CONSEQUENTIALISMCONSEQUENTIALISM

TROLLEYTROLLEYA runaway trolley is coming down the track. It is headed towards five people who cannot get out A runaway trolley is coming down the track. It is headed towards five people who cannot get out of its way. The driver of the trolley realizes that he can save the five by throwing a switch and of its way. The driver of the trolley realizes that he can save the five by throwing a switch and

diverting the trolley down a siding, but he also realizes that if he does so the trolley will kill a diverting the trolley down a siding, but he also realizes that if he does so the trolley will kill a lone an standing on the siding.lone an standing on the siding.

Should the driver divert the trolley?Should the driver divert the trolley?

A runaway trolley is coming down the track. It is headed towards five people A runaway trolley is coming down the track. It is headed towards five people who cannot get out of its way. A passerby realizes that if he pushes a who cannot get out of its way. A passerby realizes that if he pushes a

nearby overweight man onto the tracks his bulk will stop the trolley before it nearby overweight man onto the tracks his bulk will stop the trolley before it hits the five, though the overweight man himself will be killed.hits the five, though the overweight man himself will be killed.

You are a doctor and 5 people who were injured in a trolley You are a doctor and 5 people who were injured in a trolley accident come into your emergency room. You quickly accident come into your emergency room. You quickly

realize that you can tend to 4/5 injured people in order to save realize that you can tend to 4/5 injured people in order to save their lives but it will take you all day to do this because you their lives but it will take you all day to do this because you

are the only doctor in the emergency room. The last fellow is are the only doctor in the emergency room. The last fellow is so severely injured that in order to save his life you must so severely injured that in order to save his life you must

spend all day on him as well. You only have enough time to spend all day on him as well. You only have enough time to save 4 or 1. What decision will you make?save 4 or 1. What decision will you make?

You are a transplant doctor who just received 5 You are a transplant doctor who just received 5 patients in need of transplants. Each needs a patients in need of transplants. Each needs a

different organ. You just remembered that in the different organ. You just remembered that in the other room a man walked in for a routine check up other room a man walked in for a routine check up

and he unfortunately feel asleep. If these 5 patients and he unfortunately feel asleep. If these 5 patients don’t receive a transplant today, they will die. Do don’t receive a transplant today, they will die. Do

you use the sleeping man’s organs?you use the sleeping man’s organs?

CONSEQUENTIALISMCONSEQUENTIALISM We don’t always have to focus on actions. We don’t always have to focus on actions.

We can also focus on consequences. We can also focus on consequences. ConsequentialismConsequentialism is based on the is based on the

premise that our ethical choices, like other premise that our ethical choices, like other types of decisions, should be based on types of decisions, should be based on their consequences. In consequentialism, their consequences. In consequentialism, the consequences of actions are measured the consequences of actions are measured against one value. This ‘useful’ value can against one value. This ‘useful’ value can be something like happiness, welfare or be something like happiness, welfare or pleasure. It should be maximized. So if pleasure. It should be maximized. So if the consequences are good, the act is the consequences are good, the act is right. If the consequences are bad, the act right. If the consequences are bad, the act is wrong. is wrong.

Utilitarianism vs. EgoismUtilitarianism vs. EgoismAn obvious question however arises when An obvious question however arises when

evaluating the consequences of an action.evaluating the consequences of an action.If you evaluate the consequences just for If you evaluate the consequences just for

yourself your judgement will be different yourself your judgement will be different than if you evaluate the consequences for than if you evaluate the consequences for some other individual. Take the example of some other individual. Take the example of you hitting a Porsche in the middle of the you hitting a Porsche in the middle of the night when no one is around to witness it.night when no one is around to witness it.

The answers to these questions form the bases The answers to these questions form the bases for two theories: for two theories:

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism EgoismEgoism

EgoismEgoism This is a consequentialist theory that This is a consequentialist theory that

contends that we act morally when we act contends that we act morally when we act in a way that promotes our own best long-in a way that promotes our own best long-term interests. Therefore when deciding term interests. Therefore when deciding the morality of an action, we should only the morality of an action, we should only consider the consequences for ourselves.consider the consequences for ourselves.

