consequence modeling of explosion events by phast software in an industrial unit - a case study of 2...

Consequence Modeling of Explosion Events by PHAST

Software in an Industrial Unit - A Case Study of 2 Phases

of South Pars

***Ph.D, Department of Environment Management (HSE), Islamic Azad University, Zahedan Branch, Zahedan, Iran.

INTRODUCTION

It can be said that culture of coping with industrial problems formed in industrial revolution in Europe for the first

time and developed with technological and industrial development, especially by beginning productivity and

continuous improvement thinking in the world and were grown and flourished within it. Finally, prevention and

improvement of problems became a practical action and gained standing position in the midst of sciences.

In order to enjoy healthy and safe environment, existence of some industries free from any risk is presented as a

major concern for the public, professionals, and artisans. On the other hand, nowadays production and investment

scales that has increased compared to past, requires safer and more secure units because in the event of an accident,

the damage will be very hard that it is intolerable for today’s modern industry with ruthless competition in it.

s aqarTvelos mecnierebaTa erovnuli akademiis moambe, t. 9, #1, 2015BULLETIN OF THE GEORGIAN NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, vols. 9, no. 1, 2015

ABSTRACT. Considering the importance and sensitivity of the south pars Gas Field, and

also the consequence analysis of Gas Field tanks was decided to perform.

The assessment has been done by relying on TOTAL General Specification for Safety (GS-

SAF-253) and usage of PHAST software version 6.54. Pool fire and Flash fire Scenarios in the

two half of the year weather (warm and cold seasons) defined and evaluated for U-147 &

u*148 (condensates storage tanks unit). Based on the results and recommendations of GS-

SAF-253, Fire zone, Restricted and impact areas were calculated and plotted. The final

results indicate that radiation level of pool fire scenario is higher than allowed limit on

adjacent units. Due to specific weather condition of Asalouyeh, there was no significant

difference between the results obtained for cold and warm seasons of the year in this scenario.

In the other hand study showed that in the case of discharging all the tank contents, flash fire

hazard may affect on large part of refinery facilities. According to TOTAL GS-SAF-253, net

bund area for calculation of radiation can be reduced to 25% of whole bund area which

decrease the fire zone radius significantly where external response means are available and

can be mobilized within a reasonable period of time, so providing and assessment of external

response means suggested to reduce the risk of accident. Providing, improving and

implementing of emergency response plan, training programs, crisis management and passive

defense requirements could help us in this way.© 2015 Bull. Georg. Natl.Acad. Sci.

© 2015 Bull. Georg. Natl. Acad. Sci.

Soroush Irannejad Rankouhi*, Saeed Givehchi

**, Mahnaz Nasrabadi

***

Key words: Consequence Modeling, Phast software, South Pars, Pool Fire, Flash Fire

M.A, Department of Environment Management (HSE),Faculty of Technology and Engineering Islamic Azad University, Zahedan Branch, Zahedan, Iran.

** Ph.D, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Iran. Email: [email protected]

Asak

Typewritten text

*

Consequence Modeling of Explosion Events by PHAST Software in an Industrial Unit 317

In the early development of industrial activities, safety issues related to the course of events in the past to improve

conditions for the upcoming conditions. Engineering developed and published experience process in a specific code

to design. In the past, due to the limited number of industries and industrial activities, related events was limited to

specific equipment in factories, but nowadays, after rapid growth of technology and industrial activities , particularly

in the oil and chemical industries scope and number of industrial accidents were greatly increase.

Happening great events around the world caused a boom in engineering construction safety patrol as a key branch of

engineering. With need for methods to identify hazards processing techniques such as HAZOP were provided and

used. Adverse events are still happening in the industry despite strict laws for invent some ways to identify and

evaluate a variety of risks. Iran, our country has gone a lot of events through industrialization. This despite the fact

that even most powerful industrial units with day's design finding and trained and competent personals too, aren’t

immune from accidents. With this interpretation assessment and risk management method is outlined in order to

reduce probability and implement the event. The objective of risk management is to identify, assess and eliminate or

control hazards (Badri, 2012).

