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Conservation of energy - he total amount of energyConservation of energy (including potential energy) in a closed system remains constant. In other words, energy can be converted from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. input energy = + output energy Energy input / output - the kind of energy that goes intoEnergy input / output a system and the resultant energy that comes out of a system; excess energy input deals with how much energy remains in a system that is not output; (ex. incoming solar radiation minus the infrared radiation back into space) 18. Energy Conservation Page 1 of 2 remaining system energy system

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Entropy - the measure of unavailable energy in a closedEntropy system / most common reference to entropy is found in thermodynamic systems Energy loss - energy that is not used to complete the intended processes of a system (ex. waste heat from an incandescent bulb or motor) 18. Energy Conservation Page 2 of 2

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19. Atomic Change (Page 1 of 2) Alpha decay - A form of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus ejects an alpha particle through the electromagnetic force And transforms into a nucleus with mass number 4 less and atomic number 2 less. Beta decay - A form of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (an electron or a positron) is emitted.

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19. Atomic Change (Page 2 of 2) Fission - A process in nuclear physics in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei as fission products, and usually some by-product particles. Fusion - A nuclear reaction in which nuclei combine to form more massive nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy.

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20. Electromagnetic Spectrum

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21. Reflecting Light (Page 1 of 2) Convex: curved outward like the outer surface of a sphere Concave: curved inward like the inner surface of a sphere

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21. Reflecting Light (Page 2 of 2) Flat: no curved surface giving no curved image reflection Parabolic: a reflective device, formed in the shape of a parabolic dish; parabolic reflectors can either collect or distribute energy such as light, sound, or radio waves.

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22. Efficiency Efficiency: A measure of how much more work must be put into a machine than you get out of the machine. (Work Out) (Work In) (Work Out) (8.0N x 1.0m) 8 (Work In) (5.0N x 3.0m) 15 % Efficiency = ===.53 (x 100) = 53% Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) Theoretical (Ideal) Mechanical Advantage (TMA) (Another way to calculate the same thing) (Work = Force x Distance) X 100

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23. Power, Voltage, & Current Power - the rate at which work is done expressed in watts Voltage - electromotive force expressed in volts Current - the flow of electric charge expressed in amps Power = Voltage x Current Power = 120 volts x 15 amps Power = 1800 watts

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24. Plate Tectonics Mantle convection occurs because the density of a fluid is related to its temperature. Hot rocks lower in the mantle are less dense than their cooler counterparts above. The hot rock rises and the cooler rock sinks due to gravity. This process is the origin of crustal plate movement.

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25. Geologic Eras Precambrian (Beginning of earth - 543 million years ago) Cenozoic (65 million years ago - Present) "Age of Recent Life" Mesozoic (248 - 65 million years ago) "Age of Medieval Life * The Age of Dinosaurs occurred in the Mesozoic Era during the Cretaceous Period (144-65 million years ago). Paleozoic (543 - 248 million years ago) "Age of Ancient Life * The Coal Age occurred during in Paleozoic Era during the Pennsylvanian Period (323-290 million years ago).

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26. Geological Age Crystal analysis: Determines the arrangements of atoms in solids; crystal formation, like mineral content, does not help accurately determine the age of a rock since crystals can sit for long periods with little change after formation Radioactive Dating: Measurement of the amount of radioactive material (usually carbon 14) that an object contains; can be used to estimate the age of the object based on a measure of radioactive decay / also called radiometric or carbon dating Mineral content: The mineral formations contained in a rock; examination of mineral content does not make it possible to accurately determine the age of a rock since minerals can sit for long periods with little change after formation Law of Superposition: Layers of rock are arranged in a time sequence, with the oldest on the bottom and the youngest on the top; later processes can disturb the arrangement thus making it difficult to determine age of a single rock sample

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27. Weather Prediction Most likely the Midwest area in red will feel colder temperatures and receive rainfall as warm, moist air is pushed up in the atmosphere by cooler, more dense air.

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27. Weather Prediction The movement of weather across the United States is controlled, in large part, by global atmospheric circulation.

