contents australian prescriber volume 24 number 1 2001 · non-reversibly blocking acetylcholine’...

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Australian Prescriber Vol. 24 No. 1 2001

CONTENTS

AustralianPrescriberVolume 24Number 12001

Electronic prescribing in hospitals:

the road ahead(Editorial) H. Stephenson 2

Letters 3

Drug treatment for opioid dependenceA. Wodak 4

Thyroxine interacts with celery seed

tablets?G. Moses 6

Your questions to the PBAC 7

Medications which may lower seizure

thresholdN. Buchanan 8

Cytochrome P450 drug interactions: are

they clinically relevant?J. Martin & M. Fay 10

Stopping antidepressants

I. Schweitzer & K. Maguire 13

Abnormal laboratory results:

Creatinine clearance and the assessment

of renal functionB. J. Nankivell 15

Benefit, risk and harmA. Herxheimer 18

The management of acute dystonic

reactionsD. Campbell 19

New drugsbupropion, insulin aspart, risedronate,rosiglitazone, zolpidem 20

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E D I T O R I A L

Electronic prescribing in hospitals: theroad ahead

Hugo Stephenson, PhD Scholar, Department of Epidemiology & PreventiveMedicine, Monash University, Melbourne, and Medical Director, MedSeedMedical Software Engineering, Melbourne

Index words: drug information, drug utilisation.

(Aust Prescr 2001;24:2–3)

The use of computers in general practice has grown dramaticallyin response to initiatives such as the CommonwealthGovernment’s Practice Incentives Program (PIP). In contrast,the use of computers in hospitals has changed little over thepast few years. Whereas 65% of general practices qualified forthe electronic prescribing component of the PIP1, a survey inthree Melbourne teaching hospitals revealed that only two outof 30 residents used computers for purposes other thanreviewing patient results.2

The progress of computing in Australian general practice hasrecently deviated markedly from that of our public hospitals.Whereas electronic prescribing has become commonplace ingeneral practice, our hospitals still rely on paper-based drugcharts and outdated reference texts to support the managementof inpatients’ medication. While general practitioners arerapidly embracing the internet as a real-time source of clinicalknowledge, many hospitals do not offer doctors and healthcareprofessionals internet access on the wards. This deviationrepresents a reversal of fortune for our hospitals which haveprovided doctors with electronic access to patients’ laboratoryresults for many years.

The Quality in Australian Health Care Study suggested that50% of adverse events occurring in our hospitals are highlypreventable.3 A recent study in the USA has also highlightedproblems with hospital prescribing.4 These include:

• unawareness of best-practice recommendations

• failure to alter drug therapy in the face of altered physiology

• disregarding a patient history of allergy to the samemedication class

• prescribing the wrong drug name, dose form or abbreviation

• incorrect dosage or frequency calculations

• illegible writing and failure to communicate importantinformation.

How many of these adverse events could have been preventedby electronic prescribing and decision-support programs?

Most medical schools incorporate information technology intothe undergraduate curriculum. When working for prolongedperiods in our public hospitals, new graduates will not have theopportunity to use their knowledge of computers. There is nowa real risk that these doctors will become deskilled.

Why has general practice taken the lead in leveraginginformation technology to improve clinical practice? Whilefinancial incentives have certainly contributed significantly tothe dramatic growth seen over the past year, factors such asincreasing consumerism and the evolution of communicationtechnology have contributed to this growth.5 Furthermore, thecommitment to ‘legacy’ systems has prevented large hospitalsfrom embracing evolving technologies.

These legacy systems, which have been purchased over thepast decade at enormous cost, provide access to patientmanagement information and clinical results. Due to theproprietary nature of these systems, adding new applicationscan be both costly and time-consuming. Many hospitals areessentially locked into a cycle of dependence upon a singlesoftware provider that can only be broken by significantinvestment in system design and integration. Unfortunately,given the range of proprietary systems used within our hospitals,there cannot be a ‘one size fits all’ solution.

Hospitals have also suffered from the lack of practical solutionsfor the clinical interface. While the nature of most generalpractice consultations remains compatible with the use of adesktop computer, it is impractical (and prohibitively expensive)to expect medical officers to carry laptops on ward rounds, or tocontinually log on to computers located at every bedside.