In today's industrialized world, identification and management of risks has found its place, not only in the petroleum

and chemical industries, but also in many human activities such economy world or civil projects. As is clear one of

the pillars of risk management is risk assessment. Risk assessment is as a tool for manager or risk analyst that it

ranks all risks with its help and provides necessary background to reduce risk. Risk assessment is

twofold quantitative and qualitative evaluation that quantitative evaluation is used when system is complex and

qualitative assessment fails to provide adequate information for analyst.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Consequence analysis is a tool that systems and safety engineers are of interest to assess the risks arising from

industrial activities and to estimate the risks and potential losses arising from events. Due to the time consuming and

complicated mathematical model for risk assessment, using software simulation can plays an important role. During

developing process industrial, especially oil and gas industrial, risk and its accidents is growing. Nowadays,

discussion of risk assessment in industry, especially process industries is increasing. However, modeling the likely

consequences of accident in a process system is of the most acceptable and identification risk center evaluation

levels.Development operations of South Pars gas field were gave to a consortium including Annie, Petropars and

Nikoo companies. Every day in 2 Phases of South Pars gas field 5/56 million cubic meters of container is harvested

and it is transferred to drought as a three –phase includes Gas, condensate, and water. Every day, 50 million cubic

meters of purified gas enters to grid and 77 thousand barrels of gas condensates may be issued. Production phases of

400 tons of sulfur per day, 2,600 tons of ethane, propane, 2,000 tons, and 1,200 tons of Bhutan can be noted1

The study is intended case Study on 2 Phases of South Pars was occurred given the importance of chemical spills

and explosions in the process industries and focus on the oil and gas industry that is considered the national industry

to evaluate the outcome accidents in the process industries.

Necessity and importance of research

Oil, Gas and Petrochemical is one of industry leader in safety and HSE issues in country. On the other hand,

accidents and incidents in this industry occur where researchers and engineers have always been immune to seek

solutions and reductions of safety problems of this industry. Gas industry is of process industries that vessels and

pressure piping play a major role in production and refining process. Since explosion events outcome assessment in

the transmission and maintenance is the subject of this investigation. Therefore, the necessities of this research are:

Create useful information for crisis management in the event of accidents

Determine the appropriate times and places (Emergency Exit) for evacuation In the event of accidents

Determine the severity of the potential harm to the specified devices and equipment

Establish appropriate safeguards(Barrier) to mitigate damage

South Pars gas field with a capacity of 14 billion cubic meters of natural gas and 18 billion barrels of condensates is

one of the largest energy resources in the world that with relying on the valuable resource, Iran could account for

second rank in terms of gas reserves in the world. Due to massive public and private investment in the industry,

south Pars as the main artery of industry and economy, has got great significance. In the meantime, the need to

preserve national wealth such as natural resources, energy resources, environmental, equipment and manpower ,

most importantly was further manifested and need to be deeply involved in all aspects. Trying to create and improve

safety systems with proper planning and a proactive attitude in order to deal with risks is one of the most attentions

in this field to reducing potential damages along with avoiding any unwanted incident in the event of damage and

Bull. Georg. Natl. Acad. Sci., vols 9, no. 1, 2015

318 S.I.Rankouhi

provide back to initial conditions promptly. Without doubt, this program needs to identification of threatening

hazards and next estimating its consequences by different ways of Engineering and Computing.Gas Installations is

account as a ring of production process chain. Averagely, 400,000 barrels of condensate is produced by phases 1-10

per day and more than 400 million barrels of gas condensates worth $ 20 billion were exported from the region’s

economic until now. Condensates due to particular combinations of economic hydrocarbon chains, among other

products, have the highest value. Other compounds containing five carbon atoms (C5) to high change from liquid

phase to gas phase due to heaviness. In South Pars refinery, these products are stored in tanks with floating roofs.

These compounds are characterized that high volatility and flammability can be referred that also their added

economic value changes these tanks to attention focus of safety experts. Nowadays, we are looking upward trend in

the growth and development of South Pars gas field in Asolovieh and Kangan sites, so that these volume and density

of gas and petrochemical projects isn’t seen in any other part of the vast country of Iran. By doing ahead research

and managers attention to these areas of research and implementation and enforcement them, they can reduce

occurrence of unpredictable and irreparable injuries in above said site as well as other sites in operation. Since,

while some applications like this have not been done earnest and practical on this site and related phases, important

to evaluate and identify potential hazards can be quite sensible. On the other hand, with knowing that structure of the

these kind of industry is based on proven and basic designs, objectives and strategies out of such research can be

used in designing future projects of this kind and avoid similar errors.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are effective factors on modeling of explosive events outcome in the area?

