v

Contents

Preface to the First Edition xPreface to the Second Edition xiPreface to the Third Edition xiiPreface to the Fourth Edition xiiiSymbols Used in Text xivUnits xv

PART I INTRODUCTION 11 The Materials of Engineering 3

Learning objectives; 1.1 Introduction; 1.2 Design, materials and manufacture; 1.3 Properties of engineering materials; 1.4 Cost and availability; 1.5 Some trends and difficulties; Summary

PART II MATERIALS SCIENCE 152 Atomic Structure and Bonding 17

Learning objectives; 2.1 Introduction; 2.2 Elementary particles; 2.3 Atomic number and atomic mass number; 2.4 Isotopes and isotones; 2.5 The mole and Avogadro’s number; 2.6 Atomic structure and quantum numbers; 2.7 The Pauli exclusion principle; 2.8 The periodic table; 2.9 The nucleus and radioactivity; 2.10 Artificial radioactive materials; 2.11 Interatomic and intermolecular bonding; 2.12 The ionic bond; 2.13 The covalent bond; 2.14 The co-ordinate bond; 2.15 The metallic bond; 2.16 Secondary bonds; 2.17 Mixed bonds; Summary; Questions

3 Influence of Bond Type on Structure and Properties 43Learning objectives; 3.1 Structure; 3.2 Density; 3.3 Stiffness and rigidity; 3.4 Stability and melting point; 3.5 Electrical properties; Summary; Questions

4 The Formation of Polymers 50Learning objectives; 4.1 Introduction; 4.2 Addition polymerisation; 4.3 Condensation polymerisation; 4.4 Linear and non-linear polymers; 4.5 Branching; 4.6 Cross-linking; 4.7 Stereoregularity; 4.8 Degree of polymerisation; 4.9 Polymerisation methods; Summary; Questions

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5 Crystalline Structures 62Learning objectives; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Crystal classes; 5.3 Miller notation; 5.4 Metallic crystals; 5.5 Interstitial sites; 5.6 Ceramic crystals; 5.7 Silica and silicates; 5.8 Analysis of crystals; Summary; Questions

6 Glasses and Partial Crystallinity 86Learning objectives; 6.1 Formation of glasses; 6.2 Inorganic glasses; 6.3 Metallic glasses; 6.4 Polymer glasses; 6.5 Crystallinity in polymers; Summary; Questions

7 Elastic Behaviour 94Learning objectives; 7.1 Stress and strain; 7.2 Elastic constants; 7.3 Fibre reinforced composites; 7.4 Thermal stresses; 7.5 Toughened glass; Summary; Questions

8 Dislocations and Plasticity in Metals 107Learning objectives; 8.1 Plastic flow in metals; 8.2 Slip planes; 8.3 Dislocations; 8.4 Deformation by twinning; 8.5 Polycrystalline metals; 8.6 Plastic deformation andstrain hardening; 8.7 Recrystallisation; 8.8 Solution hardening; 8.9 Dispersion hardening; 8.10 Yield point in mild steel; 8.11 Diffusion and dislocation climb; 8.12 Superplasticity; Summary; Questions

9 Viscoelastic Behaviour 133Learning objectives; 9.1 Introduction; 9.2 Viscoelasticity; 9.3 The Maxwell model; 9.4 Voigt–Kelvin model; 9.5 Other models; Summary; Questions

10 Toughness and Fracture of Materials 142Learning objectives; 10.1 Introduction; 10.2 Crack propagation and failure; 10.3 Stress concentration; 10.4 Fracture mechanics; 10.5 Applications of KIc; 10.6 Effect of temperature; 10.7 Determination of fracture toughness; 10.8 Yielding fracture mechanics; 10.9 Conclusion; Summary; Questions

11 Phase Diagrams and Alloy Formation 158Learning objectives; 11.1 Introduction; 11.2 Alloy systems; 11.3 Total solid insolubility; 11.4 Interpretation of phase diagrams; 11.5 Solid solubility; 11.6 Phase diagram for total solid solubility; 11.7 Partial solid solubility; 11.8 Peritectic diagram; 11.9 Compound formation; 11.10 Effect of alloy type on properties in metallic systems; 11.11 Allotropy; 11.12 Ternary diagrams; Summary; Questions

12 Phase Transformations and Diffusion 180Learning objectives; 12.1 Introduction; 12.2 Thermally activated processes; 12.3 Diffusion; 12.4 Fick’s laws of diffusion; 12.5 Carburising and decarburising; 12.6 Precipitation hardening; 12.7 Martensitic transformations; 12.8 Phase transformations in ceramics and glasses; Summary; Questions

13 Electrical and Magnetic Properties 196Learning objectives; 13.1 Conduction; 13.2 Band structure; 13.3 Conduction in metals; 13.4 Semiconductors; 13.5 The p–n junction; 13.6 Insulating materials; 13.7 Ferroelectric materials; 13.8 Piezoelectric effect; 13.9 Magnetic behaviour; 13.10 The Hall effect; Summary; Questions

14 Optical, Thermal and Other Properties 212Learning objectives; 14.1 Optical properties; 14.2 The energy spectrum; 14.3 Electron excitation; 14.4 Interactions of electromagnetic waves with materials; 14.5 Refraction and polarisation; 14.6 Diffraction; 14.7 Luminescence; 14.8 Lasers; 14.9 Optical fibres;

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14.10 Heat capacity; 14.11 Thermal expansion; 14.12 Thermal conductivity; 14.13 Thermal shock; 14.14 Sound absorption and damping; 14.15 Interface effects and surface tension; 14.16 Friction and lubrication; Summary; Questions

PART III THE MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING 23115 Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys 233

Learning objectives; 15.1 Introduction; 15.2 Aluminium; 15.3 Aluminium alloys; 15.4 Copper; 15.5 Copper alloys; 15.6 Lead; 15.7 Tin; 15.8 Magnesium; 15.9 Nickel; 15.10 Titanium; 15.11 Zinc; 15.12 Bearing materials; 15.13 Superalloys; Summary; Questions

16 Iron and Steel 268Learning objectives; 16.1 Introduction; 16.2 Irons and steels; 16.3 Constituents in steels; 16.4 The iron–carbon phase diagram; 16.5 Structures of plain carbon steels; 16.6 T–T–T andC–C–T diagrams; 16.7 Hardenability; 16.8 Tempering; 16.9 Heat treatments for steels; 16.10 Types of steels and their uses; 16.11 Surface hardening; 16.12 The effects of alloying elements in steels; 16.13 Alloy steels; 16.14 Cast irons; 16.15 Malleable irons; 16.16 Alloy cast irons; Summary; Questions

17 Polymer Materials 300Learning objectives; 17.1 Introduction; 17.2 Thermoplastic materials; 17.3 Hydrocarbon polymers; 17.4 Chlorocarbon and fluorocarbon polymers; 17.5 Acrylic materials; 17.6 Polyamides (nylons) (PA); 17.7 Heterochain polymers; 17.8 Elastomers; 17.9 The R class elastomers; 17.10 Other elastomer classes; 17.11 Thermoplastic elastomers; 17.12 Thermosetting materials; 17.13 Phenolic materials; 17.14 Amino-formaldehyde materials; 17.15 Polyester materials; 17.16 Epoxide materials; 17.17 Other thermosets; Summary; Questions

18 Ceramics and Glasses 327Learning objectives; 18.1 Introduction; 18.2 Building stone; 18.3 Cement and concrete; 18.4 Clay and clay products; 18.5 Refractories; 18.6 Industrial ceramics; 18.7 Alumina; 18.8 Silicon nitride; 18.9 Sialons; 18.10 Silicon carbide; 18.11 Boronnitride and other ceramics; 18.12 Glass ceramics; 18.13 Glasses; Summary; Questions

19 Composite Materials 344Learning objectives; 19.1 Introduction; 19.2 Timber and plywood; 19.3 Fibre-reinforced materials; 19.4 Fibres; 19.5 Matrix materials; 19.6 Some applications of FRPs; 19.7 Metal matrix composites (MMCs); 19.8 Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs); 19.9 Cermets; 19.10 Sandwich structures; Summary; Questions

PART IV FORMING AND FABRICATION OFMATERIALS 361

20 Forming Processes for Metals 363Learning objectives; 20.1 Introduction; 20.2 Melting and alloying; 20.3 Casting; 20.4 Sand casting; 20.5 Die casting; 20.6 Investment casting; 20.7 Centrifugal casting; 20.8 Ingot casting; 20.9 Hot working; 20.10 Fibre structure; 20.11 Cold working; 20.12 Annealing; 20.13 Powder metallurgy; 20.14 Injection moulding; 20.15 Surface engineering; Summary; Questions

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21 Forming Processes for Polymer Materials 400Learning objectives; 21.1 Introduction; 21.2 Forming of thermoplastics; 21.3 Injection moulding; 21.4 Extrusion; 21.5 Calendering; 21.6 Thermoplastic sheet forming; 21.7 Rotational moulding; 21.8 Expanded plastics; 21.9 Forming of thermosets; 21.10 Reaction injection moulding (RIM); 21.11 Moulding of fibre composites; 21.12 Preforms, prepregs and moulding compounds; 21.13 Laminating; Summary; Questions

22 Forming Processes for Ceramics and Glasses 413Learning objectives; 22.1 Forming of clay ceramics; 22.2 Pressing; 22.3 Sintering; 22.4 Reaction bonding and reaction sintering; 22.5 Injection moulding; 22.6 Manufacture of glass; 22.7 Forming processes for glass; Summary; Questions

23 Material-Removal Processes 420Learning objectives; 23.1 Introduction; 23.2 The cutting process; 23.3 Chip formation; 23.4 Cutting tool life; 23.5 Cutting fluids; 23.6 Cutting tool materials; 23.7 Machineability; 23.8 Forming and generating; 23.9 Single-point machining; 23.10 Multi-point machining; 23.11 Abrasive machining and finishing; 23.12 Gear and thread manufacture; 23.13 Non-traditional machining processes; Summary; Questions

24 Joining Processes 442Learning objectives; 24.1 Introduction; 24.2 Soldering and brazing of metals; 24.3 Fusion welding of metals; 24.4 Other fusion welding processes for metals; 24.5 Pressure welding of metals; 24.6 Diffusion joining; 24.7 The welding of plastics; 24.8 Adhesive bonding; 24.9 Metallurgical considerations for welding; 24.10 Defects in welds; Summary; Questions

PART V BEHAVIOUR IN SERVICE 46725 Failure, Fatigue and Creep 469

Learning objectives; 25.1 Failure; 25.2 Fatigue; 25.3 Crack nucleation and growth; 25.4 Factors affecting fatigue; 25.5 Creep; 25.6 Relaxation; Summary; Questions

26 Oxidation, Corrosion and Other Effects 484Learning objectives; 26.1 Introduction; 26.2 Oxidation of metals; 26.3 Degradation of polymers; 26.4 Oxidation of ceramics and composites; 26.5 Corrosion; 26.6 Corrosion protection; 26.7 Microbial attack; 26.8 Effects of radiation; Summary; Questions

PART VI EVALUATION OF MATERIALS 50327 Property Testing 505

Learning objectives; 27.1 Introduction; 27.2 Hardness tests; 27.3 Relationships between hardness and other properties; 27.4 Tensile, compressive and shear testing; 27.5 Testing machines; 27.6 Measurement of strain; 27.7 The tensile testing of metals; 27.8 True stress and true strain; 27.9 The tensile testing of plastics; 27.10 Determining the tensile strength of brittle materials; 27.11 Compression testing; 27.12 Testing in shear; 27.13 Notch impact testing; 27.14 Fatigue testing; 27.15 Creep testing; 27.16 Relaxation testing; Summary; Questions

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28 Non-Destructive Testing 537Learning objectives; 28.1 Introduction; 28.2 Visual inspection; 28.3 Liquid penetrant inspection; 28.4 Magnetic particle inspection; 28.5 Electrical test methods; 28.6 Ultrasonic inspection; 28.7 Principles of radiography; 28.8 Acoustic emission inspection; 28.9 Vibration testing; Summary; Questions

29 Macro- and Micro-Examination 561Learning objectives; 29.1 Macro-examination; 29.2 Micro-examination of metals; 29.3 Micro-examination of non-metals; 29.4 Transmission electron microscopy; 29.5 Scanning electron microscopy; 29.6 Other analytical techniques; Summary

30 Materials Selection 567Learning objectives; 30.1 Introduction; 30.2 Parameters to be considered; 30.3 Costs; 30.4 Recycling; 30.5 A rationale for selection; 30.6 Case Studies; Summary

Appendix A: Physical Properties of Some Pure Metals 588Appendix B: Formulae and Structures of Common Polymers 590Glossary of Terms 595Answers to Numerical Questions 617Index 628

Contents ix

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INTRODUCTION

PART I

1

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3

CHAPTER 1

The materials ofengineering

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Appreciate that there are complex interrelationships between a material, manufacturing process anddesign.