In this issue…

There has been rapid growth in the use of informationtechnology in medicine. Many general practitioners arenow prescribing electronically, but Hugo Stephensoninforms us that hospitals are being left behind.

The management of opioid dependence is controversial,but new treatments are becoming available. Alex Wodakbriefly reviews the available options.

Successful treatment depends on an understanding ofphysiology. Brian Nankivell tells us how to assess renalfunction, while Jenny Martin and Michael Fay explainthe principles of drug interactions involving thecytochrome P450 system.

Interactions are a risk of drug treatment, but AndrewHerxheimer proposes that we should talk more aboutharms than risks. Neil Buchanan gives examples ofdrugs that can provoke seizures, while Geraldine Mosesreminds us that even ‘natural’ substances can cause harm.

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Although bulky pen-based systems have been hailed as potentialsolutions for several years, the release of affordable hand-heldcomputers should bring the possibility of electronic prescribingand decision support at the bedside closer to reality.

In further contrast to general practice, the hospital prescribingenvironment involves multiple prescribers, a wide range ofdrugs and methods of delivery and, importantly, is intimatelyrelated to drug dispensing. As a result, even the functionalityof existing general practice prescribing packages must besignificantly re-engineered to be useful in the hospitalenvironment.

Despite the problems, considerable efforts are now beingmade to implement electronic strategies in our public hospitals.Several major hospitals are evaluating existing general practiceprescribing packages to assess their suitability for hospitalpractice. Others have been developing software in-house tointegrate with their existing information technologyinfrastructure. The Royal Melbourne Hospital is developingan antibiotic decision-support system which will suggestappropriate antibiotics based on patients’ microbiologyrecords. Many hospitals are now piloting programs that promoteelectronic communication with local general practitioners toencourage greater continuity of care. Importantly, as interestin clinical information technology is rapidly spreadingthroughout the hospital system, clinicians are now participatingmore actively in this new era of hospital-based clinical practice.

Hospitals in the USA are providing hand-held computers todoctors and nurses to use at the bedside. Many integratedhealthcare packages now offer electronic prescribing throughthese hand-held systems. The popularity of these hand-heldcomputers across a wide range of industries will result in evengreater functionality emerging without significantly increasingdeployment costs.

With the introduction of State-based legislation, such as the

Electronic Transactions (Victoria) Act 2000, pre-existinglegal obstacles to electronic prescribing are rapidlydisappearing. While a handful of hospitals have called fortenders to pilot electronic prescribing systems as isolatedprojects, a co-ordinated approach is required to ensure that thebenefits of electronic prescribing can be delivered consistentlyacross our hospital system.

Financial incentives have clearly been effective in promotingthe use of computers in general practice. These incentiveshave coincided with increased consumer awareness,exponentially increasing volumes of clinical knowledge anddecreasing costs of upgrading technology. With the sameforces for change now appearing in our hospitals, theopportunity is emerging for incentive programs to encouragehospitals to follow the lead of general practice by adoptingelectronic prescribing and decision-support systems.

R E F E R E N C E S

1. Quinlan F. Electronic prescribing in general practice: one small step.Aust Prescr 2000;23:50-1.

2. Stephenson H. Decision support in Australian public hospitals.Presentation to pharmaceutical decision support workshop; 2000 Feb 7;Melbourne, Australia.http://www.clininfo.health.nsw.gov.au/pdsp/pdsp_presentat.html

3. Wilson RM, Runciman WB, Gibberd RW, Harrison BT, Newby L,Hamilton JD. The Quality in Australian Health Care Study. Med J Aust1995;163:458-71.

4. Kohn LT, Corrigan JM, Donaldson MS, editors. Committee on Quality ofhealth care in America. To err is human: building a safer health system.Washington DC: National Academy Press; 2000.

5. Yellowlees P. E-therapy – your guide to mental health in cyberspace.2000 Oct. Available from: http://www.mightywords.com (EB00019384)

E-mail: [email protected]

MedSeed Pty Ltd is a software engineering companyspecialising in representing medical knowledge electronically.It has no products or services directly related to electronicprescribing in hospitals or general practice.