2. Do observing the extents of tanks and pipelines during construction of considered?

HISTORY OF RESEARCH

Event of 1984- Mexico City

At 5:30 on November 19, 1984: a drop in pressure is reported. In the control room trying to determine the cause of

the pressure drop remains inconclusive and LPG gas discharge continues for about 5-10 minutes that the resulted

steam go to the Feller and explosion occurs. In this explosion of LPG, liquid on the surface of the pool was the

cause of pool fire and at this time, 4 spherical cylinders and 11 cylindrical tank may occur BLEVE.

Figure 1: Mexico City accident

Bhopal disaster India - 1984

On the morning of 3 December 1984 at a pesticide factory of Union Carbide Company in city of Bhopal, India toxic

MIC emissions were reported. In this incident 2,000 people was killed and more than 200 thousand were injured that

is called as one of the worst and most tragic industrial disasters in history. In the event more than 40 to 60 tons of

toxic gases was leaked out that until 25 mile was affected and about 25,000 people were exposed to the gas. Within

a week, nearly 8,000 victims of the disaster lost their lives. After that incident, about 12,000 people of injured

victims joined to victims. Yet, about 12,000 people are affected by that event.

Bull. Georg. Natl. Acad. Sci., vols. 9, no. 1, 2015


Figure: 2: Bhopal disaster in India

Petrochemical Toulouse, France - 2001

In a petrochemical plant in Toulouse France an explosion occurred and because of it 37 people were killed or

missing and more than 650 injured.

Figure 3: Petrochemical accident in Toulouse France

Texas refinery in America - 2005

The accident killed 15 people and wounded 170 people and its explosion and fire inflicted more than one billion

dollars in damage.

Figure 4: Texas refinery accident


320 S.I.Rankouhi

Important events occurring in Iran:

Table 1: Selection of the most important events occurring in Iran(Badri, 2012)

Row Event place Date Toll Event type Description

1 Kimia Gostar Sepeher

industrial unit-Arak

5 3 2008 35 Explosion-Fair Explosion in chemical

solvents unit

2 Gas factory-Mohammad

Shar Karaj

9 4 2008 15 Explosion A significant number of

capsules were detonated

by a primary explosive

3

Railway-Nishapour 20 11 2003 295 Explosion Blast of chemicals

materials wagon

4 Shoush-Khozestan 11 10 2002 7 Fair Caused by leak in a old

gasoline pipeline of gas

transfer from Ahwaz to

Shoush

5 Arak Oil Refinery 6 1997 9 Explosion. Fair Leak during welding

6 Razi Petroleum 4 7 1997 4 Release of toxic

gas - blast

Leak in elbow of sour gas

pipe and release to control

room and poisoning 4

employee

7 Gachsaran building Office

27 6 1980 80 Explosion Warehouse explosion of

nitroglycerin- By doing

welding in place and build

a small fire , explosion

suddenly occurs

Financial loss caused by accidents

According to studies, during years 1970-1999 most losses in oil, gas and petrochemical projects are specifically

related to fire and explosion incidents that totaling are included more than 88 % of these events. So care of

principles of safety not only in chemistry but also in all areas of industrial units is considered essential, although

above described events are different of how happened and types of chemicals, but there are some common basic that

disability in fire control, explosion or leakage of toxic substances and resulting deaths of people in and out are

among them that it could have an adverse effect on future generations like the Bhopal disaster in India.

Outcome Assessment

In the process of risk assessment of various industries, after the identification and assessment of risks, need to assess

impact and consequences of risks is exist. To be used in the risk assessment Assess these impacts and its

consequences are carried out by outcome evaluation procedure.



Figure 5: Risk management process (Zinali 2009)

The results of this analysis and quantitative risk assessment will be applied in assessment and risk management unit.

From these studies, the risk cannot be completed for a chemical unit unless the outcome assessment level be

conducted for it too.