2. Know the major classifications of materials and the main characteristics of each class.

3. Have some knowledge of the basic costs of some materials and how cost and energy content are affectedby processing.

Why should an engineer study materials?

Every single thing that has ever been made has been constructed from some material or another. It isnecessary, therefore, for engineers to have a sound understanding of materials so that they may selectthe most suitable material to fit a particular design requirement. To this end it is necessary not only toknow the range of available materials and the major properties of each material, but also how theproperties of a material are dependent on structure and how many properties can be modified by avariety of treatments and processes. Atomic structure, the type of bonding between atoms and themanner in which atoms and molecules are arranged in bulk materials all play a part in determining the final properties of the material. Also, the processing methods used to make the required shape andthe type of heat treatment given will have a major influence in determining the properties. Knowledgeof these factors will enable the engineer to utilise materials both effectively and efficiently.

In addition to understanding the nature and properties of materials it is very necessary that today’sengineers are aware of the environmental and social factors associated with the production and utili-sation of materials. The earth’s mineral resources are non-renewable and thought must be given in theproduct design stage to the eventual decommissioning and recycling of the product.

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1.1 Introduction

The development of civilisation has been governed by man’s ability to invent or adapt and use materials.In prehistoric times our forebears could use only those materials which were available naturally – stones,mud and clay, fallen tree trunks, animal skins and animal and vegetable fibres. The development of simple tools during the Stone Ages permitted man to dress and shape timber and stone into the designsrequired. Early man also discovered the art of moulding clay for the production of bowls, beakers andother utilitarian articles. One early constructional material was brick, moulded from mud and dried inthe sun. Soon it was realised that a brick with better properties could be obtained if straw was mixedwith the mud or clay before shaping and drying. This same principle is used today in the manufactureof fibre reinforced plastics. Around 4500 BC, in the Middle East, the metallic alloy bronze was first madeand this became a major material for the manufacture of tools, weapons and other artefacts for the nextfew millennia. At about 1100 BC man discovered and first began to use iron. Early civilised peoples dis-covered and used many metals including copper, gold, lead, silver and tin. They also discovered that theproperties of a metal could be altered by alloying with other metals and, through empirical means, anumber of useful alloys were developed. The first steels were produced about 1000 years ago by heatingbars of iron in charcoal. This allowed carbon to diffuse into the iron to give greater hardness and strength.

The pace of development was slow and, in general, new designs and new forms of construction couldnot proceed in advance of the development of materials. As an example of this, let us consider the progressof bridge design. The major constructional materials of earlier centuries – stone and brick – are strong incompression but weak in tension. Some early stone bridges, known in Britain as ‘clapper’ bridges, merelyconsisted of large stone slabs laid as beams across the gaps between stone piers (Figure 1.1(a)). The maximum span between piers is up to about 4 m. The bridging of larger gaps by means of beam bridgeshad to wait until the late 19th century, when steels of consistent quality became available in quantity, andthe 20th century, with the development of reinforced and prestressed concrete – materials with a goodstrength in tension. Spans of up to 300 m are possible in reinforced concrete beam bridges.

Meanwhile, in Roman times, the masonry arch was developed. The individual stones or bricks in asemi-circular arch are stressed in compression (see Figure 1.1(b)) and this design enables much largergaps to be spanned. There is, however, a limit to the span possible with a masonry arch and multi-archbridges were necessary for the crossing of wide gaps. Most major bridges from Roman times up to theend of the 18th century were of the masonry arch type. The largest masonry arch bridge in existenceis the railway bridge across the Thames at Maidenhead (Figure 1.2). This was designed and built by

4 Introduction to engineering materials

Load(b)

(a)

Figure 1.1 (a) Old ‘clapper’ bridge; (b) masonry arch showing force distribution.

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I. K. Brunel in 1838 and has two flat elliptical brick arches, each of 39 m span. It is a tribute to Brunel’sdesign that when, at the beginning of the 20th century, the number of tracks was increased from twoto four, the decision was taken to widen the existing bridge, adhering rigidly to Brunel’s original design,rather than build a new bridge.

Towards the end of the 18th century wrought iron, as strong in tension as in compression, becameavailable as a constructional material. This enabled engineers to design and construct suspensionbridges using suspension chains fabricated from wrought iron links. The first large span bridge of thistype (176 m) was the Menai bridge linking the island of Anglesey with the mainland (Figure 1.3). Thiswas the first permanent link across the Menai Straits. It was constructed by Thomas Telford and, whenopened in 1826, permitted much faster transit from London to Holyhead, the main ferry port forIreland. This bridge is still in use today.

The cables for modern suspension bridges are fabricated from high tensile steel wire and great spansare possible. The Humber bridge, for example, has a span of 1410 m between the main towers.

Enormous developments have occurred in the materials field during the last 100 years or so. Metalswhich were merely curiosities at one time, such as aluminium, magnesium and nickel, are now com-monplace; many new alloys have been devised; a complete industry – the plastics industry – has beencreated; many modern industrial ceramics have come into use; and a wide range of composite materi-als has been developed. While early materials development was based on empiricism there has beenan intensive study of the science of materials during the 20th century and present-day engineeringmaterials are based on sound scientific theory and practice. Running parallel to the invention of newand improved materials there have been equally important developments in materials processing,including vacuum melting and casting, new forming techniques and new joining technologies.

The materials of engineering 5

Figure 1.2 Brunel’s railway bridge of 1838 with brick arches of 39 m span.

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1.2 Design, materials and manufacture

Every manufactured item is made from some material or other. Equally, every item has to be designedand, today, the design engineer faces many challenges. In earlier times, with a much smaller range ofmaterials available, engineers often produced their designs and manufactured the product by a process oftrial and error, in many cases using far more material than was necessary. Today, with diminishingreserves of many economically important minerals and the need to be increasingly energy efficient, it isa major requirement that new designs utilise materials in the most effective and efficient manner possi-ble and with the provision that the materials used can be recycled when the product has reached the endof its useful life. Also, the design engineer must consider the environmental and sociological impact of allaspects of the design from initial concept, through realisation and use, to scrapping and reclamation.

There are complex interrelationships between design, material and manufacture (Figure 1.4). Theshape desired will influence the manufacturing processes which can be used. The properties requiredin the product will determine the range of possible materials and the choice of material will help deter-mine the manufacturing process. The choice of manufacturing process will affect the properties, forexample, a casting will possess different properties from a forging made of the same basic material, andso on. Many factors, therefore have to be taken into consideration when choosing possible materials tofit a design and manufacturing requirement, including:

• Does the material possess the necessary properties?

• Can the material be formed to the desired shape?

• Will the properties of the material alter with time during service?

• Will the material be adversely affected by environmental conditions and resist corrosion and otherforms of attack?

• Will the material give sufficient reliability and quality?

• Will the material be acceptable on aesthetic grounds?

• Can the product be made at an acceptable cost?

6 Introduction to engineering materials

Figure 1.3 Thomas Telford’s suspension bridge of 1826 across the Menai Straits.

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1.3 Properties of engineering materials

There are many thousands of different engineering materials available today but they can be placedinto one or other of the following categories:

METALS, POLYMERS, CERAMICS & INORGANIC GLASSES and COMPOSITES.Composites, as the term implies, are composed of more than one type of material, for example, glassfibres in a polyester matrix. Many polymers, such as polyesters, are of low density but are also of rel-atively low strength – the use of glass, carbon or other fibres as reinforcement gives increased strengthand stiffness without adding an excessive weight penalty. Similarly, the low-friction characteristics of a polymer such as PTFE can be combined with the load-bearing qualities of a metal in metal particle/PTFEcomposites which have been developed as bearing materials. All materials exhibit many different char-acteristics and properties which can be classified as physical, mechanical, electrical and so on, and theseare itemised in Table 1.1.

Each of the main categories of materials has certain characteristics, for example, metals are electricalconductors whereas ceramics and polymers possess extremely high electrical resistivities and many are

The materials of engineering 7

Table 1.1 Material properties and qualities.

Properties Qualities

Physical properties Density, melting point, hardness, elastic moduli, damping capacity.Mechanical properties Yield, tensile, compressive and torsional strengths, ductility, fatigue strength,

creep strength, fracture toughness.Manufacturing properties Ability to be shaped by moulding, casting, plastic deformation, powder

processing, machining. Ability to be joined by adhesives, welding and other processes.

Chemical properties Resistance to oxidation, corrosion, solvents and environmental factors.Other non-mechanical properties Electrical, magnetic, optical and thermal properties.Economic properties Raw material and processing costs. Availability.Aesthetic properties Appearance, texture and ability to accept special finishes

Figure 1.4 Interrelationships between design, materials and manufacturing.

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used as insulating materials. A comparison of the properties metals, ceramics and polymers is given inTable 1.2.

Very many properties or qualities of materials have to be considered when choosing a material tomeet a design requirement. These include a wide range of physical, chemical and mechanical proper-ties, forming or manufacturing characteristics, availability, raw material and manufacturing cost dataand, in addition, subjective assessments of aesthetic qualities such as appearance and texture. Theranges of some important properties, E, tensile yield strength, tensile strength, fracture toughness anddensity, for some common groups of materials are shown in Table 1.3.

Metals, when subject to a stress, strain in an elastic manner up to a certain level and then, withincreasing stress, deform plastically. The yield stress, which indicates the change from elastic to plasticdeformation, is an important parameter for this class of material. Thermoplastics possess the propertyof viscoelasticity and many will strain slowly with time at comparatively low levels of stress. Manythermosetting polymers, together with ceramics and glasses, show no plasticity and deform whenstressed in an elastic manner until the level of stress is high enough to cause fracture. The concept ofyield stress is not applicable to these groups of materials.