UtilitarianismUtilitarianismThe name of utilitarianism is derived from The name of utilitarianism is derived from

the Latin ‘the Latin ‘utilisutilis’, meaning ‘useful’. This ’, meaning ‘useful’. This second type of consequentialism is second type of consequentialism is utilitarianism, founded by English utilitarianism, founded by English philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. They argued that the best Stuart Mill. They argued that the best decisionsdecisions

(1) generate the most benefits as (1) generate the most benefits as compared to their disadvantages, compared to their disadvantages,

(2) benefit the largest number of (2) benefit the largest number of people. people.

In other words, Utilitarianism is attempting to do the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Ratio of Harm to EvilRatio of Harm to Evil An action is morally right if it results in pleasure, An action is morally right if it results in pleasure,

whereas it is wrong if it gives rise to pain. The whereas it is wrong if it gives rise to pain. The freedom principle is also based on this. This freedom principle is also based on this. This principle states that you can do whatever you want, principle states that you can do whatever you want, as long as you don’t cause anyone any pain/harm. as long as you don’t cause anyone any pain/harm.

Utilitarians are more concerned about the Utilitarians are more concerned about the ratio of ratio of harm to evil harm to evil than the absolute amount of than the absolute amount of happiness or unhappiness produced by a choice. happiness or unhappiness produced by a choice.

In other words, a decision that produces a great In other words, a decision that produces a great amount of good but an equal amount of harm would amount of good but an equal amount of harm would be rejected in favour of an alternative that produces be rejected in favour of an alternative that produces a moderate amount of good at very little cost. a moderate amount of good at very little cost.

Short and Long Term Short and Long Term ConsequencesConsequences

Utilitarians consider both Utilitarians consider both short- and short- and long-termlong-term consequencesconsequences when when making ethical determinations. If the making ethical determinations. If the immediate benefits of a decision immediate benefits of a decision doesn’t outweigh its possible future doesn’t outweigh its possible future costs, then the decision that produces costs, then the decision that produces long term benefits is chosen. long term benefits is chosen.

However, if the immediate good is sure However, if the immediate good is sure and the future good uncertain, decision and the future good uncertain, decision makers generally select the option that makers generally select the option that produces the short-term benefit produces the short-term benefit

Further, the Utilitarian decision maker keeps Further, the Utilitarian decision maker keeps her or his own interests in mind but gives her or his own interests in mind but gives them no more weight than anyone else’s.them no more weight than anyone else’s.

Making a choice according to Utilitarian Making a choice according to Utilitarian principles is a three-step process.principles is a three-step process.

First,First, identify all the possible courses of action. identify all the possible courses of action. Second,Second, estimate the direct as well as indirect estimate the direct as well as indirect

pain (costs) and pleasure (benefits) for each pain (costs) and pleasure (benefits) for each course of action. course of action.

FinallyFinally, select the alternative that produces the , select the alternative that produces the greatest amount of good based on the pleasure-greatest amount of good based on the pleasure-pain ratios generated in step two.pain ratios generated in step two.

How to calculate the How to calculate the pleasure/pain ratiopleasure/pain ratio

Bentham attempted to calculate the pleasure-Bentham attempted to calculate the pleasure-ratio by basing it on several criteria:ratio by basing it on several criteria:

Intensity of the pleasureIntensity of the pleasure How long it lastsHow long it lasts How certain it is to occurHow certain it is to occur How likely it is to produce additional pleasureHow likely it is to produce additional pleasure Quality (added by Mill and it refers to the Quality (added by Mill and it refers to the

moral superiority that one pleasure holds over moral superiority that one pleasure holds over another)another)

CRITISIMSCRITISIMS Utilitarianism is probably the most defensible Utilitarianism is probably the most defensible

approach in emergency situations, such as in approach in emergency situations, such as in the wake of the massive earthquake that hit the wake of the massive earthquake that hit Pakistan in 2005. In the midst of such Pakistan in 2005. In the midst of such widespread devastation, medical personnel widespread devastation, medical personnel ought to give top priority to those who are ought to give top priority to those who are most likely to survive. It does little good to most likely to survive. It does little good to spend time with a terminal patient while a spend time with a terminal patient while a person who would benefit from treatment person who would benefit from treatment dies.dies.