LettersLetters, which may not necessarily be published in full, should be restricted to not more than 250 words. When relevant, comment on the letter is sought from the author.Due to production schedules, it is normally not possible to publish letters received in response to material appearing in a particular issue earlier than the second or thirdsubsequent issue.

Treating head liceEditor, – I would like to correct an error in the article byDr Wargon (Aust Prescr 2000;23:62-3).

The comment that an organophosphate insecticide ‘acts bynon-reversibly blocking acetylcholine’ is not correct. Thesecompounds act by non-reversibly blocking the enzymeacetylcholinesterase which is responsible for degradingacetylcholine at nerve terminals. The effect of this enzymeinhibition is an excess acetylcholine activity rather than anyblocking of the effects of this neurotransmitter.

Maldison (malathion) initially undergoes bioactivation inthe insect to the active compound which, by my understanding,acts predominantly in the insect’s central nervous system.

Pyrethroids (also mentioned in the article) act on voltage-dependent sodium channels in the nerve cell membranes.

With some of these drugs, this results in repetitive nervefiring and release of excess acetylcholine at the nerveterminal. The end result with some pyrethroids is thereforesimilar to that with the organophosphates.Excess muscarinic activity resulting from the clinical use ofreversible anticholinesterases (e.g. neostigmine) is a commonproblem which is overcome in anaesthetic practice by theconcurrent administration of an antimuscarinic drug (e.g.atropine) that does block the action of acetylcholine atmuscarinic receptors. This is important to prevent the severebradycardia that would otherwise occur.

Kerry BrandisDirector of AnaesthesiaGold Coast HospitalSouthport, Qld

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Drug treatment for opioid dependence

Alex Wodak, Director, Alcohol and Drug Service, St Vincent’s Hospital, Sydney

SYNOPSIS

The number of Australians dependent on heroin isincreasing. This is resulting in more deaths and disease.Treatment of heroin dependency usually begins withdetoxification, followed by maintenance treatment. Somepatients become abstinent. While non-drug therapy has arole there is more evidence to support the use ofpharmacotherapy for drug dependence. Methadone is acost-effective maintenance treatment. Other optionsinclude buprenorphine and naltrexone, but furtherevaluation of these treatments is needed in Australianpractice.

Index words: buprenorphine, heroin, methadone,naltrexone.

(Aust Prescr 2001;24:4–6)

Introduction

Heroin is the most commonly injected illicit drug in Australia.Heroin injecting began in Australia in the late 1960s. Usingseveral different methods, it was estimated that there wereabout 70 000 heroin-dependent persons in Australia in 1997.1

In the last few years, the number of heroin injectors inAustralia has increased more rapidly than in the previousquarter century.

Reported deaths from heroin overdose have increased inAustralia fifty-five fold from six in 1964 (1.3/million peopleaged 15–44 years) to 600 in 1997 (71.5/million).2 In 1998,there were 737 such deaths. HIV remains under good controlamong injecting drug users in Australia, but an estimated11000 hepatitis C infections in 1997 were attributed tothe sharing of injection equipment.3

Heroin dependency is a poorly understood, chronic, relapsing,remitting condition. Mortality, estimated to be 1–2% perannum, is about 15 times that expected in a population ofsimilar age and sex who do not inject drugs.

Heroin-dependent persons benefit from treatment.4 Evidencefor the persistence of benefit after treatment is less impressive.Pharmacological treatments attract and retain many moredrug users than non-pharmacological interventions and arealso far better supported by evidence of benefit. Psychosocialinterventions play an important role in pharmacologicaltreatments, but the optimal nature and extent of thesepsychosocial components remains controversial. Some heroin-dependent persons are not suitable for pharmacologicaltreatments or are unwilling to consider them. We thereforeneed a diverse range of treatment options, including non-pharmacological interventions.

Benefits of treatment

Treatment can improve social and economic outcomes as wellas the patient’s health (see box). As a generalisation, heroinuse falls dramatically. The longer patients stay in treatment,the lower it falls. Reducing the use of heroin will result indecreased deaths, fewer infections and less crime. Althoughnot all patients will completely stop using drugs, the reductionin deaths from overdose makes treatment worthwhile.

