under Communist rule d) The impact of the Cultural Revolution e) Change under Deng Xiaoping

BACKGROUND China, as a country, has a long and very illustrious history. To further understand this unit, candidates should have some background knowledge of events leading up to Communist China. Manchu Dynasty (Before 1911) China ruled by Qing family who originally came from Manchuria

Ruled for over 2000 years – during time China one of most advanced civilizations in world 1900 Chinese empire grown weak from foreign (European) influence:

European countries in nineteenth century gained great influence in affairs by using force against China

1839 to 1842 British fought Opium War against China to force continued buying of drug form India

1860 second Opium War and Anglo-French army attacked Beijing and burned down government buildings

1894 to 1895 Japanese took away Korea, Formosa (Taiwan) and Port Arthur (Lushun)

After war, invading country force China to sign unequal treaties which gave control of sea-ports and trading privileges

By end of 1900, 50 ports were treaty ports – open to foreign trade and residence

European powers divided China up into spheres of influence – more people working, control of government

Europeans very unpopular – Chinese blamed Manchus for allowing China to be over-run by Europeans

1850 Taiping Rebellion – lasted for fourteen years, worst in China long history o 1850 to 1864 vast areas of fertile land laid waste, 600 cities ruined, 20 million people killed o Manchus put down rebellion with European help and made even more unpopular

1898 many reforms put in place by Emperor Guangxu who tried to strengthen China by modernizing it:

Three month period known as Hundred Days of Reform o Introduced new schools, colleges and examination system o Improved government budget and dismissed corrupt officials from court

Guangxu’s aunt, Empress Dowager Cixi, opposed changes – helped by conservative court officials

Had Emperor imprisoned and forced him to grant her power to rule China Many Chinese blame Manchus for allowing China to be run over by foreign influence (resentment):

1850 to 1864 Taiping Rebellion against Manchus

1900 discontent boiled up into rebellion – The Boxer Rebellion organized by movement called Yi-Ho Tuan

Hated foreigners and Christians (especially Chinese converts – foreign devils)

Empress Dowager Cixi won support and backed up with army against European nationals

Killed many foreigners and Christians – six nation European force invaded in retaliation and captured, looted Beijing

Forced to pay £67 million fine and showed how weak Manchus were

Empress Dowager Cixi realized changes necessary but too little and too late to save Manchu dynasty Revolution of 1911 Enemies of Manchu dynasty in 1900 had handsome 34 year old doctor, Sun Yatsen, as leader:

Christian, educated in American schools, Hawaii, and British college, Hong Kong

Thought China backwards and weak – only hope forming republic along modern Western lines

Founded several secret societies o 1894 to 1905 led Revive China Society o 1905 founded Tongmenghui

Announced three aims in 1898 – eliminate Manchus, eliminate monarchy, open road to socialism In 1908, 73 year old Empress Dowager Cixi died:

Successor 2 year old nephew, Puyi – Regent, Prince Chun, ruled and sided with conservatives o Dismissed important officials such as chief military commander Yuan Shikai

China entered period of economic failure – many people discontent, taxes rose, harvest failed

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1911 Wuchang Rebellion against government began in Sichuan:

Police fired on crowd of demonstrators, killing many

Agents of Sun Yatsen’s Tongmenghui immediately went to Sichuan to spread rebellion

October 10 soldiers of New Army in base at Wuchang joined rising o Rebellion quickly spread throughout central and southern China – became full scale revolution

18 province joined revolution by November 15

Government tried to call Yuan Shikai out of retirement to help but he made deal with rebels and turned against Prince Chun – would take office as President of Republic

With military superiority, Yuan convinced assembly in Nanjing to elect him President instead of Sun in February 1912 Warlord China (1912 to 1927) As Yuan Shikai took up Presidency, constitutional republic set up:

Elections for National Assembly held in 1913 – Most seats won by Guomindang (Sun Yatsen’s party)

Yuan Shikai didn’t like so started ignoring Assembly’s decisions – clearly intended to govern as dictator

1914 dissolved National Assembly – made himself President with support of major European powers

End of 1914, 12 out of 18 provinces under control – military governors in provinces made sure stay loyal

1915 confident to make himself Emperor – three groups opposed plan to become Emperor o Sun Yatsen’s new party – Guomindang wanted democratic government o Generals in Yuan’s army – feared to lose authority o Japanese government – planned to bring large areas of China under control

1915 Japanese country presented Yuan with Twenty-One Demands and Yuan accepted many of them making him unpopular – control of factories, railways and ports and threatening war if demands refused

Christmas Day 1915, army revolted against him

Yuan Shikai died June 1916 of stroke – some say of broken heart After Yuan Shikai’s death, government collapsed into many different factions:

1916 to 1927 government only controlled small area around Beijing – Sun Yatsen set up rival government in Guangzhou

Generals and military governors set up own governments and used armies to enforce authority (warlords)

Warlords fought for control of land, not interested in helping people under rule o Imposed high taxes, enlisted peasants and governed with great severity

The New Revolutionaries (1916 to 1927) The May Fourth Movement spread across the country, protesting against unfair treaties in Paris Peace Conference:

Started 3 Nat 1919 with strikes, demonstrations and boycotts

Kept China in state of unrest – wanted to get rid of old-fashioned ideas and introduce modern ideas of freedom, equal rights and scientific progress

Two distinct parties emerged and developed during this period – Communists and Guomindang:

Chinese Communist Party founded in 1921 by library assistant Mao Zedong o Movement begun by Karl Marx – aimed to create classless society where property commonly owned

1922 in Guangzhou, Sun Yatsen reorganized party along Russian Communist lines with help of Abram Joffe (diplomat)

1924 announced Three Principles – national freedom, democratic government and people’s livelihood o Aimed to unite China under his leadership and make into republic free from foreign interference

CCP and GMD worked together – though aims different both wanted revolution o Joint membership introduced

1923 Russian government sent two more agents (Michael Borodin and General Galen) to help Sun in improving GMD o Became mass party, run with strict discipline – individual members show total obedience to party decisions

Sold Sun Russian weaponry and set up military academy (Huangpu) in which Chiang Kaishek, brother-in-law, in charge March 1925, Sun Yatsen died of cancer and GMD leaders argued about who should take place:

Chiang Kaishek became Commander-in-Chief of new GMD army o Military academy turned out 500 trained officers – began enormous task of conquering and unifying China

July 1926 Chiang Kaishek began March to the North at head of GMD – wanted to conquer and unify China

Sent political agents to whip up support among civilians promising national revolution and new order o Many sick of warlords supported him

Little fighting and in some cases, warlords surrendered because armies mutinied and joined GMD

Poor peasants and workers welcomed Chiang’s armies – believed in better times ahead

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The Communist-Guomindang split:

Finished conquering all of southern China and extended influence north – alliance began breaking down

Guomindang armies approached Shanghai and prepared to attack it – workers rebelled against warlord (led by Communists under Zhou Enlai) and set up Communist council to run city

When Chiang Kaishek’s army arrived several days later, took over streets, rounded up Communists and killed them

Chiang’s men also crushed Communists in Guangzhou, executing hundreds of them in streets and forcing thousands more to flee for life – expelled from cities and retreated to countryside in Jianxi and Hunan provinces

GMD set up government in Nanjing and ready to conquer rest of China Conquest and Extermination (1928 to 1934) April 1928 leaders of GMD put Chiang Kaishek in command of second Northern Campaign:

Made alliances with two most powerful warlords (Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan) to try conquer Zhang Zuolin

Task made easier when bomb exploded on train taking Zhang Zuolin out of city, killing him o Successor as warlord of Manchuria, Zhang Xueliang, surrendered and recognized GMD as true government

China united and National Government set in place – gave power to rule to Council of State

Chairman of Council was Chiang Kaishek – in effect, ruler of China Chiag Kaishek had not by any means united China under rule:

Only managed conquer north with help of local warlords (Feng Yuexiang, Yan Xishan) – never fully accepted authority

1929 rebelled against Chiang – northern China suffered violent and bloody civil war for next two years

Even when Yan Xishan defeated, able to retreat to Shanxi province to set up government there

No real control – large gangs of bandits looted, kidnapped, stole and in general, terrorized whole districts o Very brutal with captives, few escaped alive after torture

Meanwhile, the CCP had set up a Jiangxi Soviet:

Communist controlled area – Mao Zedong political leader while Zhu De led armed forces

Within few years, gained support of many peasants through Land Law (1930) divided up all cultivated land among farming population – redistributed land (people never owning land found they were their own masters)