Let us now look at two examples. The first is an item of sports equipment familiar to readers andillustrates how progressive changes of material and design lead to an improved product. The secondexample, electrical transmission lines, shows that the material with the highest electrical conductivitycannot give an acceptable engineering solution.

8 Introduction to engineering materials

Table 1.2 Comparison of properties of metals, ceramics and polymers.

Property Metals Ceramics Polymers

Density (kg/m3 � 10�3) 0.5–22 (average 8) 2–17 (average 5) 1–3Melting points Low to high, High, up to 4000�C Low

Sn 232�C, W 3400�CHardness Medium High LowMachineability Good Poor LowTensile strength (MPa) Up to 2500 Up to 400 Up to 120Compressive strength (MPa) Up to 2500 Up to 5000 Up to 350Young’s modulus (E ) (GPa) 40–400 50–450 0.001–3.5Plasticity Can be shaped by Not plastically Shaped by

plastic deformation deformable plastic mouldingHigh-temperature creep Poor Excellent Nilresistance

Thermal expansion Medium to high Low to medium Very highThermal conductivity Medium Medium but often Very low

decreases rapidlywith temperature

Thermal shock Good Generally poor —resistance

Electrical properties Conductors Insulators InsulatorsChemical resistance Low to medium Excellent Generally goodOxidation resistance at Poor, except for Oxides excellent, —high temperatures rare metals SiC and Si3N4 good

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Materials selection for a tennis racquetConsider suitable materials from which to make a tennis racquet frame.

SOLUTION

A major requirement of the material for a tennis racquet is that it combines high strength and stiffnesswith low weight. Tennis racquet frames can and have been made from a variety of materials includinglaminated wood, steel, aluminium and fibre reinforced composites. Until the early 1970s almost all racquets were made from laminated wood. One of the drawbacks with wood is that it can absorb waterwhich can lead to variations in performance and also can cause warping of the frame. In the 1970sframes made from steel and aluminium came into use. These materials, with high strength/weightratios, permitted strong, rigid, yet light weight frames to be made. One disadvantage of these metalsis that they possess low damping capacities and, consequently, the amount of vibration transmitted tothe player’s hand and arm is increased. By the early 1980s composite construction using continuousglass or carbon fibres in a polyester or epoxy resin matrix largely superseded the use of aluminium.These composite materials give a lightweight frame with high strength and stiffness and a lower levelof vibration because they have higher damping capacities than metals.

The materials of engineering 9

EXAMPLE 1.1

Table 1.3 Typical properties (at 25�C) of some groups of materials.

Material E Yield Tensile Fracture Density(GPa) strength strength toughness (kg m�3 � 10�3)

(MPa) (MPa) (MPa m0.5)

Steels 200–220 200–1800 350–2300 80–170 7.8–7.9Cast irons 150–180 100–500 300–1000 6–20 7.2–7.6Aluminium alloys 70 25–500 70–600 5–70 2.7–2.8Copper alloys 90–130 70–1000 720–1400 30–120 8.4–8.9Magnesium alloys 40–50 30–250 60–300 1.7–1.8Nickel alloys 180–220 60–1200 200–1400 �100 7.9–8.9Titanium alloys 100–120 180–1400 350–1500 50–100 4.4–4.5Zinc alloys 70–90 50–300 150–350 6.7–7.1Polyethylene (LDPE) 0.12–0.25 1–16 1–2 0.91–0.94Polyethylene (HDPE) 0.45–1.4 20–38 2–5 0.95–0.97Polypropylene (PP) 0.5–1.9 20–40 3.5 0.90–0.91PTFE 0.35–0.6 17–28 2.1–2.25Polystyrene (PS) 2.8–3.5 35–85 2 1.0–1.1Rigid PVC 2.4–4.0 24–60 2.4 1.4–1.5Acrylic (PMMA) 2.7–3.5 50–80 1.6 1.2Nylon (PA) 2.0–3.5 60–100 3–5 1.05–1.15PF resins 5–8 35–55 1.25Polyester resins 1.3–4.5 45–85 0.5 1.1–1.4Epoxy resins 2.1–5.5 40–85 0.3–0.5 1.2–1.4GFRP 10–45 100–300 20–60 1.55–2.0CFRP 70–200 70–650 30–45 1.40–1.75Soda glass 74 50* 0.7 2.5Alumina 380 300–400* 3–5 3.9Silicon carbide 410 200–500* 3.2Silicon nitride 310 300–850* 4 3.2Concrete 30–50 7* 0.2 2.4–2.5

* Modulus of rupture value.

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10 Introduction to engineering materials

Materials selection for overhead electrical transmission wiresConsider suitable materials from which to make overhead electrical power transmission lines.

SOLUTION

The material must have a high electrical conductivity. The four best electrical conductors, in descend-ing order, are silver, copper, gold and aluminium (see Chapter 13). Also, for the highest conductivities,these metals should be of high purity as the presence of other elements either as impurities or as alloy-ing elements will cause a reduction in conductivity. Silver and gold are much too expensive for use inthis application and copper is considerably more expensive than aluminium, especially when consideredon a volume basis (see Table 1.4). The selected material, then, is pure aluminium. However, pure aluminium has a very low tensile strength. Consequently overhead transmission cables are made of aluminium wires braided around a steel wire core to give strength.

An exception to the above is the case of overhead power wires for electric railways and tramways.Here the wire needs to be hard to resist the abrasive effect of the rubbing contact with the panto-graph arms of the vehicles. The solution is to use wire made from an alloy of copper containing 1 percent of cadmium. Cadmium greatly increases the hardness of the copper with little adverse effect onconductivity.

1.4 Cost and availability

Cost and availability are very important factors which affect the selection and use of materials and in many cases the purchase cost of materials accounts for about one-half of the total works cost of thefinished product. From this it follows that the use of a cheaper raw material should have a significanteffect on the final product cost but this is not always the case. In some instances the choice of a moreexpensive material may permit the use of simpler and lower cost processing techniques than thoseneeded in conjunction with a cheaper material.

It is usual to see the cost of raw materials quoted per unit mass, for example £100 per tonne. Thismay give a misleading picture as often it is the volume of material used which is important rather than its mass. The relative position of a material in a league table of costs may change when the criterion is altered from £ ($) per tonne to £ ($) per unit volume. This effect can be seen in Table 1.4.

The costs of some basic engineering materials, both by weight and volume, are given in Table 1.4.However, it should be noted that the data in Table 1.4 only indicate an approximate comparisonbetween raw materials. The figures are based on the European bulk commodity prices ruling inOctober/November 2002. The prices are quoted in pounds sterling (£), euros (€) and US dollars ($). Inearly November 2002 the sterling/dollar exchange rate was £1 � 1.55$ and there was almost paritybetween the euro and the US dollar. The costs of some materials are relatively unchanged over fairlylong periods of time but others may be subject to great fluctuations, for example the costs of some poly-mer materials have fluctuated by more than £100 per tonne during 2001/2002. The cost data for met-als in Table 1.4 are for refined metal in ingot form. In general the cost of alloys will be higher than thecost of unalloyed metals, for example, bronze – an alloy of copper and tin – will be more costly thanpure copper. Every process and heat treatment will give added value and increase the cost of the mate-rial or product. From this it will be realised that the costs of processed metal products such as sheet,plate, sections and forgings will be higher than those of ingot metal. The way in which processing adds

EXAMPLE 1.2

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The materials of engineering 11

Table 1.4 Costs of some materials, by mass and by volume.*

Material Cost Material Cost

(£/kg) (€€/kg – $/kg) (£/100 cm3) (€€/100 cm3 – $/100 cm3)

Gold 10030 15550 Gold 19380 30040Germanium 1065 1650 Germanium 622 963Silver 93 145 Silver 97.7 152Cobalt 9.1 14.1 Cobalt 7.92 12.28Titanium 6.04 9.35 Nickel 3.78 5.86Nickel 4.25 6.6 Titanium 2.72 4.22Tin 2.48 3.85 Tin 1.81 2.81PVC 1.95 3.02 Copper 0.83 1.29Nylon 66 (PA 66) 1.75 2.71 Zinc 0.34 0.53Polycarbonate (PC) 1.75 2.71 Lead 0.29 0.45Acrylic (PMMA) 1.65 2.56 PVC 0.28 0.43Acetal (POM) 1.50 2.33 Aluminium 0.22 0.3Nylon 6 (PA 6) 1.45 2.25 Acetal 0.21 0.33ABS 0.97 1.50 Polycarbonate 0.21 0.33Copper (grade A ingot) 0.93 1.44 Silicon 0.204 0.32Silicon 0.85 1.30 PA 66 0.20 0.31U-F resin thermoset 0.85 1.30 Acrylic (PMMA) 0.19 0.295Aluminium (ingot) 0.82 1.27 PA 6 0.165 0.26P-F thermoset 0.75 1.16 U-F thermoset 0.13 0.20Polystyrene (PS) 0.63 0.98 Mild steel ingot 0.105 0.16Polypropylene (PP) 0.57 0.88 ABS 0.103 0.16Zinc (ingot) 0.47 0.73 Cast iron 0.10 0.155Polyethylene (LDPE) 0.43 0.67 P-F thermoset 0.09 0.14Polyethylene (HDPE) 0.35 0.54 Polystyrene 0.07 0.108Lead (ingot) 0.26 0.41 Polypropylene 0.05 0.078Mild steel (ingot) 0.135 0.21 LDPE 0.041 0.064Cast iron 0.08 0.12 HDPE 0.034 0.053Portland cement 0.06 0.09 Portland cement 0.02 0.03Common brick 0.04 0.06 Common brick 0.012 0.019Concrete (ready mixed) 0.03 0.045 Concrete 0.009 0.014

* The figures are based on European bulk prices in October/November 2002. At that time the Sterling/US dollar conversion was1£ �1.55US$. There was almost parity between the euro (€) and the US$.

to the cost of one material – low carbon steel – is shown in Table 1.5 but the principle that processingadds to the value of a material holds equally for other metals, polymer materials and ceramics.

The choice of a material for a particular application can be influenced also by availability. In themajor growth period of railways in the 19th century most railway bridges in Britain were constructedof masonry or wrought iron. In the same period when tracks were being pushed westwards in theUnited States of America and Canada, bridges and viaducts were usually of timber trestle constructionowing to the ready availability of suitable timber close to the point of use. The same principle holdstoday and often a material or source of material supply will be chosen on the basis of proximity ofavailability.

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12 Introduction to engineering materials

1.5 Some trends and difficulties

At the beginning of the 20th century major industrial development was taking place in many parts ofthe world and man was quite profligate in his use of the world’s mineral resources. Today it is realisedthat our mineral resources are non-renewable and finite and the present known reserves of some metals of economic importance, including copper, lead, silver, tin and zinc, could be exhausted withinour lifetime. Also, the smelting of ores to produce metals, the melting of metals, the production of polymers and the processing of all materials are activities which require large energy consumption. In recent years man has become increasingly aware of the damage that unfettered exploitation of theearth’s resources can cause to the environment. Also, these activities, including the production of elec-trical energy from fossil fuels, generate large quantities of the greenhouse gases thought to contributeto global warming. This means that engineers and designers face major challenges as they have a responsibility to select and utilise materials wisely and efficiently. The process of design must alsoinclude consideration of eventual disposal and recycling of the materials used.