Detoxification

The aim of detoxification is to provide a safe and comfortablewithdrawal from mood-altering substances. Detoxificationshould not be regarded as the sole treatment, but it is often auseful prelude to other forms of treatment. Furthermore, somepatients undergoing detoxification manage to achieve enduringabstinence without proceeding through subsequent formaltreatment. In Australia, most detoxification provided to heroin-dependent persons is still provided in residential care.Outpatient detoxification is increasing, although not all patientsare suitable for or will accept this approach.

Benefits of treatment

Health

• Reduction in deaths (all-cause mortality but especiallydrug overdose)

• Reduction in morbidity (mainly infections – HIV,hepatitis B, hepatitis C, also bacterial infections bothproximal, e.g. abscesses around injection sites, anddistal, e.g. sub-acute bacterial endocarditis – but alsoreduction in non-fatal overdoses)

• Improvement in mental health

Social

• Improved relationships and parenting

• Reduction in crime

• Increased employment

• Improved residential status (i.e. less homelessness)

• Increased education and training

• Reduction in drug use (all sorts)

• Reduced heroin use (including abstinence)

Economic

• Earning income legally, or social security

• Less debt

• Benefits outweigh costs to individuals and society

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Clonidine, an alpha2-adrenergic agonist, helps to ameliorate

some of the more distressing symptoms of heroin withdrawal.It is usually used in combination with several other oral drugsto provide symptomatic relief. These drugs include paracetamolfor bone pain, diphenoxylate or loperamide for control ofdiarrhoea and hyoscine to control abdominal cramps.Benzodiazepines such as nitrazepam can be used for the short-term treatment of insomnia. A small proportion of patientsprescribed clonidine may develop hypotension. Some patientswho cease clonidine abruptly develop rebound hypertension.Lofexidine, which has many of the useful features of clonidinebut possibly fewer adverse cardiovascular effects, may becomeavailable in Australia.

Relapse following detoxification is very common. Doctors,their patients and the patients’ families should be prepared forthe possibility of relapse and not despair if this occurs. Relapseshould either prompt a repeat attempt at detoxification, oralternatively, a review of all available options.

Methadone maintenance

Methadone, an opioid agonist which is well-absorbed orally,was introduced for the treatment of heroin dependence in1964. The rationale involves replacing an illegal, short-acting,expensive drug injected intravenously with an oral drug whichis legal, inexpensive and has a longer half-life (requiring onlyonce-daily administration). Patients attend a clinic or pharmacyevery day (or several days a week) to be dispensed methadoneunder supervision. Detoxification is not required for patientsstarting methadone. Psychosocial interventions are an importantpart of treatment.

Methadone maintenance is one of the most thoroughlyinvestigated interventions in medicine. A vast scientificliterature provides compelling evidence that methadonemaintenance reduces heroin consumption, death from drugoverdose, HIV infection and criminal activity.4 Methadonemaintenance is generally very safe, but injudicious use canprove fatal. Methadone also appears to be cost-effective3 andin most countries, demand for treatment exceeds the availabilityof methadone programs.

Methadone treatment is often subjected to relentlessill-informed criticism in the lay press despite strongscientific support. This criticism undermines communitysupport and makes authorities ambivalent towards fundingprograms. Local opposition to programs is also notuncommon. Much of the opposition to methadone arises fromthe fact that it involves giving a patient with drug dependenceanother drug of dependence. This concern does not arise withnicotine replacement therapy for cigarette smokers eventhough 20% of patients experience great difficulty stoppingnicotine chewing gum.

As many as 85% of patients will stay on methadone for12 months. Patients retained in treatment on a larger doseand for a longer duration generally achieve better results. Formost patients, optimal results are achieved with a dose of60–100 mg per day. Many patients require treatment for at

least two years. Some heroin-dependent persons will notconsider methadone maintenance treatment, while otherswho agreed to enrol achieve unsatisfactory outcomes. Betterresults are often achieved in older patients. Not uncommonly,patients who have had poor results from earlier episodes oftreatment achieve better results from a subsequent treatmentepisode. There is good evidence to suggest that as much as80% of the variance in treatment outcome results from treatmentrather than pre- or post-treatment factors.5 Important treatmentfactors include the dose of methadone and the morale ofthe clinic staff.