Reduced taxes on land, set up schools, abolished outmoded practices (arranged marriages), and created Peasant Councils to let communities have say in running own affairs

Red Army played large role – very polite and had rules of discipline to win support of peasants Chiang Kaishek regarded Jiangxi as greatest threat and organized series of extermination campaigns against Communists:

1930 to 1934 mounted 5 extermination campaigns – each one bigger than last

Although armies outnumbered Communists, first four total failure

Using Mao Zedong and Zhu De clever tactics, instead of fighting head on in pitched battles, they lured GMD armies deep into CCP-held territories and attacked unit separately, knocking out in deadly ambushes

Guerilla tactics had drawbacks – as Communist armies lured GMD inside, GMD able to capture many villages o Million peasants killed or starve to death has result

Mao’s tactics criticized – politically wrong but also cowardly

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THE TRIUMPH OF MAO AND THE CCP The Chinese Communist Party was set on the road to triumph when Chiang Kaishek began his extermination campaigns on the Jiangxi Soviet. The Long March (1934 to 1935) Autumn 1933 Chiang Kaishek launched fifth and biggest extermination campaign against Communists:

Used new method of attack worked out by military adviser from Germany (General Hans von Seeckt)

Instead invading Red areas and capture in battles, surround Soviet with half million troops and advanced slowly while building blockhouses (concrete shelters), digging trenches and putting up barbed wire fences

Aim to stop all movement in and out of Soviet – food, fuel, weapons, ammunition slowly reducing area controlled

Blockhouse strategy very successful – October 1934 Communists lost over half territory, 60,000 soldiers Communists, instead of fighting with guerilla tactics (Mao) adopted different tactics for the fifth campaign:

Suggested by Russian agent (Otto Braun) o Insisted Mao Zedong tactics politically wrong (army should not retreat and allow peasants to be killed) o Instead defend borders by fighting head-on battles with GMD

Backed with 24 Russian-trained leaders of Soviet Braun got way o Mao tactic abandoned and expelled from Party’s Central Committee

Under Braun leadership army defended territory in pitched battles at great cost o Battle of Guanchang (April 1934) Red Army lost 8000 men

Blockhouse rings cutting off rest of China could not easily replace men or weapons

Summer 1934 Red Army completely caged in Jiangxi – four lines of blockhouses

Mao suggested Red Army break through lines and attack GMD from rear

Russian leaders of Soviet ignored and rejected advice – planned retreat o Try break through blockhouse lines and head for Communist base on Hunan-Hubei border o Would replenish numbers with Second Army Group which was based there

16 October 1934, 87,000 soldiers of Red Army set out on retreat planned by Otto Braun:

Reds took all equipment of Jiangxi Soviet needed for setting up government in Hunan-Hubei o Office furniture, files, printing press, radio equipment, gold bars, telephone wire etc. o Took as much weaponry and ammunition as could carry – 33,000 guns, 1,800,000 cartridges, 76,000 grenades.

38 mortars and 25,000 mortar shells

Took army six weeks to break through blockhouse rings encircling Jiangxi

Had to fight major battle when reached Xiang River (25November to 3 December0

By end of battle army lost 45,000 men – half number set out from Jiangxi

Commanders blamed Braun for great losses – due partly to amount of equipment which slowed them down

Also leading army in straight line making GMD predict path and movements

9 January 1935 held meeting at Zunyi to work out better tactics

Zunyi Conference Otto Braun suspended and military control given back to Mao Zedong and Zhu De With Mao at lead the Long March began in earnest:

Led army in twisting turning directions and split and reformed – confuse GMD of path

South from Zunyi, swung round through remote Yunnan province and crossed wide River Yangzi into Sichuan

New destination Shaanxi province in northern China – Soviet had control of Yanan district

Faced many challenges and great obstacles as trekked north – carried out many daring acts

Crossing of Dadu River – 22 soldiers swung across river on chains (remnants of suspension bridge) under enemy fire o Heroic action made possible for rest of army to cross river

Snowy Mountains – highest in world, many froze to death

Grasslands – hundreds of men drowned in deep marshes

Continually harassed by GMD, warlords and hostile tribesmen (non-Chinese)

Came to end when Red Army reached Yanan in October 1935 o 9000 kilometers, 368 days of marching, 10,000 survived

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o Hunger, enemy attack, disease, exposure, accidents and desertion seen to rest

Arrival of Second and Fourth Front Armies (also undertaken own Long Marches) restored strength to 80,000 The Sino-Japanese War (1931 to 1945) Japanese have always fought wars to expand their land at the great cost of China’s:

1895 fought war in order to get Chinese land – Formosa (Taiwan) and Pescadores Islands to Japan o Allowed Korea (colonies) to gain independence

1904 to 1905 gained more land in China after fighting war with Russia for control of Manchuria and Korea o Already owned railways, ports and factories in countries o As result of winning war, gained control of Liaodong Peninsula and South Manchurian Railway

1910 troops moved into Korea and made Japanese colony

1914 to 1918 (World War 1) Japan grabbed lots of land from China o Entered on side of Western Allies and took control of German-held port at Kiaochow

1915 presented China with Twenty-One Demands – increase economic control of Manchuria Manchuria of great attraction to Japan – want above all others:

1927 Japanese had strangle hold on economy – controlled most of mines, railways, factories and ports

Kept large army in Kwantung in southern Manchuria to protect investments

Had friendly agreement with warlord Zhang Zuolin – happy to let warlord rule because weakened central government o Weak Chinese government in Beijing suited interests nicely

1928 control threatened when Kaishek marched into Beijing to set up National Government o Zhang Zuolin agreed to recognize Chiang authority

Japanese feared Zhang and Chiang together strong enough to oppose domination of Manchuria o Assassinated Zhang by dynamiting private train

Expected son and successor Zhang Xueliang (high-living, gambling drug-addict) easy to control Great depression caused Japanese economy to fail in 1931:

USA shattered Japan’s trade, closed half factories and ruined millions of peasants

Government proved incapable of overcoming Depression – officers talked of foreign conquest as way out o New colonies, more to trade, more raw materials, more jobs

Where better to start than Manchuria – already had an army in place

18 September 1931 (The Manchurian Incident) against orders of government, Kwantung Army occupied town of Shenyang claiming Chinese soldiers tried to blow up Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railway north of town

o Began military take-over

Ignoring protests of League of Nations, 50,000 Japanese soldiers occupied rest of Manchuria

Zhang Xueliang (cured of addiction) proved effective military governor of Manchuria – wanted to fight invaders o Chiang Kaishek as head of National Government favored relying on LoN to stop invasion o Neither had strength to fight Japan he argued

LoN set up Commission of Inquiry to investigate invasion but did not take military action o While Commission travelling to China by sea, Japanese occupied rest of Manchuria

February 1932 renamed Manzhouguo and set ex-Emperor Puyi as figure-head on throne o Real rulers Japanese officers of Kwantung Army

Hunger for land not satisfied o 1933 occupied province of Rehe o 1934 continued to advance slowly southwards o End of 1936 occupied provinces of Chahaer and Suiyan as well as parts of Hebei and Shanxi o Demanded separation of northern China from south

Civilian and GMD reactions differed:

Chinese people already hate foreigners, wanted Chiang to drive out Japanese Kwantung Army

In Shanghai (busies trading port – handled most of Japan trade) boycotted Japanese goods

Chiang did not agree- believed national unit must be made before declaring war on Japan o Wiping out Communists and establish power over all of China

1935 CCP slogan was ‘Chinese do not fight Chinese’ and unlike the GMD focused on defending nation o March of 1934 to 1935 put in good position to fight war against Japan (north)

1936 Ignoring pleas for help, Chiang launched another extermination campaign o Called Zhang Xueliang (warlord of Manchuria) to attack Communist base in Yanan o North-Eastern Army ordered to wipe out Soviet using bomber aircraft, tanks, armored cars, and poison gas

Zhang troops mainly Manchurians who wanted to fight Japanese instead of attacking own countrymen

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o CCP made agreement to concentrate both energies on attacking Japanese o Chiang Kaishek discovered alliance and flew to Xian to persuade Zhang to renew extermination campaign

December 1936 (The Xian Incident) after arrival changed mind about united front – Zhang Xueliang took him prisoner

12 December 1936 early morning, 200 troops led by Captain Sun Mingzhiu stormed into hotel – Chiang managed to escape but was caught hiding among rocks on hillside behind hotel

Rebels kept Chiang Kaishek prisoner for next two weeks – during time held long discussions with representatives of GMD and Communist Party as well as Russian government

In end agreed to release Chiang – in return agreed to form United Front with Communists against Japan