A considerable amount of energy is used in the production of materials. In the case of a metal, forexample, energy is consumed in mining the ore deposit, concentrating and smelting the ore, and refin-ing the metal. Further energy is consumed in reheating a metal ingot and forming it by hot and coldworking processes into, say, metal sheets. The approximate energy content of some materials is givenin Table 1.6. The additional energy content of metals derived from secondary sources, namely recycledscrap, is comparatively small as it only involves remelting with, perhaps, some refining.

Forecasts that known reserves of some metallic ores will be exhausted within a relatively short timeare based on knowledge of the ore sources that are being worked at present. It does not necessarilymean that these metals will not be available at all. These elements are present in small quantities, lowerthan in current workable ores, in other rock formations. If it became necessary to extract metals fromsuch low level deposits then the cost of extraction and, more importantly, the energy consumption for extraction, would rise considerably. Major emphasis will be placed on the use of secondary metal,that is metal derived from recycled scrap. Design engineers will also look for processing methods whichwill give a product with the required shape and dimensions without generating much scrap. As anexample, in conventional sand casting approximately 50 per cent of the metal melted forms scrap

Table 1.5 Cost build-up (steel products).*

Material Cost

(£ per tonne) ($ per tonne or €€ per tonne)

Iron from blast furnace 76 118Low carbon steel (ingot) 135 210Low carbon steel (hot rolled strip coil) 184 285Low carbon steel (hot rolled bar) 190 295Low carbon steel (hot rolled sections) 220 341Low carbon steel (cold rolled strip coil) 222 344Low carbon steel (galvanised sheet) 245 380Low carbon steel (cold drawn bright bar) 247 383

* Approximate costs in October 2002. £1 �1.55US$. (There is almost parity between the euro (€) and the US$.)

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The materials of engineering 13

which has to be recycled, whereas, making parts by a powder metallurgy process will result in virtu-ally no scrap.

Some possible supply problems may be overcome by substitution of one material for another. Asexamples of this aluminium has replaced copper for many electrical conduction applications and hasreplaced much tin-plated steel sheet for can manufacture. Also polymers have replaced metals in manyapplications. The future supply position for polymers may be uncertain as, largely, they are derivedfrom petroleum although research into the biological generation of polymer materials is now takingplace. The future supply situation for ceramic materials is much different. The earth’s crust is composedmainly of silicates and alumino-silicates and so the raw materials for ceramic manufacture are presentin great abundance.

There has been much research and development in the fields of materials science and materials engi-neering in the last fifty years and the pace of development is steadily increasing. Formerly an engineer-ing designer would select a suitable material from a list of common materials. Today, because of ourgreater knowledge of the relationships between the properties of a material and its microstructure, inmany instances we can specifically tailor a material to suit a particular purpose. This trend will continueto be developed. Materials with memory that will return to their original shape after deformationalready exist. Further development of ‘smart’ materials will occur. Developments into renewable sourcesof materials, based on vegetable starch and other matter, will continue and probably become of greatimportance. These and other developments will present major challenges to engineers and designers.

Now, having tried a little crystal gazing, it is time to get down to basics. The next few chapters pres-ent the background science necessary for a proper understanding of the properties and behaviour ofthe various classes of materials.

Table 1.6 Approximate energy content of some materials (GJ/tonne).

A Materials derived from primary sources

Titanium bar 560 Zinc (castings) 70Magnesium extruded bar 425 Mild steel bar 60Aluminium (ingot) 280 Cast iron (castings) 50Aluminium (sheet) 300 Glass 20PVC (rod or tube) 180 Reinforced concrete 12Nylon (PA66 rod) 180 Cement 8Polyethylene sheet 110 Brick 4Stainless steel (sheet) 110 Timber 2Copper (tubing) 100 Gravel 0.1

B Additional energy content of metals from secondary sources

Aluminium 45 Mild steel 20Copper 30 Cast iron 17

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14 Introduction to engineering materials

SUMMARY

There are complex interrelationships between materials, manufacture and design and many factors influencethe final properties of a component.

There are three main classes of material, metals, ceramics and polymers. Composite materials have beendeveloped to combine some attractive properties of two material classes.

Metals, generally, possess good strength and elasticity, can be plastically deformed, and are good thermaland electrical conductors.

Ceramics, generally, have high elasticity and high compressive strengths but are weak in tension. Theyshow some thermal conductivity but are electrical insulators.

Polymer materials, generally, are of low strength and elasticity and are thermal and electrical insulators.Material costs vary widely. Final costs include the basic cost plus the cost of processing. The energy con-

tent of materials is an important parameter to be considered.Engineers and designers require a good knowledge of materials and processing in order that they may

utilise a scarce resource both wisely and efficiently.

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628

Aberfeldy bridge 353–4, 580–2ablative heat shield 585abrasive

finishing 436flow machining 436jet machining 435machining 434–6, 610

abrasives 328, 434ABS 12, 54, 92, 304, 312, 314, 404,

406, 460, 461a.c. arc welding 447acetal 12, 92, 308, 313–14, 404, 591acetate see cellulose acetateacetylene 35, 444, 446–7acid refractory 332–3acoustic emission inspection 557,

615acrylic materials (see also PMMA and

polyacrylonitrile) 9, 11, 306acrylonitrile (see also ABS,

polyacrylonitrile and SAN) 305,318

activation energy 181, 601addition polymerisation 51–4, 596adhesive 323

bonding 461–2age hardening 166, 186, 236–7, 598,

601, 603air hardening steels 279Airbus 238–40, 347, 351, 357, 583–4alkali metals 26allotropy 174–5

of iron 174–5, 270of tin 255of titanium 257, 259–60

alloy 160, 600steels 269, 290–3, 365, 604systems 160

alloying 364–5elements in steels 291

alloysaluminium 9, 147, 235–41, 263,

365, 569–70copper 9, 242–53, 262–3, 365,

569–70lead 254–5, 262magnesium 9, 256, 569–70nickel 9, 257, 264, 569–70tin 255, 262titanium 9, 129, 258–60, 569–70zinc 9, 129, 260–1, 569–70

allyl resins 324alpha particles 27, 28alternating stress cycles 471, 472, 612alumina 9, 147, 197, 234, 335–6,

348, 358, 427, 436, 469–70refractories 333–4

aluminium 5, 10, 11, 13, 21, 28, 47,71, 124, 197, 223, 225, 234–5,269, 291, 349, 356, 428, 577, 588

alloys 9, 147, 235–41, 263, 365,569–70

applications 235–6, 238, 239bearings 263bronze 247, 250–1, 603foam 358nitride 286, 338production of 234properties of 124, 197, 223, 239,

588silicate 75, 331solder 446titanate 338–9

aluminosilicate glass 341amino-formaldehyde materials 55,

302anisotropy 98, 102, 121, 346annealing 125, 165, 387, 388, 391,

598, 608batch 391

flash 391of glass 418magnetic 206, 602point 341, 607of steels 284–5twins 118, 243, 598

anode reactions 492anodising 235, 603antiferromagnetic materials 204antimonial lead 254antimony 254, 255, 588aramid fibre 99, 348, 607arc stud welding 454arc welding 446, 447–51, 611argon arc welding 449–51arrest points 271Arrhenius’ rate law 116, 129, 182,

477, 598, 601arsenical copper 242, 246artificial radioactivity 28–9A-scan display 548atom 18atomic mass number 18, 19, 20, 595atomic mass unit 18atomic number 18, 23, 595atomic weight 18, 23austenite 270, 604austenitic

cast iron 296stainless steel 292

autoclave moulding 409, 410AV8B aircraft see Harrieravailability 7, 11, 569Avogadro’s number 20, 595

Babbitt metal 262bacterial attack 497, 498bainite 270, 278, 604Bakelite 321ball clay 331

Index

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 628

band structure 198–9, 601barium titanate 72, 204, 546barrelling 436basic refractory 333batch anneal 391bauxite 234Bayer process 234bearing

bronze 260, 262–3metals 262–3

beryllium 233, 348, 588copper alloys 246–7, 252

beta particles 27, 28, 29, 498–9B–H curve 205–6binding energy 31, 595birefringence 218, 565, 602bismuth 588blackheart malleable iron 294, 604blast furnace 241, 269blister copper 241–2block copolymer 53, 319block slip theory 108blow moulding 404, 417–18, 609,

610blown film 404body-centred cubic 68, 69, 71, 72,

76–7, 78–9, 82, 112–13, 152Bohr model of atom 21Boltzmann’s constant 182, 222bond

angle 35, 45, 46co-ordinate 36–7, 595covalent 31, 33–6, 44–5, 46, 47,

48, 595energy 19, 31, 38–9hydrogen 31, 38, 595ionic 31–3, 43, 44, 47, 48, 595metallic 31, 37–8, 48, 595mixed 39primary 31, 596rotation 90secondary 31, 38–9, 46, 596van der Waal’s 31, 38–9, 46, 75,

92, 596bonding

adhesive 461–2between atoms 31–8diffusion 186, 459–60, 611

boring 429, 430boron 47

fibre 348nitride 338, 434

borosilicate glass 89, 341, 586BR see polybutadieneBragg equation 80, 597branched polymers 56branching reactions 56–7, 597brass 197, 242, 244, 246–7, 603

cartridge 244, 603high tensile 245, 246–7

braze welding 445brazing 442, 444–5, 611brick 4, 12, 13, 223, 225bridge design 4–5, 580–2Brinell hardness test 506–8, 611Brintrup equation 101Britannia metal 255brittle fracture 144, 600broaching 431, 434, 436bronze 4, 11, 242, 246–7, 603

aluminium 247, 250–1manganese 245, 604phosphor 246, 250, 262–3welding see braze welding

Brunel 5bubble assist 406building stone 328–9built-up edge 423, 610bulk modulus of elasticity 96, 226,

598bulk moulding compound 410Burger’s vector 113, 114, 115, 598butadiene 53 (see also polybutadiene)butt welding 455, 457butyl rubber 302, 318, 320, 593

cadmium 10, 496copper 10, 246–7, 252plating 496

caesium-137 29, 552, 553caesium chloride 44, 72calcium fluoride 72calcium titanate 72calendering 405, 609camber 378–9capillary attraction 228capstan lathe 430–1, 610carbides see cemented carbides,

cementite, chromium carbide,coated carbides, silicon carbide,titanium carbide and tungstencarbide

carbon 18, 20black 317compounds 34–5dioxide 20dioxide process 367equivalent 274, 293, 604fibre 99, 347–8, 607fibre reinforced materials see CFRPas refractory 334tool steel 426, 427, 610

carbonitriding 288, 604carburising 186, 187–8, 286, 288,

601, 604gas 286pack 286

cartridge brass 244, 603cascading 203case hardening 286–7, 288–9, 604

cast iron 9, 12, 13, 147, 227, 269,293–6, 428, 604

alloy 295–6blackheart 294high strength 296high temperature 296malleable 294, 295nodular 294, 295spheroidal graphite 294, 295, 606structures of 293, 294, 295whiteheart 294–5

casting 364, 365–7, 608centrifugal 364, 373–4, 608comparison of processes 366continuous 376–7defects in 369die 365, 370–2, 374–5, 608ingot 364, 375–7investment 365, 372–3, 374, 608of polymers 401, 408sand 365, 366–70, 374–5shell mould 367, 370slip 414tape 414

catalyst 182cathode copper 242, 603cathode reactions 492cathodic protection 496–7, 613cathodoluminescence 219, 602cavitation attack 495, 613CBN see cubic boron nitrideC–C–T diagrams 279, 604cellophane 310celluloid 309cellulose 309, 345, 348

acetate 309, 310acetate-butyrate 309, 310ethyl 309, 310nitrate 309propionate 309, 310

cement 12, 13, 328, 329cemented carbides 426, 427, 431,

610cementite 270, 604centre lathe 430–1, 610centreless grinding 435centrifugal casting 365, 373–4, 608ceramic

crystals 72–6cutting tools 421, 424, 427fibres 338, 348insulating tiles 586–7matrix composites 356, 607

ceramics 327–8, 331–9, 429forming of 413–17properties of 46, 335, 336, 337sintering of 416types of 328

cermets 356–7, 607CFRP 7, 9, 147, 350–3, 583, 584

Index 629

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Charpy test 152, 528–9, 614chemical machining 438, 611chemical plating see electroless

platingchemical properties 7chemical resistance 8chemical vapour deposition 395,

397, 427, 608chemiluminescence 220chemisorption 229china clay 75, 331, 607chip breaker 424, 611

internal 424chip formation 423–4chipless machining 438–40chlorinated polymers 304, 318,