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28. Ocean Currents 3. The California Current is slow and cool. 10. The Canary Current is cool due to upwelling. 5. The West Wind Drift is cool, encircling Antarctica. 7. The Gulf Stream is warm, fast and narrow.

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29. Oceanic Ridges & Trenches An oceanic ridge is an underwater mountain range, formed when convection currents rise in the mantle beneath the oceanic crust and create magma where two plates meet at a divergent boundary. An oceanic trench is a hemispheric-scale long but narrow topographic depression of the sea floor caused by plates moving together along convergent boundaries.

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30. Salinity Level of Seawater The salinity level of seawater is fairly constant, at about 35 parts per thousand (35000 mg/L).

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31. Types of Rock Precipitated Rock: rocks (or minerals) that are formed during a chemical reaction often within pores or other openings in existing rocks Igneous Rock: formed when molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies Sedimentary Rock: formed when layers of eroded earth are deposited on top of each other and pressed down through time until the bottom layers slowly turn into rock Metamorphic Rock: formed when other kinds of rocks are changed by great heat and pressure inside the earth

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32. Mohs Hardness Scale The Mohs scale was devised by Friedrich Mohs in 1812 and has been a valuable aid to identifying minerals ever since. Here are the ten standard minerals in the Mohs scale: 1. Talc 2. Gypsium 3. Calcite 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite 6. Feldspar 7. Quartz 8. Topaz 9. Corundum 10. Diamond Softest Hardest Softest Hardest

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33. Layers of the Atmosphere The upper limit of our atmosphere is the Exosphere. The Thermosphere is very thin. It's where the space shuttle orbits. Rock fragments from space burn up in the Mesosphere. Many airplanes fly in the Stratosphere because it is very stable. Also, the ozone layer is there. Temperature increase The Troposphere is closest to the Earth where weather occurs.

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34. Clouds (Page 1 of 4) Clouds with Vertical Growth Cumulus clouds are puffy white or light gray clouds that look like floating cotton balls. Cumulus clouds have sharp outlines and a flat base. Cumulonimbus clouds are generally known as thunderstorm clouds. They form when warm, moist air rises quickly in the atmosphere.

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34. Clouds (Page 2 of 4) Low Clouds Stratus clouds are uniform gray in color and almost cover the entire sky. Light mist or drizzle is sometimes associated with them. Stratocumulus clouds are low, lumpy, gray, and but bring little or no precipitation. Nimbostratus clouds are dark gray with a ragged base and are associated with continuous light rain or snow.

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34. Clouds (Page 3 of 4) Middle Clouds Altostratus clouds cover the whole sky and have a gray or blue-gray appearance. They usually form ahead of storms. Sometimes rain will fall from altostratus clouds. Altocumulus clouds are grayish- white with one part of the cloud darker than the other. They usually form in groups. If you see Altocumulus clouds on a warm humid morning, then expect thunderstorms by late afternoon.

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34. Clouds (Page 4 of 4) High Clouds Cirrus clouds are composed entirely of ice and consist of long, thin, wispy streamers. They are white and predict fair weather. Cirrostratus clouds are thin clouds that usually cover the entire sky. They often come 12-24 hours before a rain or snow storm. Cirrocumulus clouds are small rounded puffs that appear in long rows. They are usually white, but can appear gray and are usually seen in the winter time and indicate fair, but cold weather.

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35. Weathering Crevasse: crack or fissure in a glacier or snow field Karst topography: a three-dimensional landscape shaped by the dissolution of soluble layers of carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite Dunes: hills of sand built by wind- related processes Loess deposit: silty soil that has been deposited by windstorms

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36. Global Change Dumping toxic waste: pollutes the natural environment and contaminates groundwater Chloroflurocarbons: deplete ozone, allowing harmful UV rays into the atmosphere Overcultivating land: soil is disturbed by ploughing too often and to too great a depth, thus leaving it exposed for long periods of time and susceptible to erosion by wind and water; land becomes unusable for agriculture Burning fossil fuels: releases excess carbon dioxide resulting in global warming as well as other chemicals that contribute to acid rain and smog

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37. Seasonal Changes The Earth remains tilted on its axis as it revolves around (orbits) the Sun. This tilt causes opposite seasons in the Northern and Southern hemispheres.