Russia gave military aid and Chiang named Commander-in-Chief of all Chinese forces Not a moment too soon: Japanese decided to strike against China before it became too strong:

1937 without declaring war, began invasion of Chinese territory – aimed to conquer entire country

July 1937 provoked local Chinese troops on Marco Polo Bridge outside Beijing o Claimed Chinese had fired on them and attacked army bases then occupied city itself

Attack on Beijing carefully prepared and quickly followed by full-scale invasion of China o Swept southwards, pushing back GMD armies everywhere went

November 1937 after 3 month siege and heavy aerial bombing, Shanghai captured (most important port)

December 1937 advanced up Yangzi River where they captured Nanjing (capital) – forced Chiang retreat to Chongqing o Horrible atrocities committed (Rape of Nanjing – one of most shocking incidents in modern history) – officers

allowed army to ransack city, murdering tens of thousands (250,000) o Sensitive issue between countries, commanders executed as war criminals – bayoneting, raping, killing of

babies, 300 people lined up killed with machine gun

1938 one million Japanese troops in China – they may be short but they are many

Control of all main cities and lines of communication around mouth of Yangzi River o Most fertile and densely-populated area

Continued to capture Wuhan and Guangzhou as well as occupied island of Hainan

Next five years not much conquest – did not have enough manpower to occupy whole country o Even areas occupied never had total control – as went south from Manchuria left many unguarded o Chinese able to move back into areas and take control of countryside (CCP liberation areas)

1938 to 1944 focused on occupying large cities, important railways, airfields, ports and roads o Countryside stayed in Chinese hands

Concentrated on destroying Chiang’s wartime government in Chongqing (Sichuan province) o Bombed so hard became known as most bombarded city in world

Tide turned when Americans became involved in the war:

1941 had more than 2 million soldiers in China – more than half of entire army

December 1941 bombed naval base Pearl Harbor (Pacific Ocean) and America declared war on Japan

Immediate result was arrival of American supplies along Burma Road o Airfields built in south-east China for American bombers to smash Japan sea trade and cut of imports

April 1944 Japanese launched major new offensive in south-east China – aim to destroy US airfields o Advanced south from Wuhan, captured city of Changsha, and by end of year occupied south-east China o Chiang Kaishek had no access to coast – however, highest point of expansion (declined afterwards)

Pacific Ocean and Burma, troops forced to retreat early in 1945

Summer 1945 war came to end o 6 August Americans used atomic bomb to destroy Hiroshima – city not flattened by bombing raids o 8 August Russian Red Army finally declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria o 9 August second atomic bomb on city of Nagasaki persuaded government to capitulate

Surrender of million Japanese troops in China, long war finally came to end (1931 to 1945) While all this was happening, the people suffered and the Communists fought valiantly up in the north:

War of appalling cruelty – millions of people subject to great savagery of Japanese forces o Looting, rape, torture, murder and needless destruction took place in nearly every area they occupied

Aerial bombing of civilians new development added to terror

8 years or war between China and Japan – 4 million Chinese killed and 60 million homeless

One group of Chinese, Communists, actually benefited from war

1937 Japanese invasion of war and Chiang Kaishek retreat into Chongqing gave opportunity to expand area control o Japanese unable to guard all of conquered area as they moved south o Communists waited for calm to return in areas so could move in and take control

1937 and 1940 Communist fighters gradually moved eastward from base at Yanan – took control of north China

1940 began offensive called Hundred Regiments Battle – attacked Japan railway communication o Paralyzed traffic to and from south

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Japanese began operation in 1941 to deal with Communists – Three All Campaign o Kill all, burn all, destroy all o Aim to turn people against Communists in areas who supported them by burning down villages and crops,

slaughtering animals, poisoning wells and murdering peasants o Had opposite effect – peasants hate Japanese so much more willing than ever to help

1945 Japanese withdrew from southern China back to Manchuria – CCP advanced into areas they left o Controlled 18 liberation areas – most of them in countryside

The Two Chinas (1935 to 1945) During the war, there were two distinct Chinas – the Communists and the Guomindang:

End of war in 1945 2 groups got ready to take back control of China o Communists situated in liberation areas and Guomindang in Chongqing

Intended to take control by renewing civil war between them and fighting for power

The two parties had very different things to offer Chinese people – achieved different things

Chinese Communist Party much more popular while GMD struggled for control of countryside o Reasons shown in table below

Life in Guomindang China Life in Liberation Areas GOVERNMENT

Chiang Kaishek governed area like military dictator

akin to Fascist dictators in Europe (Hitler and Mussolini), believed in single supreme leader

Hitler called Fuhrer, Mussolini called Duce, Chiang Kaishek called Generalissimo by supporters

Hitler army of Brownshirts, Mussolini army of Blackshirts, Chiang Kaishek had political police force of Blueshirts

specialized in hunting down Communists and kidnapping, spying and torture

Yanan people lived according to principle of equality

town flattened by Japanese bombing and townspeople moved to caves dug out of sandstone cliffs – even top leaders of CCP lived in caves and did not have special luxuries ordinary people did not have

operated under strict discipline – followed Mao Zedong’s rules of behavior and never treated peasants badly

in return, kept Red Army informed about Japanese activities, provided shelter, food, and recruits

AIMS AND REFORMS

aimed to modernize country

great efforts made to unify China by improving railways, postal services and telecommunications

foreign companies encouraged to build factories to develop backwards industry

new paper currency introduced in 1937

second aim to create national unity among people

started New Life Movement in 1934 based on four ancient ideas – Li, I, Lien and Chih

stressed public health, self-discipline and honesty

posters and slogans encouraged people to be clean and hygienic – blow nose in handkerchief etc.

did nothing to solve China basic welfare problems

lack of medical care, poor housing, ignorance

earned reputation of being trivial – not solve poverty

another movement was Rural Service

government organization sent students to country during vacations to help farm crops

however did nothing to reduce land taxes – took half of peasants income

did not prevent famine in 1929 to 1932 killed 3 million people

also criticized as triviality which did nothing to tackle deep-rooted poverty

right after arriving began making important reforms to way land owned and farmed

big estates of land confiscated from rich landlords and distributed among peasants

small landlords able to keep land

additional help given to peasants in form of interest-free loans and reduced rents and taxes

red Army engineers made thousands of new farming tools and agricultural school set up

Saturday Brigades made up of children, soldiers and party officials helped peasants work land

as well as agricultural reforms, social reforms also set in place – abolished outdated practices (foot binding, murder of unwanted babies, child slavery, prostitution, and sale of women)

Women’s Associations set up to help free women of violent husbands or father-in-laws (domestic abuse)

treated peasants very well, in return assisted them

POPULARITY

never gained support of peasants – majority

areas GMD strongest were towns and cities of eastern China

supported by bankers, merchants, businessmen and landowners – benefited from strong government

used propaganda to spread Communist ideas throughout northern China

support mainly came from peasants in liberation areas – reforms and positive contributions

behavior of Red Army gained approval and

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in countryside was weak – few peasants belonged to GMD and none had reason to support government which took taxes but did little to solve problems

admiration stemmed from stores of Long March

The Final Struggle (1945 to 1949) Communists and Guomindang had formed a very weak United Front to fight against Japan in 1937:

Civil war carried on same time as fighting against Japan

1928 armed clashes took place between them near Beijing

1941 GMD forces attacked Communist New Fourth Army – killing and capturing 10,000

Chiang used old tactics of encirclement to surround Yanan Soviet in extermination campaign

While Communists expanding into northern and central China by creating liberation areas, on defensive in Yanan

1945 end of war, Communists and GMD forces raced for control of areas that Japan occupied o CCP best placed for GMD 1500 kilometers inland around Chongqing

Government of United States did not want another Communist state after Russia:

Using massive C-54 transport planes, US Air Force organized massive airlift to fly 80,000 troops to key cities o From Nanjing, Shanghai, and Beijing GMD went to seize other coastal cities and ports as well as Manchuria

Though American government airlifted GMD, did not want renewal of civil war o Wanted two parties to share power by forming joint government

December 1945 General George C. Marshall (one of American’s most respected military leaders) sent to China to bring two sides together – managed conference and sign truce but broke down early in 1946)

Both sides prepared for battle The civil war (1946 to 1949) and the problems it caused:

Civil War Problems

most people thought GMD would easily win

powerful American-trained and equipped army of 3 million men

held all big cities, all main railway lines and some of the richest provinces

plenty of money and large stocks of weapons

Chiang Kaishek recognized by foreign governments as true leader of China

in comparison Communists weak – only countryside areas, no air force, few railways, no navy and army of only one million men

no backing of foreign country

civil war started in earnest June 1946

million GMD troops launched great offensive in north

March 1947 already won series of battles against Communists and captured Yanan (capital)