590–1chlorine 31–2, 33–4, 365chloroprene see polychloroprenechrome-magnesite 333chromium 69, 291, 588

carbide 287, 290, 291, 292copper 246–7, 252plating 289

Chrysler Concept Vehicle 308, 350,580

claddingof aluminium 237–8of buildings 235, 260–1

clay 4, 331, 366, 607minerals 39, 75plastic flow in 75, 331

clearance angle 421–2, 611cleavage fracture 152

stress 152climb milling 432–3climb of dislocations 128–9, 599close-packed hexagonal see

hexagonal close packedclosed die forging 382, 608cluster mill 387, 388CMC see ceramic matrix compositesCNC machining 433–4, 611coated carbides 426, 427, 611cobalt 12, 205, 291, 357, 588cobalt-60 27, 29, 552, 553COD see crack opening displacementcoercivity 205, 207, 601co-extrusion 404, 609coherent precipitate 127, 189, 598cold chamber die casting 371, 372cold drawing

of metals 389–90, 609of polymers 91, 523of tube 389–90

cold pressure welding 455, 459cold rolling 387–8cold setting plastics 51, 606cold shut 369, 608cold working 122, 287–91, 598, 608

colour centre 217, 602composite materials 7, 344–58composition cells 491–2, 613compounding 301, 321–2, 400–1compounds

crystals of 72–6intermetallic 168–9

compressionmoulding 408, 609test 526–7wave 546

compressive strength 7concentration cell 491, 492–3, 613Concorde 238, 585concrete 9, 12, 13, 147, 223, 225,

328–31condensation

polymerisation 54–5, 306, 308,320, 322, 596

conductionband 198–9, 601electrical 197–200ionic 33, 197thermal 224

conductivityelectrical 37, 174thermal 8, 224–5, 603

constituents in steels 270contact angle 228continuous casting 376–7, 608continuous chip 423–61conventional milling 432co-ordinate bond 36–7, 595co-ordination number 43–4, 69, 70,

596–7cope 368–9, 608copolymerisation 53copper 4, 10, 11, 12, 13, 21, 71, 197,

223, 225, 241–4, 291, 428, 588alloys 9, 147, 244–53, 428nickel alloys 126, 246–7, 251–2production of 241–2properties of 242, 246–7

cores 367, 369, 608coring 165corrosion 489–97, 613

fatigue 495, 613galvanic 489–94inhibitor 497pitting 495protection 496–7stress 495

costs 10, 570–1of materials 11of processes 11, 571

Cottrell atmospheres 126, 598couplant 546covalent bond 31, 33–6, 44–5, 46,

47, 48, 595CPVC 305, 313, 314, 591

CR see polychloroprenecrack

nucleation 471opening displacement 154–5propagation 144, 471, 474–5

creep 129, 133, 138, 143, 470,477–80, 599, 612

curves 477, 478, 480in metals 477–80in polymers 133, 138, 477power law 477–8resistance 8testing 530–1

criticalangle 547cooling velocity 191–2, 277, 601,

604cutting speed 423fibre volume fraction 346–7fracture stress 145–6resolved shear stress 110–11, 598shear stress 108strain energy release rate 146,

600stress intensity factor 148, 600temperatures 271, 604

cross-linked polyethylene seepolyethylene

cross-linking 56, 57–8, 596, 606crystal

analysis 76–83lattice 65structures of compounds 72–6structures of elements 588symmetry 64–5systems 64–5

crystalline polymers 90–2, 597crystallites 90, 91, 591cubic

body-centred 68, 69, 71, 72, 77,78–9, 82, 112, 113

boron nitride 338, 434face-centred 68, 70, 71, 76, 77, 78,

79, 82, 112, 113interstitial sites 71simple 68, 69system 64

cupronickel 197, 251, 603curie 552Curie temperature 204, 207–8, 270,

271, 602curing 317, 320, 321, 323, 408, 409,

410cutting fluids 426, 611cutting processes 421–34cutting tool

geometry 421–2life 424–6materials 426–7

CVD see cemical vapour deposition

630 Index

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cyaniding 286, 288, 602cyclic stress intensity 474

damping capacity 7, 9, 227, 558, 602DAP 324d.c. arc welding 447DCEN 447–8DCEP 447–8Debye–Scherrer technique 80–1decarburising 186, 187–8, 601deep drawing 390defects

in castings 369detection of see non-destructive

testingin welds 464

degassing 365degradation of polymers 488–9, 613degree of polymerisation 52, 53, 55,

59, 596dendrite 162, 600dendritic coring 165, 249densification 415–16density 7, 8, 9, 45, 588deoxidation 365depleted layer 201–2devitrification 192diallyl isophthalate see DIAPdiallyl phthalate see DAPdiamagnetism 205, 602diamond 34, 47, 197, 199, 223, 426,

434hardness test 506, 508–11polycrystalline 427structure of 34–5, 44

DIAP 324die casting 365, 370–2, 374–5, 608die forging 382, 608die pressing 393, 414, 610dielectric 203

constant 203, 218, 602materials 216strength 203

differential aeration corrosion seeoxygen concentration cell

diffraction 218–19, 602X-ray 79–81, 219

diffusion 125, 127, 128–9, 165,185–90, 395, 598, 601

coefficient 186joining 186, 459–60, 611laws of 186

diffusionless transformation seemartensitic transformation

diffusivity 225dip transfer 448directional solidification 264, 372–3

(see also continuous casting)discontinuous chip 423–4dislocations 113–18, 121–3, 200, 598

climb of 128–9, 598density of 122generation of 122–3locking of 126, 128

dispersion hardening 126–7, 599DMC see dough moulding compounddolomite 332, 333domains

in elastomers 319magnetic 205, 602

dough moulding compound 410,609

down milling 432–3drag 368–9, 609drape forming 406, 410, 609draw stress 523drawing 389–90, 609drilling 431–2dry pressing 414ductile fracture 143, 600ductile–brittle transition 152, 499,

600durometer 512dye penetrant inspection see liquid

penetrant inspection

E see modulus of elasticityEADS Typhoon 260, 347, 352, 582–3earthenware 331ebonite 317ECM see electrochemical machiningECTFE 305eddy current inspection 538, 544–6edge dislocation 113–14EDM see electrodischarge machininge-glass 347, 348, 607elastic behaviour 94–104elastic constants 45–6, 96–7

relationship between 97elastic limit 96, 108, 516, 518, 598,

599elasticity 598

modulus of 7, 8, 9, 45, 96, 100,102, 108, 133, 144, 226, 346,519, 558, 583, 596, 598, 616

elastomers 46, 316–19, 320, 596,606

electric arcspraying 396welding 446, 447–51, 611

electric resistancestrain gauges 515welding 455–7

electricalconduction 197–200conductivity 37properties 196–204resistivity 197

electrical tests, non-destructive 538,544–6

electrochemical machining 438–9, 611electrode coating 447, 448–9electrode potential 489–90, 614electrodischarge machining 439, 611electrogas welding 446, 452, 611electrohydraulic forming 391electroless plating 396, 608electroluminescence 220, 603electrolyte 48, 197, 596electrolytic grinding see

electrochemical machiningelectromagnetic spectrum 213–14electromotive series 490, 491electron 18, 21

beam diffraction 566beam machining 439, 611beam welding 446, 452–3, 611configuration in atoms 22–4energy levels 22–4, 198–9, 595excitation 214–15gas 37, 48, 224hole 197, 200microscope; scanning 565;

transmission 565probe microanalyser 566shells 22–6, 31spin 22, 204–5volt 19

electrophoresis 395, 396, 608electroplating 395, 396electroslag welding 446, 451–2, 612elements, chemical 18–19elements of symmetry 64elongation

percentage 519, 614percentage at break 524

emulsion polymerisation 59, 60end mill 433endoscope see optical inspection

probesendurance strength 470, 613energy

activation 182bands 188–9binding 19, 31, 38change in reaction 19content of materials 12, 13, 572distribution 181–2gap 198–9, 203, 224, 602levels 24, 198–9, 214–15nuclear 19spectrum 213–14

environmental stress cracking 489,613

EPDM 303EPM 303epoxide materials 9, 55–6, 147, 323,

325, 349, 569, 570, 594equilibrium diagrams see phase

diagrams

Index 631

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 631

etching agents 616for macro-examination 562for micro-examination 564

ETFE 305ethane 51ethene 51ethine see acetyleneethyl cellulose 309, 310ethylene see ethene

copolymers 302–3polymerisation 51

Eurofighter see EADS Typhooneutectic 161–2, 226, 600

superalloys 355, 372eutectoid 175, 190, 291, 600EVA copolymer 302–3excitation of electrons 214–15expanded plastics 304, 407–8, 609expansion 8, 102, 223–4, 603

coefficient 223explosive

forming 390–1welding 458–9

extensometers 514–15, 614extrinsic semiconductors 201, 602extruder 403extrusion 383–6, 403–4

coating 404, 609defect 384–5direct 383–5impact 390indirect 383–5of metals 364, 608of plastics 403–4, 609press 383–4

face mill 433face-centred cubic 68, 70, 71, 76, 77,

78, 79, 82, 112, 113slip in 112

facing 429, 430failure see fracturefast fracture 145, 149–51fatigue 143, 149, 470–7

of composites 476–7factors affecting 476–7fracture 471high cycle 471, 473–4life 473limit 470, 613low cycle 471, 473testing 529–30

ferrimagnetic materials 206ferrite 270, 273, 605ferrites 74, 206, 602ferritic stainless steel 292ferroelectric materials 72, 204,