Analysis of research’s Results

Processes of phase 4 and 5

Inlet gas to refinery after separation of the condensate will be transported to four operating units , each with a

capacity of 13.9 million cubic meters and treated as follows:

Gas sweetening

Dehydration

Setting the gas dew point

Ethane recovery

Ethan treatment

Isolation, purification and storage of propane and butane

Relaxation Markaptan

Every day, 50 million cubic meters of treated gas will go to grid by a 56- inch pipeline and 77 thousand barrels of

gas condensates will sent to storage tanks for export after passing through the condensate stabilization unit. Also

removed H2S from sweetening unit will be guided to sulfur retrieval units and daily 400 tons sulfur produced as

granulated and is transferred to sulfur mechanization storage by truck.

Details of the study point 2 Phases

This 2 Phases of South Pars gas field development operations was transferred to a consortium of companies Ani,

Petropars and Nikoo in August, 2000 and it fully launched by effective collaboration of specialists and expert forces

of Gas Company in February, 2004 and came into operation officially by that time President Seyed Mohammad

Khatami.Well head platforms were installed in each two operating phases that each of them can accept 12 wells.

5/56 million cubic meters of container is harvested daily transferred to the drought until 100 Km as three phases

consisting of gas, condensate, and water by two 32- inch submarine pipeline.

Review

Risk

assessment

Risk

control

Probability

of Hazard

Severity

hazards consequences

Hazards

assessment

Hazards

Identification

System

description and

planning


322 S.I.Rankouhi

Figure 6: Phases of South Pars

Definition of probable scenarios

We study evacuation a tank scenario as a sample for other tanks as well as sudden outbreak of fire to achieve

reliable results and also obtain the range to achieve reliable results and achieve limitation of Impact Area and

Restricted Area.

Table 2: Description of examined scenarios

Scenarios Description

Scenario 1 Pool Fire by draining the tank 147-T-101 in summer

Scenario 2 Flash Fire by draining the tank 147-T-101in summer

Scenario 3 Pool Fire by draining the tank 147-T-101 in winter

Scenario 4 Flash Fire by draining the tank 147-T-101 in winter

Scenario 5 Pool Fire by draining the tank 148-T-101 in summer

Scenario 6 Flash Fire by draining the tank 148-T-101 in summer

Scenario 7 Pool Fire by draining the tank 148-T-101 in winter

Scenario 8 Flash Fire by draining the tank 148-T-101 in winter

* For all scenarios “Catastrophic Type” shape is considered.

Modeling

In this phase, we model tanks with having possible scenarios and by PHAST 6.54 software.

Required parameters for modeling pool fires

Weather condition

Weather data is as follows based on provided data and documentation by Kangan Meteorological

center:

Means of Max/Min: Is the mean of maximum and minimum temperature per month

Mean Daily: The average daily temperature in each month

Highest/Lowest: Maximum and minimum temperatures during the month

Ground: is temperature of earth.



Table 3: Measured temperatures during the past year (Celsius)

ground

Means of Month

Date Lowest Mean Date

(day)

Lowest

(C)

Date

(day)

Highest Mean

daily

Min Max

29 1.0 6.4 28 2.8 21 23.5 12.8 8.2 17.4 Jan

11 -1.0 5.8 11 2.0 26 23.2 12.9 8.0 17.8 Feb

9 3.0 9.6 9 5.6 22 28.5 12.6 11.3 21.9 Mar

14 9.0 15.1 14 10.5 28 36.0 24.2 17.2 31.2 Apr

7 14.0 19.4 7 16.0 31 40.0 28.1 21.2 35.1 May

6 20.0 23.2 6 22.0 2 44.4 32.5 25.0 40.0 Jun

16 21.0 24.1 16 23.0 31 46.0 32.5 25.7 40.1 Jul

31 21.0 23.9 19 23.0 1 47.0 32.9 25.6 39.6 Aug

29 19.0 21.0 29 19.0 8 41.0 32.6 22.3 35.6 Sep

26 13.0 16.9 25 14.0 12 37.0 29.0 18.4 32.6 Oct

28 7.0 10.1 28 9.0 1 31.5 25.5 12.2 25.8 Nov

23 3.0 9.5 31 4.0 12 23.0 19.0 10.0 18.1 Dec

-1.0 19.4 2.0 47.0 14.0 17.1 29.6 YEAR

Based on the above table and taking into account the months April as beginning of heating season ( spring and

summer ) and October as beginning of the cold season ( autumn and winter) average air temperature in the study

area is as follows:

Means of summer temperature: 30

Means of max summer temperature: 42.4

Means of winter temperature: 15.13

Means of max winter temperature: 30.21

Humidity

Also average relative humidity of air and steam pressure according to data from the meteorological center of Kangan

at different times of the day during the year is as follows:

Means of Vapor Pressure: 15

Means of relative Himidity in summer =40

Means of relative Himidity in winter =59

Based on Basic Engineering Design Data in designing part, relative humidity is generally considered to be 65

percent.