Red Army ( renamed People’s Liberation Army (PLA) in 1946), fought back with great skill

led by Lin Biao, PLA avoided major battles and concentrated on guerilla attacks

made night raids against bases, blew up railway lines, ambushed patrols etc

using these tactics, PLA took much central and northern China during 1947 – forced GMD defensive

more land they took, bigger PLA became – thousands of peasants joined Communists

civilians in GMD countries suffering badly

rapid inflation of currency caused great hardship

money lost value, wages bought less and workers went on strike – many stopped working and resorted to robbery

price of kilo of rice rose to half a million

hungry crowds stormed shops, riots broke out and public order collapsed

worse conditions became, more city people stopped supporting GMD and wet to CCP

Blueshirts tried keep order by using harsh methods against critics of government

strict censorship imposed on press and black lists of opponents drawn up and systematically murdered

GMD collapsing as party – Chiang Kaishek himself admitted party had become corrupt and disunited

American government had given Chiang 200 million dollars worth of aid since 1945

saw GMD spent force so in 1947 cut off all aid to Chiang Kaishek, weakening position further

By 1948, the PLA was finally large enough abandon guerilla tactics:

November 1948 fought GMD head on – large-scale fighting around towns of Suchow and Yungcheng

Massive Battle of Huai-Hai (between Huai River and Lung Hai railway) o GMD lost more than half a million men and huge amounts of equipment o Allowed PLA to move more freely in central China

April 1949 captured Beijing

May 1949 captured Shanghai

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October 1949 Guangzhou

1 October 1949 Communists proclaimed existence of the People’s Republic of China

Only part of china not under Communist control was island of Taiwan

January 1949 (before capture of Beijing) Chiang Kaishek realized losing civil war o Retreated to island (Taiwan) and took 200,00 GMD troops as well as gold reserves o Stayed until death in 1975 – ruled Taiwan as Republic of China beyond reach of Communists

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CHINA UNDER COMMUNIST RULE Once China was under the CCP’s rule, many changes were put in place. The Communist State Two days before proclamation of new China, party leaders held conference to decide future policy:

29 September 1949 (declaration was October 1) drew up Common Programme o Outlined Party’s aims and intentions of the future

Common Programme began by explaining new government of China would be People’s Democratic Dictatorship o Would be democracy for most people but dictatorship for reactionaries – opposition to communism

Goes on to state: o “strives for independence, democracy, peace, unity, prosperity, and strength of China” o “steadily transform country from agricultural into industrial one” o “people shall have freedom of thought, speech, publication, assembly, religious belief and freedom of holding

processions and demonstrations o “shall suppress all counter-revolutionary activities” o “unite all peace-loving and freedom-loving countries and people throughout the world”

Despite all the careful planning, many problems faced the Communists:

Agricultural output had dropped drastically – 3 years of civil war had taken millions of peasants away from fields o Destroyed countless dams, irrigation systems, canals and roads – marauding armies laid waste to land o Chinese farming methods backward and small scale

Reduced amount of food that could be grown and marketed

Population growing by 15 million a year – more mouths to feed

Transport, telecommunications and energy systems disrupted and inflation made currency worthless o Lack of skilled managers, factories destroyed, machinery worn-out

High level of unemployment and bribery and corruption plagued public officials o Local government slow and inefficient and officials fled with GMD to Taiwan

Threat from Chiang Kaishek with 200,000 troops and China’s foreign currency and gold reserves in Taiwan

Social problems – banditry, opium addiction, prostitution, refugees, exploitation of women

Greatest problem which had eluded the Manchu dynasty, Sun Yatsen and Yuan Shikai, the warlords and Guomindang, was holding China together as single, united country

First action after seizing power was reorganizing government of China:

Ruled as one-party state under Communist Party control o To be conscious of enemies around who might seek to overthrow revolution o Secret police force set up to root out opponents – public encouraged to inform on their neighbors

Backed by complete control of all radio, newspapers, books and cinema o Mass media used to encourage people to follow Party line and persuade to accept it o Growth of education also helped spread ideas

Membership of Communist Party limited to 10% of Chinese population o Control of army o Law system and courts o Street committees – Neighborhood Watch o Control of information – censorship and propaganda o Education system and schools o Civil service

Every Chinese worker or peasant had to belong to work unit – without membership person became ‘none’ person o Work unit provided health services, housing, jobs, permission to travel and schooling for children

Policies enforced through repression and terror o Public struggle sessions, arrest, the Laogai (forced labor camps), hard labor, executions o ex-GMD supporters, property owning managerial class, people with foreign connections, intellectuals

Grouped eighteen provinces into six regions o Each region had series of councils to run each subdivision of region

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Many levels – provinces, counties, cities, districts, towns etc. o each level had Communist Party Committee to ensure policies put into effect

Party run on principle of Democratic Centralism

All obey strict discipline and total obedience to Party Leaders

Leaders took over most important positions in government o Chairman Mao Zedong became Head of State o Zhou Enlai became Prime Minister and Foreign Minister

People’s Liberation Army (five million soldiers who had won civil war) played important role in new system o Commanders shared all tasks of government with councils o Used in many areas to tackle urgent problems – rebuilding railway lines, bridges and ports o In outlying regions of Xinjiang, Tibet and Inner Mongolia, troops used as Production and Construction Armies o Built up backward economies but also managing to bring under firmer control of Chinese government

Years of Great Change (1950 to 1953) Mao was determined to turn China from a poor peasant society into a modern industrialized nation:

1. Farming (collectivization) – peasant farming methods were backward and unproductive, needed to increase farm production to feed rapidly growing population and export farm products abroad to buy foreign machinery

2. Industry (five year plans) – needed to develop modern industrial base for it to be strong and independent of foreign control (especially iron and steel to develop areas of economy such as building factories, railways and bridges, making machinery – also needed to build strong army and navy)

3. Create truly Communist society – Mao felt China held back by traditions, believed should all be swept away and replaced by truly classless society based on peasant and industrial worker (other social groups to be eliminated), everybody equal and no individual ownership, all property, land and businesses brought under direct control of party

4. All opposition was to be eliminated – no toleration allowed to people opposed to Communist ideas (such people labeled counter-revolutionaries), long prison sentences involving forced labor or death laid down for many offences

For the first three years of the People’s Republic of China many great changes and reforms affected virtually all Chinese people:

The Rights of Women

270 million females made up half of population all affected by changes

before 1949, women had low status, subservience, stayed at home (producing children), subject to foot binding, arranged marriages from young age, had to be obedient, polygamy allowed

some women (Qiu Jin) campaigned for women’s rights

April 1950 government introduced Marriage Law – ended worst features of female life

arranged marriages, marriage of children, killing of girl babies, bigamy, made illegal

minimum age for marriage fixed at 20 for men and 18 for women

husbands and wives jointly owned family property – before belonged to only husband

divorce by mutual consent introduced

February 1951 further law gave mothers maternity benefit of full wages for two months after birth

some progress in education, women could attend universities

status changed because of communist ideology (Marxism, communism – people equal) and the fact that women could work (modernization)

Land Reform

tackled system of land ownership – had already started to divide land among peasants

did same in liberation areas which came under control during civil war

1949 process of giving land to landless peasants already underway – 90% of people farmers

30 June 1950 Agrarian Reform Law speeded up process of land reform

Communist Party members went to countryside to teach poor peasants to work out social class of everyone in community – aim to decide whether landlord, rich peasants (hired others to work for them), middle, or poor peasants

poor peasants encouraged to hold mass meetings where they could speak bitterness about poverty and denounce landlords who had treated badly in past

once social class decided land taken from those who had more than they needed for own use and given to those who had none

1950 to 1952 47 million hectares (40%) taken from landlords and given to 300 million people

speak bitterness campaigns became very bitter – carried with increasing violence

meetings often ended in execution of landlords particularly cruel to tenants

figure around 2 to 4 million landlords killed

Agrarian Reform Law did not live up to every peasants expectations – disappointed

no equipment to cultivate land nor money to buy equipment

joined together in mutual aid teams of around 10 households

worked together to farm land – shared animals and equipment

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The Economy

worked quickly and took rapid steps to overcome grave economic problems

major banks, railway network and third of heavy industry taken away from owners and turned into state property – profits from enterprises paid directly to State Treasury

gave government around two thirds of yearly income

1951 People’s Bank opened to replace private banks – controlled all financial transactions as well as money (got rid of inflation entirely by mid-50s)

overcame threat of food shortage by making farmers sell 15 to 20% of grain to government for fixed low price – also had to pay Agricultural Tax on produce

tax efficiently collected by Party members who toured villages, helping poor peasants put Agrarian Reform Law into effect