602ferromagnetism 73, 205, 602fibre optics see optical fibre

fibre reinforced materials 4, 98–102,144, 346–7, 349–55, 607

moulding of 409–11fibre structure 386–7, 608fibreglass see glass reinforced

polymers (GFRP)fibres 345Fick’s laws of diffusion 186, 601fictive temperature see glass

transition temperaturefilament winding 409, 609filler 301, 316–17, 321, 606film blowing 404, 609fireclay 197, 331, 607firing of clays 331, 414, 610flame cutting 447, 608, 612flame hardening 286, 289, 605flame spraying 396flash annealing 391flash butt welding 453–4, 612flexural bend test 524–5flexural strength 525float-glass process 417, 610fluctuating stress cycle 471, 472, 613fluorescence 219, 603fluorescent penetrants 540fluorescent screens 553fluorocarbon polymers 304–5, 591fluorometallic screens 553fluoroscopy 553–4, 615flux 448–9, 612flux shielded arc welding 448–9foamed aluminium 358foamed plastics 302, 304, 324forge welding 455forging 381–3, 608

die 382hammer 381–2presses 382roll 382–3smith’s 381–2upset 382

forming 429, 611foundry sand 366–7fracture

brittle 143, 152–3cleavage 143, 152–3, 471ductile 143–4fast 144, 146–50fatigue 471mechanics 145–52mechanisms of 123–4, 143–4toughness 8, 9, 146–7, 168, 600;

determination of 153–4Frank–Read source 122, 599free-cutting materials 424free-flight transfer 448freezing of a liquid 86–7, 160–1fretting 495–6, 613friction 229

welding 455, 458, 460, 612FRP see fibre reinforced materialsfull annealing 284–5, 605fungal attack 498furnace brazing 445, 612fused silica see vitreous silicafusible alloys 254, 255fusion welding 446–51, 612

G see modulus of rigiditygallium arsenide 221galvanic

cells 489–90, 613corrosion 489–96series 491, 613

galvanising 262gamma iron 175, 270gamma radiation 27, 29, 57, 214,

498–9, 552–3, 615gamma radiography see radiographygas metallic-arc welding 449–51gas porosity 365, 369gas-shielded arc welding 449–51gas welding see oxy-gas weldinggauge length 516, 519Gaussian error function 186gear making 436–7generating 429, 611geometry of cutting tools 421–2Gerber’s equation 472, 613germanium 12, 47, 48, 197, 199GFRP 7, 9, 147, 330, 573, 580–2,

583GLARE 357, 584glass 7, 13, 45, 74, 328, 340–1, 574,

577, 596, 597, 607annealing of 418borosilicate 89, 341, 586ceramics 193, 339–40, 607fibre 98, 347–8, 607fibre reinforced materials see GFRPformer 88, 597forming of 86–7, 417–18leaded 89manufacture of 417metallic 90modifier 88, 597refining 417reinforced polymers see GFRProlling 417soda 89state 45, 596toughened 104–5transition temperature 46–7, 87,

90, 133, 152, 340, 596, 597, 607glazing 331, 414, 607, 610glost firing 332, 414, 610GMA welding see gas metallic-arc

weldinggold 4, 12, 21, 588

632 Index

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 632

Goodman’s equation 472, 613graft copolymer 57grain

boundaries 119, 598growth 124, 125, 598size 119–21

graphite 39, 197, 223, 225in cast iron 293, 295

gravity die casting 370–1, 608greensand 366, 608grey cast iron 293, 605Griffith crack relationship 145–6grinding 434–5, 611

centreless 435electrolytic 439wheels 435

ground state 22, 595growth of cast iron 293, 296gunmetal 246–7, 250, 603gypsum 329

Hadfield’s steel 292–3, 605half-life 27, 28, 29, 552, 595, 615halide glass 341Hall effect 208–9halogen elements 26Halpin–Tsai equation 101hand lay-up 409hard chromium plating 289hard metal 356, 392, 427, 607hard soldering 444–5, 612hardenability 279–80, 605hardener alloy 365hardening 273, 284, 605

age 166, 186, 236–7, 598, 601,603

dispersion 126–7, 599precipitation 127, 166, 186,

188–90, 601quench 273, 284of steels 273, 284strain 123, 599work 123, 599

hardness 8conversions 510tests 506–12

hardwood 345Harrier 347, 351Hastelloy 257, 258HDPE see polyethylene, high densityheat affected zone 463, 612heat capacity 222–3, 603heat resistant irons 296heat shielding 585–7heat treatment

of aluminium alloys 236–7of steels 284–5

heated tool welding 460helium 28

nuclei see alpha particles

HERF see high energy rate forminghexagonal boron nitride 338hexagonal close packed 69, 70, 71,

109, 110slip in 109–10

hexagonal crystal system 64, 65high alloy steels 269, 290–3, 365,

605high alumina refractories 333–4high carbon steels 284, 285, 605high-cycle fatigue 471, 473–4high density polyethylene see

polyethylene, high densityhigh energy rate forming 390–1high frequency welding 461high impact polystyrene see

polystyrenehigh speed tool steel 290–3, 424,

427, 611high strength irons 293–4high strength low alloy steels 290high temperature oxidation 8, 485–8high tensile brass 245, 246–7hobbing 436homogenising 165homopolar bonding see covalent

bondhomopolymer 53honeycomb structures 357, 358honing 436Hooke’s law 95Hoopes process 234hot chamber die casting 371, 372hot die pressing 393hot dipping 396hot gas welding 460, 612hot isostatic pressing 393, 414, 610hot plate welding 460hot pressed silicon nitride 336hot pressing 414, 610hot rolling 378–81hot tars 369, 608hot working 125, 378–86, 599, 608Hounsfield testing machine 513Humber bridge 5Hume–Rothery rules 164HVOF spraying 396hydrocarbons 51hydrogen 18, 29

bond 31, 38, 595peroxide 52

hypereutectoid steel 271, 272–3, 605hypoeutectoid steel 271, 272, 605hysteresis loop see B–H curve

Ihrigising 289, 605IIR see butyl rubberimage quality indicators 554–5, 615impact extrusion 390impact strength 153

impact tests 528–9impingement attack 495impressed voltage 497, 614impurity semiconductor 201, 602Inconel 257, 258, 604indirect extrusion 383–5induction

bonding see induction weldinghardening 286, 289, 605welding 458, 461

industrial ceramics 334–5industrial use of radio-isotopes 29,

553inert gas shielded arc welding

449–50, 612inertia welding 458, 612ingot casting 364, 608inhibitor 494, 497, 614initiator 52, 596injection moulding

of ceramics 416–17of metals 394, 395, 579–80of plastics 401–3, 609

injection screw 402–3insert casting 372insulating materials 203, 602intensifying screens 553interatomic bonding 29–38intermediate phase 168, 600intermetallic compounds 168, 600intermolecular bonding 38–9internal chipbreaker 424internal plasticiser 305interplanar spacing 79interpretation of phase diagrams

162–3interstitial

defects 116, 125, 599sites 71, 597solid solution 126, 164

intrinsic semiconductors 200, 602Invar 223, 224investment casting 365, 372–3, 374,

608ion 18, 32ion implantation 395, 397, 608ionic bond 31–3, 595ionic conduction 197ionic crystals 33ionisation 215, 489ionisation energy 215ionomer 303iridium-192 552, 553iron 4, 12, 69, 197, 205, 268–9, 588

allotropy of 174–5, 270carbide 270cast 9, 12, 13, 147, 227, 269,

293–6, 428, 604production of 269wrought 5, 269

Index 633

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 633

iron–carbon phase diagram 270–1irradiation of materials 498–9isoprene see natural rubber and

polyisopreneisostatic pressing 392, 393, 414, 610isotones 20isotopes 18, 19–20, 29, 553Izod test 528–9, 614

jet machining 440jog 129joining processes 442–64Jominy test 279–80, 605

kaolin 75–6, 331Kevlar 348, 352, 582, 607killed steels 375, 608kilogramme molecule 20kilomole 20kinetic heating 584–5Knoop hardness test 509–11, 614

laminates 102laminating 410–11Lanz–Perlit iron 294, 605lapping 436LAS glass ceramics 193, 224, 339–40laser 220–1, 603

gas 220semiconductor 221solid state 220

laser beammachining 439welding 446, 453

latex 317lathes 430–1lattice, crystal see crystal latticelattice constants 65, 76–9lattice parameters see lattice

constantsLDPE see polyethylene, low densitylead 4, 11, 12, 197, 223, 225, 253,

255, 291, 588alloys 254–5glass 341niobate 204screens 552

lead-free solders 443–4leak-before-break 151lever rule 162–3limit of proportionality 96, 518–19Lindley extensometer 514line defect see dislocationslinear expansion coefficient 223linear low density polyethylene 302,

312linear polymers 50, 56, 596liquid penetrant inspection 538,

540–2, 615liquid phase sintering 228, 614

liquidoid 175liquidus 162, 600lithium 238LLDPE see linear low density

polyethylenelost wax process see investment castinglow alloy steels 463, 465low carbon steels 11, 12, 152, 375,

605low-cycle fatigue 471, 473low density polyethylene see

polyethylene, low densitylower critical temperature see critical

temperatureslubrication 229luminescence 219–20, 603

machineability 427–9machining 421–40, 611

centre 433, 611macro-examination 561–2, 616magnesia see magnesium oxidemagnesite-chrome 333magnesium 5, 13, 20, 28, 47, 71,

168, 197, 198, 223, 225, 235–6,256, 349, 429, 588

alloys 9, 256oxide 47, 332, 333

magneticannealing 206, 602behaviour 204–8domains 205, 602flux/gas-arc welding 449force spot welding 455hysteresis 205–6materials 206–8moment of electron 22particle inspection 538, 542–4,

615properties 205–8

magnetically impelled arc butt weldingsee MIAB welding

magnetisation curve 205–6magnetite 206MAGS welding 450Maidenhead bridge 4–5malleable irons 294, 295manganese 235, 291, 588

bronze 245, 246–7steel 292–3, 604

Mannesman process 383manufacturing properties 7, 569maraging steels 292Marten’s extensometer 515martensite 191, 251, 270, 273, 277,

601, 605tempering of 192

martensitic stainless steel 292martensitic transformation 190–2,

601

mass defect 18, 19, 595mass number see atomic mass

numbermass unit see atomic mass unitmass–energy relationship 19materials selection 567–87matrix materials 348–9Maxwell model 134–6, 600Maxwell–Kelvin model 138–41,

600mechanical properties 7, 568mechanical twin 118Meehanite 294, 605melamine-formaldehyde materials

55, 322, 324, 325, 593melt spinning 90melt treatment 365melting

of metals 364–5points 47

Menai bridge 5Mendeleev 26metal-arc welding 447–8metal cutting 421–34, 436–8metal matrix composites 355–6, 392,

607metal powders, production of

392metallic arc gas welding see MAGS

weldingmetallic bond 595metallic glass 90methane 51Meyer index 512, 614MIAB welding 453–4microalloyed steels 290microbial attack 498micro-examination

of metals 562–4of non-metals 564–5

microhardness tests 509–11microscope

electron 565metallurgical 562–3polarising 565scanning electron 565

Mie equation 31, 38, 39MIG welding 446, 449–51, 612mild steel 12, 13, 197, 223, 225,

463, 605yield in 127–8

Miller indices 65–8, 597for directions 67–8for planes 66–7

Miller–Bravais lattice 65, 597milling 432–3, 611Miner’s law 473, 613mixed dislocations 114–15MMC see metal matrix compositesmodification of Al–Si alloys 236