Speed and wind direction template

According to Meteorological Data of Kangan, recorded speed and number wind during the year is in various ways.

Main directions of region winds can be realized by highest wind speeds, that for this research, highest speed is

belong to February and to the northwest (N / W) to the southeast (S / E) and its rates summer and winter are as

follows:

Summer Prevailing wind velocity: 5.6 m/s (N/W to S/E)

Winter Prevailing wind velocity: 4.8 m/s (N/W to S/E)

Surface roughness factor

Also the surface roughness factor, which is more important in the release of toxic gases, based on the proposed GS-

SAF-253 is considered as 1 meter for industrial environments.

Summary of geographical and climatic information is in the Next page table


324 S.I.Rankouhi

Table 4: Weather condition

Summer

Temperature 42

Humidity 40%

Solar Radiation 0.8 Kw/m2

Wind speed m/s 5.6

Atmospheric stability C/D

The cold seasons

Temperature 30

Humidity 65%

Solar Radiation 0.5 Kw/m2

Wind speed m/s 4.8

Atmospheric stability E

Testing hypotheses

Initial analysis of the modeling results

- The pool fire scenarios analysis

By looking at the results in maps 4-1, 4-3, 4-5 and 4-7 we find that amount of scattered radiation by the tank 148-T-

101damage more than other tanks. Then we can see that create an event in terms of w1, i.e. six months in warm

climates colder than six months, have more severe and longer -range radiation, 12.5 and 37.5 KW / m. Hence it

simulated in pool fire and could described scenario (5) as Worst case.

With another look, if we want to compare research's results of pool fire scenario in two hot and cold climates

condition we came to the conclusion that in fact, there are no dramatic differences between obtained results in this

seasons. This can be justified in two forms:

1. Asalooye is of warm and humid southern part of country from climate aspect. And in this area climatic

differences hasn't significant difference over the years. Especially for area average wind speed that it has chosen

some close together in both semesters.

2. The main difference in the weather conditions in two semesters is belong to relative humidity that results show

that relative humidity hasn’t a great effect on the amount of radiation from a pool fire.

- Analysis moment fire scenarios

With looking at the map will show a sudden fire incident(4-2,4-4,4-6,4-8 maps) we find that 148-T-101 tank has had

more severe in sudden fire like pool fire, however, unlike the temperature difference between the cold and warm

seasons, suddenly has a greater impact on fire. This difference show itself with increasing radiation and flammable

gas emissions during warm seasons.

- Calculation of triple regions

Now, we want to describe safe distance as GS_SAF_253 according to obtained results from previous unit as well as

carried out analyses in 5.1.

For this purpose should remember a few points:

1. Since radiation effects decreased with increasing distance from the source of fire, we account maximum

obtained distance as safe distance in order to ensure safe conditions in each of the scenarios. For example, for

Fire Zone as GS_253_SAF two criteria 9.5 and 15.8 is considered.

2. As reported in the previous chapter, unit Condensate Storage Tanks, Refinery 17 and 18 has a 4 cylinder shape.

So to obtain a safe distance, the results of the study on one of the tanks are generalizable to other on other tanks

and finally, distances should be chosen so that cover all tanks of effects.

According to the evaluation result of two types of fire (sudden & pool) in this model, since the fire occurred

suddenly at the moment and quickly become a pool fire, it can’t have a significant impact on equipment and

machinery. Therefore, we used to determine the distance of a pool fire, because it can bring under equipment, tanks,

and pipelines in the event time.

-Fire Zone

Fire Zone is an area around equipment’s that has greatest impact of flammable gases emissions or heat radiation and

blast wave. Now, according to the modeling results we obtain required distance for this region.


We consider radiation of Fire Zone area as 37.5 Kw per square meter. .Since most formidable Pool Fire is related to

scenario No. 5, we selected it as a benchmark for further evaluation. By using Figure 4-9 distance of radiation

survey is 90 meters.