Organization of People

party put lots of effort in strengthening position and getting rid of reactionaries

1950 to 1951 Party organized mass rallies at which public enemies and counter-revolutionaries publically tried – millions executed

1951 began movement for thought reform – called ‘Movement for the Study of Mao Zendong’s Thought’ and involved close study of writings combined with public self-criticism

Communist Party concentrated people’s attention on specific problems – mass campaigns

1951 Three Antis Campaign launched against corruption, waste and too much red tape

1952 Five Antis Campaign aimed to get rid of bribery, tax evasion, fraud, theft of government property, and spying

people found guilty of offences sent to labor camps to be reeducated with thought reform

to strength party, every sector of population encouraged to join Party-run groups

Groups such as Women’s League for Democracy, the Young Pioneers and the China-Russia Friendship Association quickly sprang up all over China

party controlled organizations so could use members for own purposes – involved them in mass rallies in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square

ability to organize Chinese people shown through ‘Swat the Fly’ campaign (1950s) where citizen asked to kill 10 flies each per day – with population of nearly 600 million, meant death of trillions of flies resulting in virtual extinction in some parts of country

another example is the ‘Anti-Sparrow’ campaign where the birds which were damaging crops were killed and propaganda like the Legend of Lei Fung encouraged obedience and content

Education

before 1950 was only for rich in cities

foreign invasion, warlords, civil war led to widespread destruction and movement of refugee populations – circumstances made difficult to establish national education system

achieved by Communist Party after 1950

1950 to 1960 number of teachers rose from ½ million to 2½ million

number of primary school students almost doubled to 100 million – female students introduced

however, not perfect educational system – basic education (not enough resources), tradition gave boys priority (if family had no money, girl stayed at home), lack of training for teachers

Five- Year Plan (1953 to 1957) One of Mao’s first actions after taking power was asking USSR, communist neighbor, for financial help:

December 1949 travelled to Moscow for talks with Joseph Stalin (Soviet leader)

Result of talks between Mao and Stalin was Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance o Provided China with financial aid and technical advice o Mao himself said it was ‘like getting meat out of the mouth of a tiger’

Aid amounted to only 300 million over next five years and mostly in form of credits rather than cash

More valuably, China given 10,000 engineers and planning experts to develop China’s economy China drew up Five-Year plan under influence of Russian advisers:

Priority given to heavy industry – steal, coal, machinery, chemical fertilizer, cement, oil etc (basic industries needed to developed before other areas can be expanded – roads, bridges, cars need material)

o Centre-piece being nearly 700 new production plants in central China and Manchuria

China’s light industry (cotton-making, food processing) was neglected in favor of heavy industry so people had to put up with slow growth in living standards and reduced availability of consumer goods

Chinese people felt pride in helping build strong modern and industrialized China but were becoming concerned with increasing shortages of food, luxury and consumer goods

o Food – surplus produce sent overseas to purchase machinery o Luxury, consumer goods – economy focused on heavy industries (few resources available for products) o Movement of peasants from countryside into cities meant more mouths to fead

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Nationalism – private businesses and industries taken over and run by national government (state control)

Central planning – all decision made by national government

Targets/quotas – to increase output, government sets production targets to be met within 5 year time space

Incentives – encourage workers, supervisors to work harder, communists offered bigger food rations, better apartments, and better schooling for children

Expanding industry meant expanding numbers of workers in towns and cities:

China aimed to increase output of food from China’s farms by turning them into cooperatives

Did not want to leave farms at mutual aid teams stage – too small to be farmed efficiently and unable to increase food output level needed for Five-Year Plan

Feared if peasants kept plots of land would become new class in society, concerned only to make profit for themselves and opposed to any change in position

1953 onwards, government made great efforts to persuade peasants to join lower-stage cooperatives o Thirty to fifty families (people in one village) pooled land and labor to make bigger, more efficient farm

Although families still legally owned plots of land, land on permanent loan to cooperative which paid rent for use

Five-Year Plan then went further and joined lower-stage cooperatives into bigger higher-stage cooperatives o 200 to 300 families (group of villages)

Difference was not paid rent for use of land, only wages for labor o Had to surrender title deeds to land, equipment and animals to cooperative o Only allowed to keep few square meters for personal use (growing vegetables, raising chickens)

End of 1956, 95 out of 100 peasant families joined higher-stage cooperatives o Most of 300 million peasants who had received land in 1950 was landless once again

The Five-Year Plan put Chinese society under terrific strain:

City population rose by 40 million o Problems of overcrowding, food shortages and housing problems

Peasants found plenty to complain about higher-stage cooperatives o Resented increasing control of CCP over lives (collectivization 1955 onwards)

Communist Party quickly losing earlier popularity – harsh words to say about leaders

1956 Mao decided to allow people to let off steam by saying what they wanted about Communist Party o “only by using discussion, criticism and reasoning that we can really foster correct ideas, overcome wrong

ideas and really settle issues” o Scared of uprising – Hungarian uprising, Soviet leader (Khrushschev) denouncement of Stalin

‘“Let a hundred flowers bloom’ – free speech and argument healthy and should be encouraged

Wanted to enlist support of China’s educated citizens as entering stage of post-recovery industrialization

For while Chinese people said exactly what they liked o Intellectuals, educated classes, especially those who have been to university most critical of Communist rule –

valued freedom of speech, most likely to speak out against Mao o Teachers, doctors, artists, writers, journalists, university professors – scientists escaped later persecution o Mao said 1 to 10% of intellectuals made up anti-revolutionaries so quota of 5% set to be caught

550,000 labeled as rightists and sacked from jobs to become manual laborers

Spoke more freely than Mao Zedong liked – not prepared for bitterness expressed by many

June 1957 Mao suddenly cracked down on critics – retaliated with violent Anti-Rightist campaign o Arrested and sent off to camps in countryside for thought reform o People sacked from jobs and forbidden to speak freely (press censored)

The Hundred Flowers had withered as rapidly as they had bloomed o Some historians say Mao did this on purpose – enticing snakes out of their lairs o Others say he had just not anticipated the magnitude of opposition against Communist Party

Popular saying summed up atmosphere: “After the Three Antis no one wants to be in charge of money; after the Anti-Rightist Campaign no one opens their mouth

The Great Leap Forward (1958) 1958 Mao took tour of Chinese countryside:

On return to Beijing felt Chinese had a lot of energy and any task could be accomplished

Wanted to make China into one of world’s leading industrial nations as well as improving agriculture (heavy and light)

Constructed second Five-Year Plan to run from 1958 to 1963 o Intended Chinese economy to overtake Britain in 15 years and America in 30 years

Called plan ‘Great Leap Forward’ (more like Great Leap Backwards)

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Reorganize Chinese people into communes:

Groups of villages which varied from few square kilometers to size of British county o Average commune contained 5000 families – gave up land, animals and equipment to common ownership

Purpose of communes was to release tremendous energy of the masses o Made sure time and effort not wasted, members of communes could work at great variety of tasks

Organized so nothing could distract people from work o Four million communal eating halls set up – number of people cooking reduced o Several million children put into nurseries and schools – both parents freed to work full-time o Old and infirm moved into houses of happiness so families did not have to take time of work to look after them

Communes controlled almost every activity in person’s life – combined several different functions o Unit of local government – committee made up of peasants, Party members and soldiers running schools,

clinics nurseries, eating halls, entertainments and other public services o Unit of work organization – work divided among work teams of dozen families and grouped into work brigades

of a dozen work teams o Unit of the Communist Party – Party committee making sure commune always followed Party decisions

Speed with which communes created astounded not only Chinese but rest of world o End of 1958 700 million people (90% of population) placed into 26,578 communes in all parts of country

Propaganda was key element to Great Leap Forward:

Party and government made every effort and whipped people up in frenzy of enthusiasm for work

Posters, slogans and newspaper articles urged Chinese to work long hours whatever weather or conditions

Wherever people worked loudspeakers played revolutionary music and stirring speeches o Encouraged workers to not only reach but exceed Plan’s targets

Impressive construction projects completed in record time (gigantic dam built near Beijing) o If not enough machines, no cement no mortar and other materials, Beijingers summoned to build dam with

bare hands and feet – scratched away with bare fingernails, split rocks with primitive tools, carried earth and stones in little baskets, thousands stood and stamped the stones and earth flat

o Hundreds of thousands joined (civil servants, professors, doctors etc.)