Few could argue with the ultimate goal of Few could argue with the ultimate goal of evaluating consequences, which is to evaluating consequences, which is to promote human welfare by maximizing promote human welfare by maximizing benefits to as many people as possible. benefits to as many people as possible. Despite its popularity, Utilitarianism suffers Despite its popularity, Utilitarianism suffers from serious deficiencies.from serious deficiencies.

Of course it is very hard to determine how much Of course it is very hard to determine how much pleasure an action will actually give. Also, to find pleasure an action will actually give. Also, to find the total amount of pleasure, we need to consider the total amount of pleasure, we need to consider all individuals that are involved and add up their all individuals that are involved and add up their pleasures. But how do we quantify pleasure? And pleasures. But how do we quantify pleasure? And has the pleasure of one person the same value as has the pleasure of one person the same value as the pleasure of another? Also, how do we decide the pleasure of another? Also, how do we decide whether one action gives more pleasure than whether one action gives more pleasure than another? Answering these questions is difficult. another? Answering these questions is difficult. Even the clever John Stuart Mill did not have an Even the clever John Stuart Mill did not have an answer, although he did have an opinion. He answer, although he did have an opinion. He stated that certain pleasures (like intellectual stated that certain pleasures (like intellectual fulfillment) are by nature more valuable than fulfillment) are by nature more valuable than other pleasures (like physical desires). other pleasures (like physical desires).

Sometimes identifying possible Sometimes identifying possible consequences can be difficult or impossible. consequences can be difficult or impossible. Many different groups may be affected, Many different groups may be affected, unforeseen consequences may develop, and unforeseen consequences may develop, and so on. Even when consequences are clear, so on. Even when consequences are clear, evaluating their relative merits can be evaluating their relative merits can be challenging. Being objective is difficult challenging. Being objective is difficult because we humans tend to downplay long-because we humans tend to downplay long-term risks in favour of immediate rewards term risks in favour of immediate rewards and to favour ourselves when making and to favour ourselves when making decisions. Due to the difficulty of identifying decisions. Due to the difficulty of identifying and evaluating potential costs and benefits, and evaluating potential costs and benefits, Utilitarian decision makers sometimes reach Utilitarian decision makers sometimes reach different conclusions when faced with the different conclusions when faced with the same dilemma.same dilemma.

Ironically, one of the greatest strengths of Ironically, one of the greatest strengths of Utilitarian theory—its concern for Utilitarian theory—its concern for collective human welfare—is also one of collective human welfare—is also one of its greatest weaknesses. In focusing on its greatest weaknesses. In focusing on what’s best for the group as a whole, what’s best for the group as a whole, Utilitarianism discounts the worth of the Utilitarianism discounts the worth of the individual. The needs of the person are individual. The needs of the person are subjugated to the needs of the group or subjugated to the needs of the group or organization. This type of reasoning can organization. This type of reasoning can justify all kinds of abuse. In utilitarianism, justify all kinds of abuse. In utilitarianism, an engineer could also be asked to bend an engineer could also be asked to bend or break a fundamental rule, because this or break a fundamental rule, because this will result in the greatest happiness for will result in the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. For the greatest number of people. For example, the engineer has the example, the engineer has the opportunity to save 10 million euros on a opportunity to save 10 million euros on a design. But he knows that this will later design. But he knows that this will later cause an accident killing 5 people. He cause an accident killing 5 people. He argues that 10 million euros can cause argues that 10 million euros can cause more happiness than 5 lives. To more happiness than 5 lives. To compensate for this, rule utilitarianism compensate for this, rule utilitarianism has been created. This kind of has been created. This kind of utilitarianism recognizes and uses moral utilitarianism recognizes and uses moral rules. It is thus also similar to duty ethics.rules. It is thus also similar to duty ethics.

View the following clip, entitled “Justice with View the following clip, entitled “Justice with Michael Sandell” a Harvard Professor.Michael Sandell” a Harvard Professor.

Episode 2. Time 3:35.Episode 2. Time 3:35.

http://http://www.justiceharvard.orgwww.justiceharvard.org/watch/ /watch/

This episode examines the use of cost-This episode examines the use of cost-benefit analysis (a utilitarian approach) by benefit analysis (a utilitarian approach) by businesses to determine where they should businesses to determine where they should allocate funds, minimize costs and maximize allocate funds, minimize costs and maximize profits.profits.

After watching the clip what would you say After watching the clip what would you say about putting a price tag on human life?about putting a price tag on human life?