-Restricted Area:

In fact, this area is known that all things must be managed within the organization. To obtain the radius of the area

or controlled area we measure by the above method, thus compare obtained values for the radiation of 12.5 Kw per

square meter in pool fire scenarios and consider the most amounts as radius of restricted Area.

-Impacted Area

Similarly, we extract intervals for 4 Kw maximum amount of radiation per square meter from Figure 4-9 that this

value is considered 270 m.

CONCLUSIONS

Looking at the results in the fourth quarter and the material in this chapter, we could obtain desired three regions.

Now, with this information and available scenarios, we proceed to the final conclusions.

1. Map 4-5 shows the radiation boundary 37.5 kilowatts per square meter that is maximum allowable radiation to

damage pipelines and reservoirs. .Due to the high radiation and obtained distances, damage to adjacent tanks

potential has reservoirs transmission lines and control valves.

2. Analysis effect of radiation has shown that radiation from a pool of fire in a storage tank arrives to lateral body

and locating tanks and upcoming standards could be done better.

3. Than two -thirds of the reservoir tank and a small portion of reservoir adjacent, another important facility is not

irradiate Fire Zone and possible serious damage to other parts is pale and it’s not possible to cause Domino or a

chain of events.

4. As mentioned above, under control area is one that should be control by management, but as is specified in the

map 4-5, it enters the installation phase of 147 and 148 , on the west side of the reservoir. Although technically it

may not have a major problem, but can be a mismatch of standards.

SUGGESTIONS While we analysis our findings and reached clear results on the consequences of freedom accident and fire at a gas

refinery, its effective solutions and proposals turn. It should be noted that the main features of the proposals are:

Need and purpose suppliers

Ability to run

Affordable

Reliability

Compliance with Standards

In this context, proposals to reduce risks and improve the safety offered:

1. Overall, the findings indicate that locating the unit is not properly and in the future in the event of severe

accident at one of tanks we will see its impact on other units then, chain events phenomena. One of the

main reasons for this is lack of design engineering for new projects. Because in South Pars Projects, new

project are building by using of information from previous projects as basis project and foundation

engineering. Unfortunately problems in other designs have been extended to new projects and

gradually intensity will be increased. But since fundamental reform of this subject (New location) can’t be

done in studied refineries, it is recommended that results of this research in future projects in South Pars

that currently are in the engineering (Detail) and construction phase, used and layout are done separately

from the base project.

2. As was seen in the Fire Zone, we are face with problem of standard. This despite the fact that locating

refineries currently cannot be modified so proposal must be such that be applicable to situations. Use of fire

equipment reliability that has reliability in addition to reducing the volume to 25% can result in significant

consequences of fire- safe pool returns. Condensate storage tanks on design Has a Automatic Fire Fighting

system called Auto Rim Seal Protect on the roof of tank that in case of fire automatic emptied foam

extinguishing agent onto roof tanks that lasts for 1 minute max. Given the importance of subject as well as

explicit text of NFPA11 standard about fire with foam that knows taking at least 20 minutes time to reach

the fire vehicles necessary, it is recommended that tanks equipped by a side production system (Foam



Generator) to NFPA11 requirements be followed in this regard as well as reducing 25% pool surface be

possible in calculations.

3. It is advised that control valves be revised and located places of putting. By attention to Fire Zone

limitation it is necessary to safety valves on the tanks 147 and 148 be in areas that are out of range of the

radiation.

4. Since effects of fire largely affect the health of the equipment and personnel, it is suggested that

management of the refinery develop and implement a comprehensive emergency response guidelines

(ERP) for the refinery. Further periodic training programs and numerous exercises included while full

information to all parties, their readiness levels go up in possible events.

5. According to the results of the investigated scenario and in particular, the sudden fire scenario found that

the sudden release of the contents of the tank, the radius will be a huge impact. .Since the probability of

such an event is sabotage and terrorist acts, it is recommended examined as soon as possible passive a

program as defense and crisis management and done.

6. As we have seen in some cases, the effects of accidents extended to a broader range. Thus it is suggested

environment surrounding the tanks and refineries to the Impact Area covered with education and warning

signs so that people who are active in this area with knowledge of the principles of safety apply principles

of safety.

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