Urged on by party – men with megaphones

In six months damn was built – 2088 feet high The backyard steel campaign played a large role in the plan:

Communes expected to contribute in small as well as big projects

Small commune factories set up – industrial products (cement, ball bearings and chemical fertilizer) o Particular emphasis placed on making of steel

600,000 backyard steel furnaces set up in towns and villages all over China o Each one capable of making few tons of steel – turned out 11 million tons of steel (65% more than 1957 total)

1958 figures for production of steel, coal, timber, cement, fertilizer and hundred other industrial products showed spectacular rise – in agriculture, record harvests of cotton and grain

Seemed Mao Zedong was right – possible to accomplish any task whatsoever ‘Three Bitter Years’: The Crisis (1959 to 1961) Months after Great Leap Forward launched, things began to go dreadfully wrong (‘Chaos on a Grand Scale’):

1958 to 1959 Party workers urged people to produce more and faster o Old and overworked machines fell apart under strain o Workers fell asleep at benches and suffered accidents through carelessness brought on by exhaustion

‘Backyard steel campaign’ failed – 3 million of 11 million tons of steel too impure for industrial use (thrown away)

So many furnaces built that eventually one person in ten employed in making steel o Took people way from fields, reducing amount of food that could be grown

Furnaces also used up country’s coal supplies – railway locomotives had no fuel to run on

So much extra steel made that not enough railway trains to take to industrial centers where needed

1959 Mao Zedong admitted Great Leap Forward had failed Great Leap Forward failed badly in countryside and caused a farming crisis:

Weather in 1958 excellent but many peasants working in industry (backyard steel furnaces) o Too few people to harvest crop properly

Party officials ignored fact and falsely claimed that grain harvest was record of 260 million tons o Communal eating halls began giving peasants very generous meals – used up valuable food stocks

Weather in 1959 bad – floods and droughts in parts of China

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o Harvest of only 170 million tons o People going hungry and beginning to starve

1960 even worse weather – bad weather combined with chaos from Great Leap Forward reduced harvest to 144 million o Government introduce rationing system – most people given maximum of 125 grams of grain a day o People grew chlorella to eat (rich in protein) – fed on human urine, stopped going to toilet and peed in

spittoons instead to drop seeds in

Death toll continued to rise – 1959 to 1962 20 million Chinese died of starvation and related diseases Because ‘Three bitter years’ was partly result of Mao’s policies, this lead to the rise of the moderates:

Liu Shaoqi (deputy leader of Party): “The disaster was 0% man-made and 30% due to natural causes”

Some Party leaders blamed Mao personally – demanded resignation but too popular among masses of people to get rid of him easily

o Persuaded him to hand over post of Head of State to Liu Shaoqi – left him one post of Party Chairman

Mao no longer involved in routine, practical work of governing China o Done by group of more moderate leaders

Head of State Liu Shaoqi Prime Minister Zhou Enlai Party Secretary Deng Xiaoping

Now that moderates controlled governemtn, introduced more realistic economic policies o Late 1960 abandoned Great Leap Forward o Communes reduced in size – made more manageable and town worker’s wages increased o Peasants sent back to fields – allowed private plots to sell part of what they grew in market for own profit

Though moderates ran economy, Mao Zedong had not lost grip – regarded by Chinese as great revolutionary hero o Had great influence over mass of people

Used this influence to get rid of moderates and start political revolution in 1966

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THE IMPACT OF THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION The time period of 1966 to 1969 documents a great change in the culture and atmosphere of China. The Road to Follow (1962 to 1966) 1962 to 1966 leaders of Communist Party argued to which road they should follow in developing China:

Moderates (Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping) wanted to introduce incentives to get peasants to work harder

Let peasants have larger private plots and pay wages according to how much work they did

Believed in going back to idea of first Five-Year Plan to build industry on Russian lines o Manage industry more efficiently needed new class of skilled managers

Mao strongly opposed policies of moderates o Taking capitalist road and allowing people to forget original aims of Communist Party

1962 launched Socialist Education Movement – get people back on right road to Communism

Also launched four clean-ups campaign to get rid of corruption and bad management in Party and discourage people who showed signs of capitalist behavior – peasants who spent more time on private plots than on communal land

There was strong support for Mao within the Party:

1962 to 1966 continually urged Party to keep in touch with ordinary people of China – for most part fell on deaf ears

1965 gained powerful support from Lin Biao (Minister of Defense) o Abolished ranks in army making all soldiers equal o Troops given copy of newly published book ‘The Little Red Book’ (Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong)

Though no one in government supported ideas, had support of four million strong PLA

With backing of Lin Biao and PLA, strong enough to launch new super-campaign against capitalists and any other reactionaries who stood in the way to true Communism

Began in 1966 and known as ‘The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’ The Red Guards (1966 to 1969) Cultural Revolution began among schoolchildren and students in Beijing:

Summer 1966 students in Beijing formed military groups (Red Guards)

Schools and colleges shut down for six months so curriculum could be rewritten to promote awareness of Communism o Gave Red Guards plenty of time for political activities

First aim to get rid of all capitalist and bourgeois influences in schools and colleges

Began with Four Olds campaign against old ideas, old culture, old customs and old habits o Expressed criticisms in hundreds of thousands of wall posters o Marche through Beijing in monster parades numbering over million at a time o Attacked anything seeming capitalist or bourgeois

Before long, resorted to using violence to achieve aims o Shaved hair of girls with Western hairstyles and ripped off Western-style clothes o Smashed windows of shops selling cosmetics, pets, jazz records, chess sets, fur coats and other luxuries o Burnt down bookshops and libraries and closed museums and art galleries, churches, temples and theatres

Forbade couples to hold hands in public

Renamed places with reactionary names (Square of Heavenly Peace became East Wind Square and Beijing became The East is Red)

Mao encouraged activities – “to rebel is justified”:

Red Guards given every help in campaign – given right to travel free on Chinese railways so could visit places connected with the Long March or take part in monster rallies in Beijing

Police ordered not to oppose them and PLA often gave enthusiastic support – as result, Red Guard ran wild

1967 law and order broken down in many parts of China – in virtual state of civil war fought against reactionaries o Also argued amongst themselves and fought with each other

Killed around 400,000 people – countless thousands more beaten up, humiliated, tortured and imprisoned

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The Cult of Mao Zedong Red Guards followed every word of Mao Zedong:

Much of time spent reading and memorizing Little Red Book – 740 million copies printed between 1966 and 1969

Pictures, busts and statues of Mao put up in every street and workplace – people bowed before picture after getting up in morning and before going to bed at night

Hated Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping – moderates in government o Both expelled from Party and Liu imprisoned, dying in captivity in 1969

September 1967 Mao attempted to restore order in China

Schools and universities reopened – called on young people to return to studies

PLA stepped in to disarm and disarm where areas using violence

Mao encouraged them to go down to country to reeducate themselves from peasants – got rid of millions of Red Guards that occupied cities (18 million)

To restore order in areas where government had broken down, PLA set up Revolutionary Committees o Comprised of peasants, soldiers and Red Guards

1969 much of order restored and Cultural Revolution over

Cost to China had been very high o Young people missed so much of education by 1981 government estimated 120 million people under age of 45

was illiterate o Industrial output fell drastically, farming severely disrupted

Second time in ten years, China suffered chaos on a grand scale under Mao’s leadership Power Struggles (1969 to 1976) Mao Zedong in very good political position after announced Cultural Revolution over (1969):

Most moderates expelled from Party and from government leaving own supporters in top positions

Mao’s position not entirely secure – Lin Bao, Defense Minister and head of PLA, began to doubt him o On surface seemed very close but was considering whether he should continue supporting

1969 Party conference named Lin as Mao’s second in command – behind scenes two men mistrusted each other o Feared Lin would not wait until dead to take post of Chairman o Lin convinced Mao was power-mad and unwilling to share authority

To weaken Lin’s position, Mao got rid of several Party leaders who supported him o Realizing what was happening, Lin plotted to overthrow Mao

1971 drew up plan to assassinate Mao and take power as Chairman called Project 571

Plot discovered and Lin and fellow plotters fled from China by air but were killed when aircraft crashed in desert in Mongolia (killed or murdered?)