634 Index

0333_94917X_36_Ind.qxd 4/4/03 6:07 PM Page 634

modulusbulk 96of elasticity 96, 133, 144, 226,

519, 558, 588, 596, 598, 614of rigidity 96, 108, 226, 558, 588,

598, 615of rupture 524, 616secant 524

Moh’s scale of hardness 506, 507,614

mole 20, 595molecular weight 20, 47molecule 20molybdenum 291, 588Monel 257, 258, 604monoclinic 64, 65monomer 50, 596moulding

compounds 410compression 408, 609injection 394, 395, 401–3, 416–17,

579–80, 609sand 366–9shell 370, 376

Mu metal 207Muntz metal 245, 246, 604

natural rubber 223, 225, 593NBR 318, 320NC machining 433, 611neck formation 415necking 143neoprene see polychloroprenenetwork former 88, 597network modifier 88, 597network polymer 56, 596neutral refractories 333neutron 18, 26

irradiation 498–9nickel 5, 121, 197, 205, 223, 225,

257, 291, 589alloys 9, 147, 257, 258silver 252, 604

nimonic alloys 257, 258, 604niobium 291, 589nitrides see boron nitride and silicon

nitridenitriding 286, 288, 605nitrile rubber see NBRnodular cast iron 294, 295nominal strain 520, 614nominal stress 520, 614non-coherent precipitate 127, 189,

599non-destructive testing 537–59

acoustic emission 557, 615electrical (eddy current) 538,

544–6liquid penetrant 538, 540–2, 615magnetic particle 538, 542–4, 615

optical inspection probes 538–9radiography 29, 538, 549–57, 615ultrasonic 538, 546–9, 615vibration 558

non-linear polymer 50, 56, 596non-traditional machining 438–40,

611normalising 284notch impact tests 528–9notch impact toughness 153, 600NR see natural rubbern-type semiconductors 201nuclear fission 19nucleon 18nucleus 18, 21, 26nylon see polyamides

oblique machining 422, 611octahedral site 71, 597offset yield stress 517–18optical fibre 222, 603optical inspection probes 538–9optical microscopes 562–5ordered copolymer 53ordered solid solution 164orthogonal machining 422, 611orthorhombic 64, 65over-ageing 189, 237, 601, 604oxidation

of ceramics 489of composites 489of metals 485–8resistance 487–8

oxy-gas welding 446–7oxygen concentration cell 492–4

PA see polyamidespack carburising 286, 288pack rolling 388packing fraction 69–70, 597PAE 311, 592PAI 315, 349, 593PAN see polyacrylonitrileparaffin hydrocarbons 51paramagnetism 205, 602PAS 311passifying agent 497passivation 495, 614passivity 495Pauli exclusion principle 22–4, 198,

596PBT 309, 313, 314, 349, 592PCBN 338PCD 427PCDT 309PE see polyethylenepearlite 190, 270, 605PEEK 92, 310, 313, 314, 315, 349,

401, 404, 592peening 476, 613

PEI 315, 592penetrameter 554–5, 615penetrant tests 538, 540–2, 615PEO see polyethylene oxidepercentage

elongation 519, 614elongation at break 524reduction of area 519, 614

percussion welding 454periodic table 24–6, 596peritectic 167–8, 601Permalloy 207permittivity 203, 602perovskite structure 72–3Perspex see PMMAPES 311, 313, 314, 315, 349, 592PET 349, 573, 577, 580, 592Petch relationship 120, 599pewter 255, 604P-F materials see phenolic materialsPFA 305phase 159, 601phase diagrams 158–76, 601

for allotropic elements 174–5Al–Cu 237Al–Si 236Al2O3–CaO 169Al2O3–SiO2 169Au–Cu 165Cu–Al 245Cu–Ni 165Cu–Sn 245Cu–Zn 245Fe–Fe3C 190–1, 271–2H2O 159with intermetallic compound

168–9interpretation of 162–3partial solid solubility with eutectic

165–6partial solid solubility with peritectic

167–8Pb–Sn 254solid insolubility 160–2solid solubility 163–5

phenol-formaldehyde see phenolicmaterials

phenolic materials 55, 197, 223, 225,320–2, 324–5, 569, 570, 593

phonon 222, 603phosphor bronze 250phosphorescence 219, 603phosphors 220, 603phosphorus 365photochemical machining 438photoconduction 218, 603photoelastic effect 218, 603photoluminescence 219, 603photon 213

energy 213–14

Index 635

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 635

photo-oxidation 498physical properties, tables of 8, 9,

588–9physical vapour deposition 395,

396–7, 608piercing 383piezoelectric 48, 72

coefficients 204crystal 546effect 204materials 204, 602transducer 48, 546

Pilger process 382Pilling–Bedworth ratio 485–6, 614pipe defect 375pitting corrosion 495plain carbon steel 269

heat treatment of 284–5machining of 428structures of 272–4uses of 285

Planck’s relationship 21, 213, 603planetary rolling mill 387, 388planing 429–30, 611plasma

arc welding 451, 612jet machining 439–40spraying 396

plastic behaviourby slip 108–15by twinning 118

plastic flow in clay 75, 331plastic strain 95, 108plasticised PVC see PPVCplasticisers 401plastics materials see under individual

typesexpanded 304, 407–8, 609forming of 400–8properties of 314, 324, 325welding of 460–1

platinum 589plug assist 405–6plywood 102, 346PMMA 9, 11, 92, 147, 306, 313,

314, 406, 429, 461, 569, 570, 591p–n junction 201–3point defect 115–16, 599Poisson’s ratio 96, 97, 98, 226, 558,

588, 598polarisation 34, 75, 494–5

in dielectrics 204in galvanic cell 494–5, 614of light 218

polarising microscope 565polishing 436

for micro-examination 563polyacetal 12, 92, 308, 313–14, 591

(see also acetal)polyacrylonitrile 306, 314, 347, 591

polyallomer 302, 312, 314polyamides 9, 12, 13, 47, 54, 59, 92,

147, 197, 223, 225, 306–7, 313,314, 348, 349, 402, 461, 569, 570,591

aromatic 348polyarylates 311, 315polybutadiene 53, 317, 318, 320,

593polybutylene teraphthalate see PBTpolycarbonate 12, 92, 147, 308, 313,

314, 404, 406, 591polychloroprene 318, 320, 593polycrystalline

boron nitride 338diamond 427metals 119–21

polyesters 7, 9, 54, 147, 569, 570saturated 308–9, 313, 314unsaturated 322–3, 325, 349

polyetherimide see PEIpolyethylene 9, 12, 13, 51, 92, 197,

225, 302–3, 318, 402, 404, 407,460, 461, 590

cross-linked 312high density 147, 223, 302, 312,

314, 406, 573, 569, 570, 577linear low density 302, 312low density 147, 223, 302, 312,

314, 406, 569, 570, 573oxide 92teraphthalate see PETultra high molecular weight 302,

312polyimides 315, 349, 592polyisoprene 57, 316–17polymer crystallites 90–1polymer materials 300–26polymerisation 36, 51

addition 51–4bulk 59condensation 54–6degree of 59emulsion 59, 60mass 59solution 59suspension 59, 60

polymersapplications of 312–13, 325properties of 46, 133, 314, 324, 325

polymethyl methacrylate see PMMApolyolefin copolymers 302–3polyoxymethylene see polyacetalpolyphenylene

oxide see PPOsulphide see PPSsulphone see PPSU

polypropylene 9, 12, 53, 92, 147,404, 406, 460, 461, 569, 570, 573,590

polystyrene 9, 12, 53, 59, 60, 147,223, 225, 311, 404, 406, 407, 429,461, 569, 570, 573, 590

polysulphide 318polysulphone see PSUpolytetrafluoroethylene see PTFEpolythene see polyethylenepolyurethane 92, 319, 324, 594polyvinyl acetate see PVApolyvinyl chloride see PVCpolyvinyl fluoride see PVFpolyvinylidene chloride see PVDCpolyvinylidene fluoride see PVDFPOM see polyacetalporcelain see whitewareporosity 331, 369Pourbaix diagram 494powder metallurgy 13, 364, 392–4,

577–9, 608powder pressing 392–3PPO 310–11, 313, 314, 592PPS 311, 313, 314, 349, 592PPSU 311, 313, 314, 315PPVC 303, 304–5, 312, 314, 461 (see

also PVC)precipitation hardening 127, 166,

186, 188–90, 601of aluminium alloys 189, 236–7of copper alloys 252

preforms 410, 609prepregs 410, 609pressing 417pressure die casting 370–3, 608pressure sintering 416pressure welding 455–9, 612pressureless sintered silicon nitride

337pre-stressed concrete 4, 330–1primary bonds 31–8, 596primary creep 477, 613process annealing 284–5, 606projection welding 455, 456proof stress 517–18properties of materials, comparison 3proportionality, limit of 96, 518–19proton 18, 26PS see polystyrenePSU 311, 313, 314, 349, 404, 592PTFE 7, 9, 52, 197, 305, 313, 314,

315, 401, 569, 570, 591p-type semiconductor 201pulforming 409, 609pulsed arc welding 451pultrusion 409, 410, 609PVA 60, 461PVC 12, 13, 52, 59, 60, 92, 303,

304–5, 312, 401, 402, 405, 406,407, 460, 590

PVD see physical vapour depositionPVDC 305, 314, 591

636 Index

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 636

PVDF 305, 591PVF 305pyrex 197Pyroceram 223, 224, 339–40

quantummodel 21numbers 21–3, 198, 596relationship 21

quartz 197, 204, 223, 225, 546quench hardening see hardening

radar 217radiation damage 498–9, 556radiation disintegration sequence 27–8radioactive constant 27radioactive decay 27radioactive isotopes 27, 28, 29,

552–3radioactivity 26–8, 596radiographic screens 553radiography 29, 538, 549–57, 615rake angle 421–2, 611Rayleigh waves 546, 547, 549reaction bonded silicon carbide 338,

416reaction bonded silicon nitride 336,

416reaction bonding 416, 610reaction injection moulding 408, 609reaction sintering 416, 610recovery 135, 138, 600recrystallisation 124–5, 387, 599

temperature 125recycling of materials 12, 571–4reduction of area 519, 614refining

of aluminium 234of copper 242of glass 417

refraction 218of sound waves 546–7

refractive index 218, 603refractories 331, 332–4, 607reinforced concrete 329–30reinforced reaction injection moulding

408, 409, 609relative permittivity 203, 602relaxation 133, 135, 138, 480–1,

600, 613testing 531time 219, 480

remanence 205, 602repeating stress cycle 471, 472, 613resin transfer moulding 409, 609resistance welding 455–7resistivity

electrical 197, 602thermal coefficient of electrical

200

rhombohedral 64, 65rigid PVC 9, 147, 304, 312, 314, 401,

569, 570 (see also PVC)rigidity, modulus of 96, 108, 226,

558, 588, 598, 615rimming steels 375–6, 608Rockwell hardness tests 509, 510,

614roentgen 553roll forging 382–3roll forming 390rolling

cold 387–8of glass 417hot 378–81mill forces 379–80mills 378–9, 387–8of sections 379

rotary piercing 383rotating–bending tests 529–30rotational moulding 406–7, 609rubber

die forming 390natural 46, 316–17, 320silicone 319, 320synthetic 317–19, 320vulcanising of 57–8, 317, 607

rubbery state 90rule of mixtures 100, 173ruling section 279, 606rupture, modulus of 524, 616rust, formation of 493