Following death of Lin Biao, old arguments about which road government should follow in developing China began again:

1973 elections to Politburo (Party’s ruling body) produced a split between right-wing moderates and left-wing radicals

Right led by Prime Minster, Zhou Enlai and Deputy Prime Minister Deng Xiaoping o Deng brought back to power after expelled by elections

Zhou and Deng supported by Party and the PLA

Left was led by Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing and three radical politicians from Shanghai (Wang Hongwen, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan)

o Known as Gang of Four and supported by trade unions, Communist Youth League and militias of big cities

Big advantage over Right because had control of press and radio

Disagreed over everything – big difference was about whether politics more important or economy o Right wanted end to political arguments that dominated Chinese life since 1966 – Party and government to

pull efforts into building strong and wealthy China o Left wanted to continue political struggle – struggle between classes most important thing in life (Capitalist

and reactionaries must be weeded out) China must follow mass line – serving people and giving them full share in decision-making Close study of Mao Zedong’s thoughts key to understanding struggle

The Gang of Four rose and fell in popularity and power:

1974 to 1976 Left and Right struggled fiercely for power

Right backed plan for Four Modernizations that Zhou Enlai put forward in 1975 o Plan for modernization of China’s industry, farming, defense and science

Left put all energy into series of campaigns against bourgeois and outdated ideas in education and art in China

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1976 Right suffered big setback when Zhou Enlai died – popular leader and thousand people went to Tiananmen Square in Beijing to place wreaths in his memory

o 5 April 1976 police removed wreaths and 10,000 rioted to show support for Zhou and Deng Xiaoping (Prime Minister in his place)

o Left cleverly blamed riot on Deng and stripped him of government and Party posts

In place put Hua Guofeng, unknown politician who had risen so fast in Party people called him ‘helicopter’

With Zhou and Deng out of way, Left, led by Gang of Four, seemed to be in control of political life

9 September 1976 83 year old Mao died and Gang of Four prepared to take power o Beaten to it by Politburo (Mao also named him successor prior to death – suspicious of wife’s motives, too

extreme) – gave Mao’s post of Chairman to Hua Guofeng (new Prime Minister) o Delivered the major eulogy – sign of future importance (wife played only small role as she had fought with one

of her cousins over placing wreath while Mao lay in state) o As Party Chairman (commanded armed forces) and Prime Minister, Hua controlled government, Party and

army – even Mao had never held such power

Hua had worked closely with army as coordinator of Tangshan earthquake in 1976 o Very close to a number of generals (Wang Dongxing head of special security forces, and Marshal Ye chief of

Beijing armed forces)

Gang of Four tried to gain political upper hand in provinces – use influence in Shanghai but political force in Beijing o Tried to bribe Mao Yuanxin (nephew of Mao) to forge evidence in uncle’s papers that Gang of Four was to

succeed him – later used as allegation at Jiang’s trial o Jiang hoped Wang Hongwen would be able to win support in other areas of China – Hua worried

With Hua in control, Gang of Four arrested and imprisoned at Politburo meeting within month of Mao’s death o Followed by yet another major political campaign – criticized and attacked in press (radio and wall posters o Jiang Zing portrayed as cruel, scheming, luxury-loving pornographer o Posters demanded punishments: “Cut Jiang Qing in Ten Thousand Pieces’ and ‘ Deep-Fry the Gang of Four in

Oil’

15 October 1976 downfall of Gang of Four announced – no opposition

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CHANGE UNDER DENG XIAOPING Deng Xiaoping became a prominent political figure after the death of Mao, leading China in a more moderate direction (new historical period). Re-Emergence of Deng Xiaoping (1976 to 1981) Deng was reinstated into the Politburo by 1977:

Lived in Guangzhou after demotion in 1976 – still had many supporters in Party and army

Decided not to challenge Hua as leader but waited for him to lose popularity

Hua soon made of behind back – copied Mao by brushing black hair and wearing blue suit o Opponents mocked his two whatevers’ – whatever Mao said was right, whatever Mao did must be continued

Deng put himself under protection of General Xu Shiyou in Guangzhou and opponent of Gang of Four and Hua

Xu’s influence strong in southern and eastern provinces of China – most prosperous and economically advanced areas

Used contacts to get Deng reinstated into Politburo and became deputy Chairman of the Party and Deputy Prime Minister – ranked second to Hua Guofeng

For next two year, influence in party grew at expense of Hua’s

Because he worked with Zhou Enlai in 1970’s on the four modernizations of economy it helped standing in party

Much more experienced in foreign affairs than Hua – China expanded foreign trade and communication

December 1978 CCP appointed Deng as Chairman of people’s Political Consultative Conference o Body to bring reform to China – lead economic growth

1979 thousands of posters criticizing Mao Zedong pasted to wall in Changan Avenue – main street in Beijing

Attracted large crowds, unofficial papers and journals criticizing Mao sold and read – people made speeches demanding greater freedom (wall became known as Democracy Wall

New period of free speech made Deng Xiaoping even more popular (did not follow Mao)

September 1980 Hua resigned as premier and replaced with Hu Yaobang (1981) and Zhao Ziyang became Prime Minister (1980)

Deng refused position because of age – honorary title was paramount leader o No specific duties attached – gave even more power

Deng now in position to begin the Deng Revolution Trial of the Gang of Four (1980) November 1980 Gang of Four went on trial for crimes:

Aim was to use them as scapegoats to explain why China in chaos

General accusations were that they betrayed Mao and Chinese Revolution

Charges included: individually and collectively responsible for death of 35,000 people during Cultural Revolution, framed further ¾ of a million people

Was hoped that delay in bringing them to trial would break spirit (4 years)

Zhang Chunqiao silent and stubborn – hated court and did not accept

Jiang defiant – refused to accept charges brought against her, shouted abuse, claimed carried out Mao’s wishes

January 1981 trail ended and all defendants found guilty

Jiang Qing and Zhang Chunqiao sentenced to death – death sentence later changed to life imprisonment to give convicted time to repent

Jiang claimed innocent until death in 1991 – officially suicide but had throat cancer

Wang Hongwen imprisoned for life and Yao Wenyuan imprisoned for 18 years

Trial meant to show Deng’s China different from Cultural Revolution – bullying tactics and humiliation of prisoners had not place and was not a good advertisement

The Deng Revolution (1970s to 1980s) Deng wanted to get rid of remaining policies of Maoism:

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Stood in the way of progress but could not openly denounce Mao as people loved him

Attack on Mao would involve attacking many in present government

Decided would gradually let Mao’s reputation erode – recorded Mao had been great leader but made many mistakes that China would correct

Economic reform:

1970s Deng and Zhou Enlai regarded as moderate – realistic in planning economic growth o If plan worked would bet kept, if not would be scrapped o If market forces produced good results, adopt them o If contact with Western capitalists increases trade then encourage it

Pragmatic approach summed up Deng – does not matt r whether cat is black or white so long as it catches mice

Gave greater freedom to managers and experts but state owned enterprises were basic form of industrial organization

Four Modernizations aimed to reform agriculture, industry, defense and education – set principles not detailed plan

Deng Xiaoping’s reforms changed China in two ways – restored market economy and opened China to foreign trade

1979 new and ambitious Ten-Year Plan introduced – many new factories built, workers paid bonuses for extra output, people allowed to start small businesses, more consumer goods

Reforms divided into two period – 1978 to 1984 improving rural economy and from 1984 shifted to industry and commerce

Agriculture reform:

Many people living in poverty – made worse by droughts and floods from years before in two provinces 1980 to 1981

Communes abandoned and replaced by xiang – was a village that required to reach quota determined by government

Would be achieved by individual peasants and family

Contributed to village quota and paid taxes then were free to sell any surplus for private profit

1978 Responsibility System started – each family given responsibility for cultivating areas of land within commune

Signed contracts promised production of fixed amount of food for sale to the state

Increased annual growth in grain and agricultural value – provides incentive for peasants to work harder Industry and commerce:

Wanted to modernize industrial growth and scientific education – universities expanded and factories built

Plan to train one million technical students to become manager of new economy

Training to be used in Special Economic Zones (SEZ) – regions earmarked for concentrated development

First SEZs in Shantou and Xiamen in North and Shenzhen and Zhuhai in south – contains China’s main export industries and foreign owned companies

China’s chief commercial outlets modeled on Hong Kong – had regional freedoms and special taxes

1981 to 1991 China’s exports grew by over 500% - foreign investments quadrupled

People allows to own small business – consumer goods made such as clothes, bicycles and cosmetics

Greater output and improved quality of products achieved with wage incentives

Introduction of market forces in China took away security of past

Before, state run enterprise workers guaranteed job for life, accommodation, medical and educational benefits

State Owned Enterprises now expected to become efficient and competitive

Worker’s by performance and will lose jobs if not productive

Modernizations much hated by SOE, delayed many reforms – 1986 finally modified labor contract was introduced

Size of China and wide regional differences made economic growth difficult – still many major advanced to be made Enemy of the Womb:

Mid – 1980s difficult economic problem facing China – staggering growth of Chinese population

1982 census of population showed 1,015,410,000 people lived in China – increasing by 12 million a year

If every child between 1980 and 2000 had 3 children, their grandchildren would live in poverty or severe hardship

1980 Government began One Child Policy – series of measures to discourage couples from having more than one child

Minimum age for marriage set at 20 for women and 22 for men – couples wanting to marry had to get consent of commune and written test in family planning

Those with one child only given generous family allowances and more ration coupons

Single children easier to get higher education, parents get housing priority and larger plots of land

People willing to be sterilized had extra holidays and cash payments

Mid 1980s already starting to work in cities – countryside not as successful, Party had less influence and ignored

Unintended result was thousands of baby girls murdered after birth so parents could try for son – more valued

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The Pro-Democracy Movement (1979 to 1989) Deng’s opposition to political reform:

Wanted to keep ‘to the socialist road, upholding the people’s democratic dictatorship, upholding leadership by Communist Party and up-holding Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Though’

Four Cardinal Principals not meant to change political structure but to uphold it

CCP had absolute right to govern – Deng was hardliner in politics The growth of protest:

Avenue of Eternal Peace (Changan Avenue) near Tiananmen Square in 1970s (around 1978) – stretch of wall became known as ‘democracy wall’

1979 thousands of brightly colored paper posters criticizing Mao Zedong and government in general put up

Unofficial papers, journals and anti-government leaflets sold

People got on soap boxes and made speeches demanding more freedom

Period of free speech made Deng Xiaoping and other moderates even more powerful than the ‘Whateverists’

After moderates gained control of party they clamped down on free speech – cracked down on critics, Democracy Wall closed to public in 1979

Posters torn down and writers arrested

1989 Wei Jingshen criticized government for not introducing real democratic reform and sentenced to 15 years

Democracy movement did not challenge CCP but requested extension of civil liberties such as voting rights for people

Represented those who wanted to see Maoism ended and liberalized political system – wanted Deng to adopt democracy

Criticism that most offended authorities was that the government had become corrupt

1980s series of student demonstrations against officials of Party began

Demands of students were for greater political democracy and economic opportunity

1986 major disturbances happened in universities – thousands of students followed Fang Lizhi, CCP member and professor at Hefei University

o Called for open government and democracy Party always talked of but never delivered

Fang dismissed and ring leaders quickly arrested

Hu Yaobang (CCP General Secretary) accused of encouraging students and put into prisons

1986 protests crushed relentlessly The road to Tiananmen Square:

Massacre caused by decade of frustration for people

After initial increases in economy of early 1980s there had been serious down turn in agricultural and industrial production – inflation was high

Population continued to grow and people moved to cities – living conditions declining

University students increased but job opportunities limited – good jobs reserved for party members and children

Believed CCP and government to be corrupt

15 April 1989 Hu Yaobang died from heart attack

Students remembered he had been removed from Politburo in 1987 for supporting student protests and was treated badly in prison

Remembered as someone who had stood up to CCP and suffered to gain democracy

At memorial service weak after, large crowds gathered at Tiananmen square o Tried to present petition to Premier Li Peng – refused to accept petition, was sigh of how far government had

become detached from people

Series of sit ins and boycotting of classes followed

The People’s Daily (official newspaper of CCP) said protesters were small handful of plotters who must be crushed immediately – made student situation worse, travelled from 40 other universities to join

o Transport workers allowed travel without paying fares – sign of support

Zhao Ziyang (Party General Secretary) tried to calm matters by saying newspapers gone too far – no effect

Second week in May 1989 – group of 300 students went on hunger strike o Government officials contacted students urging them to call of strike o Attracted international media cover

Mikhail Gorbachev, Russian leader, was to arrive at China – had introduced USSR to similar reforms students demanding (students felt secure)

16 May 1989 visit began and delayed authorities in taking action – hardliners furious schedules had to be re-arranged

Tiananmen Square filled with students – couldn’t be used for impressive displays of power Tiananmen Square massacre:

19 May was sixth day of hunger strike and day Gorbachev left China after three days

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o Zhao Ziyang had promised students reforms o Li Peng also addressed students but he and Deng wanted to end protests by force – Zhao dismissed from post

and Li announced masrshal law

Students voted to end hunger strike but remained in square – their determination garnered more support o Ordinary citizens blocked raods – stopped first wave of troops from reaching square and imposing martial law

Troops shocked and withdrew to outskirts of city

2 June 350,000 PLA soldiers surrounded square – did not listen to pleas of local people

3 June 10pm first shots fired at demonstrators

4 June by mid-day occupation over and students detained for interrogation and imprisonment o Number dead estimated to run into thousands

Following weeks, those that fled were rounded up and imprisoned

Suggested that government could have easily dispersed students as were not united and unarmed

Deng wanted violent end – showed government would not tolerate rebellion

Clear sign that post-Mao liberalism did not include political reform China and the World (1949 to Present) The world while China was in chaos:

Communists came to power shortly after start of Cold War

Atmosphere of mutual fear and suspicion led to complete breakdown of relations between USSR and USA

USSR Communist country – natural new Chinese government should want to be its friend and ally

Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance alarmed US – feared Communism would spread

Two event happened to confirm fears: o In October Chinese forces invaded Tibet, overthrowing ruler Dali Lama and making country part of People’s

Republic of China o 1950 to 1953 China sent 300,000 troops to help North Korea fighting against South Koreans and UN force

As result of fighting UN troops China not allowed to join UN

Chiang Kaishek’s government on island of Taiwan recognized as true government of China and offered place at UNO

Korean war made Americans decide to support Kaishek

1954 onwards, American navy protected Taiwan from possible Communist attack by patrolling Taiwan Straits The Sino-Soviet split:

Hostility of UNO and America to Communism made relationship between China and USSR stronger

1956 relationship started to cool – new soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, developed friendly relations with USA and capitalist countries of West

China strongly disagreed – no peace between communist and capitalist countries

Disagreement made worse by series of armed clashes along Amur River – border between two countries

1960 Soviets stopped all economic aid to China

1964 tensions increased as China tested first atomic bomb

1969 further clashes along Ussuri River

1974 and 1978 fighting along border areas

Many people believed countries would have war in the future China and USA relations:

Remained bad throughout 1960s

Other than presence in Taiwan, China alarmed by USA’s role in Vietnam war

Early 1960s onwards, America sent troops and supplies to help anti-communist South Vietnamese fight Communist North Vietnam and Vietcong guerillas

Dropped bombs miles from border between China and Vietnam – tensions very high

Late 1960s American began to withdraw army from Vietnam

1971 talks between American and Chinese governments improved relationships – UN accepted People’s Republic as member and expelled Taiwan from Security Council

1972 visit from Beijing by President Nixon – trade, cultural links established

1979 USA gave full diplomatic recognition to People’s Republic and Deng visited Washington to cement agreement China’s southern neighbors:

1950 Chinese forces occupied Tibet – 1959 Tibetans rebelled against Chinese rule

Heavy fighting – Chinese troops crushed rebellion and forced Dalai Lama to flee to India o Over next few years, over 9000 Tibetans followed – led to conflict between China and India

1965 became autonomous region within People’s Republic of China and ran its own affairs

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Indian government friendly to China for much of 1950s – events in Tibet created fear towards China’s intention

1962 fighting broke out along eastern and western borders – dispute over ownership of North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) and Aksai Chin

o China easily beat Indians – withdrew from NEFA and China remained in Aksai Chin ever since

1962 to 1979 at peace

1979 dispute with Vietnam (Communist) turned into war

1978 Vietnamese government signed treaty with USSR – China’s enemy at the time

Vietnam increased influence in South-East Asia – marching into Laos and Kampuchea

1979 China invaded Vietnma to stop ally of USSR from gaining too much power south of China o Inflicted considerable damage and withdrew in March 1979

China and the world in 1980s:

Steadily increased contacts with rest of world – part of Four Modernizations program, increasing amount of military and industrial equipment from abroad

Foreign tourists found it easier to visit China and numbers of young Chinese sent abroad for higher education increased

Mid-1980s sources of friction between China and world removed – 1984 British government agreed Hong Kong was Chinese territory leased to Britain and would be part of People’s Republic when lease ran out in 1997

1986 signs of bitter and long-running dispute with USSR becoming less tense – Mikhail Gorbachev new leader

conflict crisis and change (china)

Documents

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