S curve see T–T–T diagramsacrificial anodes 497SAN 54, 304, 312, 314sand casting 12, 366–70, 609sand moulding 366–9sandwich structures 357–8, 607SAP see sintered aluminium powderSBR 304, 312, 314scanning electron microscope 565,

616Schmid’s law 110, 599scleroscope 511screw dislocation 113–14screw thread manufacture 437–8seam welding 455, 456–7, 612season cracking 244, 604seasoning of timber 341secant modulus of elasticity 524, 615secondary bonds 31, 38–9, 46, 596secondary creep 477, 613selection of materials 567–87semiconductors 48, 197, 200–3, 217

doping of 201, 397semicontinuous casting 376–7SG cast iron see spheroidal graphite

cast irons-glass 347, 348, 607

shaping 429–30, 611shear modulus see modulus of

rigidityshear plane 421shear stress 95, 96, 598

critical 108critical resolved 110–11

shear tests 527–8shear waves 546–7sheet moulding compound 410, 610shell moulding 370, 376, 601shielded arc welding 449–51Shore hardness 511–12, 615Shore scleroscope 511shrinkage 368, 369, 414, 415sialon 337silica 36, 45, 74, 434, 586

glass 76, 88–9, 223, 225, 341refractories 332–3vitreous 197, 597

silicate structures 74–6silicon 12, 44, 47, 48, 197, 199, 236,

291, 589carbide 9, 335, 337–8, 348, 356,

416, 434nitride 9, 147, 335, 336–7, 416steel 207

silicones 319, 320siliconising 289, 606silver 4, 10, 11, 12, 197, 223, 225,

589solder 445, 612

single crystals 108, 109–10, 372–3sintered aluminium powder 126,

335sintered silicon nitride 337sintering 415, 610

of ceramics 416liquid phase 416of metal powders 393pressure 416

skin effect 545slip

casting 414directions 109, 112–13in metals 108–15planes 112–13systems 112–13

SMC see sheet moulding compoundsmith’s forging 381–2, 609S–N curve 470soda glass 9, 147, 341Soderberg’s equation 472, 613sodium 28, 31–2, 197sodium chloride 32, 33, 44, 47, 72,

159soft soldering 442–4softwood 345solder 254–5, 443, 444, 446solid phase sintering 415

Index 637

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 637

solid solution 175phase diagram 163–5rules for 164strengthening 126, 599

solid state laser 220solidification 63–4, 86–7solidoid 175solidus 162, 601solution

hardening 126, 599heat treatment 189, 601, 606polymerisation 59

solvent welding 461, 612solvus 165, 601sorbite 283, 606sound

absorption 227velocity of 226

space lattice 65, 597Space Shuttle 584–7spade drill 431, 432spark erosion 439, 611specific heat 223, 603specific modulus 235, 569specific strength 569, 570spectrographic analysis 566spheroidal graphite cast iron 294,

295, 606spheroidising 284–5, 606spherulites 90–1, 597spin welding 458, 460, 612spinel, structure of 73spinning 390split cylinder test 525spot welding 455–6, 612spray lay-up 409stacking, of planes 69–71stainless steel 13, 197, 292, 463, 606standard electrode potential 489–90,

614steady-state creep 477, 613stealth aircraft 217steel 4, 9, 269–92, 348, 606

alloy 269, 290, 428applications of 285constituents in 270heat treatment of 284–5high alloy 269, 290high carbon 285high speed 290high strength low alloy 290low alloy 269, 290low carbon 285manganese 292–3maraging 292medium carbon 285microalloyed 290mild 285plain carbon 269, 428production of 269

silicon 207stainless 13, 197, 292, 463, 606structural 290structures of 272–4surface hardening of 286–7, 288–9tool 285types of 285uses of 285weathering 290yield point in 127–8

stereoregularity 58–9stone 328–9strain 45, 95, 598

ageing 128compressive 95creep 477–8direct 95, 96, 598gauges 515hardening 123, 599; exponent 521measurement of 514–15nominal 520, 614plastic 95, 108point 340, 418, 607shear 95, 96, 598tensile 95true 520–2, 615

stress 94, 598cells 491, 492, 614compressive 45, 95concentration 144–5, 600concentration factor 145, 148corrosion 495, 614cycles 471, 472direct 45, 95, 96, 598draw 523fracture 95induced crystallinity 523intensity factor 148, 149nominal 520, 614offset see proofproof 517–18range 471–2relief 124, 599rupture curves 479–80rupture tests 531shear 95, 96, 598tensile 45, 95, 143thermal 102–4, 598true 520–2, 615yield 8, 95, 517, 523, 598, 615

structural steels 290structures of ingots 375–6stud welding see arc stud welding and

percussion weldingsub-atomic particles 18sub-critical anneal 284–5submerged arc welding 449substitutional

defects 115–16solid solutions 163–4

sulphur 57–8sulphur prints 562superalloys 257, 264, 355, 604superfinishing 436superlattice 164superplasticity 129, 262, 599surface engineering 394–7surface hardening 286–7, 395surface tension 227–8surface waves 546, 547, 549suspension polymerisation 59, 60symmetry 64synthetic rubbers 317–19, 320

tacticity see stereoregularitytape casting 414Taylor’s tool life equation 424–6, 611TD nickel 355Telford 5tellurium copper 246–7, 252temper brittleness 291, 528–9tempered martensite 270, 283tempering 283, 284–5, 606tensile strength 8, 9, 514–15, 516,

615tensile stress 45, 95, 143tensile test 143, 515–24

for metals 515–19pieces 515–16, 517for plastics 522–4

tensile testing machines 513ternary phase diagrams 175–6tertiary creep 477, 613terylene 54, 308, 348testing of materials 505–32,

537–59compressive 526–7creep 530–1fatigue 529–30hardness 506–12non-destructive 537–59notch impact 528–9relaxation 531shear 527–8tensile 512–26

tetragonal lattice 64, 65tetrahedral site 71, 597thermal

conductivity 8, 224–5, 603diffusivity 225expansion 8, 223–4, 603;

coefficient 223shock resistance 8, 226, 603spraying 395, 396stress 102–4toughening 104–5

thermally activated process 181–2,601

thermit welding 444–5, 446, 612thermoplastic elastomers 303, 319

638 Index

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 638

thermoplastic materials 51, 300–15,349, 429, 596, 606

forming of 51–3, 400–8thermosetting materials 51, 300,

319–25, 349, 429, 462, 596, 607forming of 54–6, 408

thorium 28dispersed nickel see TD nickeloxide 126

thread manufacture 437–8thulium-170 552, 553TIG welding 446, 449–51, 612timber 12, 345–6, 498tin 4, 11, 12, 47, 197, 199, 255, 589

alloys 255titanium 12, 13, 257, 291, 349, 589

alloys 9, 257–9carbide 339, 357, 427oxide 339

tool life 424–6, 611tool steels 285, 290, 427, 606torsion test 527–8torsionmeter 514, 515, 615tough fracture see ductile fracturetough pitch copper 242toughened glass 104–5toughened polystyrene 304toughness 146, 600transducers 48, 73, 546, 602transfer moulding 408, 610transient creep 477, 613transition series 26transition temperature

allotropic 257, 270, 588ductile–brittle 152, 499, 600glass 46–7, 87, 90, 133, 152, 340,

596, 597, 607transmission electron microcope 565,

616transverse bend test 524–5triclinic structure 64, 65troostite 283, 606true strain 520–2true stress 520–2T–T–T diagram 191–2, 277–9, 601,

606tube

drawing 389–90manufacture 382–3, 386,

389–90tumbling see barrellingtungsten 291, 348, 589

arc welding see TIG weldingcarbide 287, 290, 291, 335, 356–7,

427turning 429, 430, 611turret lathe 430–1, 611twinning 108, 118, 611twist drill 431, 432type metals 254, 255

ultimate tensile strength see tensilestrength

ultra high molecular weightpolyethylene see polyethylene

ultrasonicmachining 435probe 548, 615spot welding 461testing 538, 546–9welding 459, 460–1, 612

unit cell 65, 68, 587universal testing machine 513up milling 432–3upper critical temperature see critical

temperaturesupsetting 382, 609UPVC see rigid PVCuranium 589urea-formaldehyde materials 12, 55,

197, 322, 324, 325, 593urethane see polyurethane

vacancy 116, 125, 128, 129, 185–6,599

vacuum forming 405, 410valence 26valence band 198–9valence electrons 24, 29, 199–200,

596van der Waal’s forces 31, 38–9, 46,

75, 92, 596vanadium 291, 589venting 369vibration tests 558vibration welding 460Vickers hardness test 506, 508–11,

615viscoelasticity 92, 95, 133–41,

600viscose 310viscosity 133, 340vitreous silica 197, 597Voigt–Kelvin model 136–8, 600vulcanising 57–8, 317, 607

warp sheet 410, 610waterline corrosion 493weathering 489, 614

steels 496–7Weibull modulus 526, 527, 615weld decay 292, 463weldability of metals 462welding

a.c. arc 447arc 446, 447–51, 611arc stud 454argon arc 449–51butt 455, 457carbon arc 447cold pressure 455, 459

d.c. arc 447defects in 464diffusion 456–60, 615electric resistance 455–7electrodes for 447, 448–9electrogas 446, 452, 611electron beam 446, 452–3,

611electroslag 446, 451–2, 612explosive 458–9flash butt 453–4, 612flux shielded arc 448–9forge 455friction 455, 458, 460, 612gas 446–7gas metallic arc 449–51high frequency 461hot gas 460, 612hot plate 460induction 458, 461inert gas shielded arc 449–50,

612inertia 458, 612laser beam 446, 453magnetic flux/gas arc 449magnetic force spot 455MAGS 450metallic arc 447–8MIAB 453–4MIG 446, 449–51, 612oxy-gas 446–7percussion 454plasma arc 451, 612of plastics 460–1pressure 455–9, 612projection 455, 456pulsed arc 451resistance 455–7seam 455, 456–7, 612solvent 461, 612spin 458, 460, 612spot 455–6, 612submerged arc 449thermit 444–5, 446, 612TIG 446, 449–51, 612ultrasonic 459, 460–1, 612ultrasonic spot 461vibration 460

whiskers 108, 556, 599white cast iron 293, 606white metal bearing alloys 262,

604white tin 255whiteheart cast iron 294–5whiteware 328, 331, 607wire drawing 389Wöhler fatigue test 530, 615wood, structure of 345–6work hardening 123, 599wrought iron 5

Index 639

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 639

XLPE see polyethyleneX-radiation 27, 57, 79, 214, 216,

498–9, 549–52, 615penetrating ability 216, 552

X-radiography 216, 549–57X-ray

analysis 79–83generation of 551–2tube 551–2

YAG see yttrium aluminium garnetyield point in mild steel 127–8yield strength 9, 143yield stress 8, 517, 523, 599 (see also

proof stress)yielding fracture mechanics 154–5Young’s modulus see modulus of

elasticityyttrium aluminium garnet 337

zinc 11, 12, 13, 71, 109–10, 152,197, 261–2, 589

alloys 9, 261–2zirconia 192, 339zirconium 589

640 Index

0333_94917X_36_Ind01.qxd 4/3/03 2:44 PM Page 640