Methadone maintenance therapy is provided in a diverserange of programs. New patients or those with more difficultmedical or psychosocial problems are often better managedin large public or private clinics. Patients who haveachieved some stability are often better managed in generalpractice with methadone dispensed from a communitypharmacy. (Methadone programs are not available in theNorthern Territory.)

Naltrexone

Naltrexone is a long-acting opioid antagonist which is well-absorbed orally. A severe withdrawal reaction may beprecipitated if the patient has recently taken heroin or anotheropioid. The manufacturer recommends that naltrexone is notcommenced until seven to 10 days after the last use of heroin.If heroin or another opioid is taken by a patient who hasalready been taking naltrexone, all opioid effects are blocked.The results of naltrexone maintenance treatments areconsistently modest for street drug using populations.6 Betterresults may possibly be achieved if naltrexone administrationis supervised as part of a comprehensive treatment program, orif more ‘motivated’ patients are selected (white-collarprofessionals, persons on parole, probation or in jail).

Some concern has recently been raised about the possibility ofan increased risk of death from overdose during naltrexonemaintenance. The proposed explanation is that opioid tolerancedeclines during naltrexone administration. If naltrexone istaken intermittently and then heroin consumed in interveningperiods, the risk of death from overdose may be increased.

Accelerated detoxification with general anaesthesia or heavysedation has been added recently to naltrexone maintenance.This is sometimes referred to as Ultra Rapid OpiateDetoxification (UROD) or Rapid Opiate Detoxification (ROD).Published evaluations have substantial methodologicalshortcomings and accelerated detoxification can only beconsidered to be experimental.7 Nevertheless, astonishingsuccess is often claimed for this intervention in the lay press.

Buprenorphine

This partial agonist is taken sublingually as it has a highfirst-pass metabolism when taken orally. It has been usedextensively in France and evaluated in a number of countries.Results overall are generally comparable with methadonemaintenance, but each drug has particular advantages

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(and some special disadvantages). Buprenorphine can betaken on alternate days.

The risk of overdose is minimal but people on large doses ofheroin may experience some withdrawal symptoms. Althoughbuprenorphine is more expensive than methadone it maybecome the treatment of choice for detoxification.

Leva-alpha-acetylmethadol (LAAM)

LAAM (also known as levomethodyl acetate) is a methadonederivative. It has a longer half-life than methadone, but hassimilar effects. Administration on alternate days reducesthe cost of providing the drug and also reduces the burdenon patients who are doing well. The metabolites are activeand other drugs can interfere with the production of themetabolites. LAAM may be available in Australia within thenext few years.

Sustained release oral morphine (SROM)

Few studies have been conducted. A trial has commenced inAustralia.

Prescription heroin

Heroin prescription has been available for the management ofheroin dependence in the UK since 1926. It has never beenstudied or utilised commonly in that country. A handful ofpapers of variable quality suggest that results might becomparable to methadone. A heroin trial conducted inSwitzerland in the 1990s obtained some impressive results butlacked a control group. Nevertheless, results were sufficientlyimpressive to stimulate research in other European countries.The major argument in favour of heroin prescription is for themanagement of heroin injectors refractory to other treatments.

Intravenous methadone

Intravenous methadone has been prescribed in the UK fordecades although evaluation studies are scant.

Non-pharmacological treatments

These include drug-free outpatient counselling, residentialrehabilitation (therapeutic communities) and self-help groups(Narcotics Anonymous). Retention is often poor and good

evidence of benefit is difficult to find. Residential rehabilitationis more expensive than outpatient pharmacological treatmentand is difficult to combine with continued employment.

Summary

Pharmacotherapeutic treatments attract and retain largenumbers of heroin-dependent patients. Evaluation studiesshow that agonist treatments are safe, effective and cost-effective. The range of pharmacotherapeutic options formanagement of heroin dependency in Australia is nowbeing expanded. Demand for all forms of treatment(especially pharmacological treatments) for heroindependence far outstrips supply.

R E F E R E N C E S

1. Hall WD, Ross JE, Lynskey MT, Law MG, Degenhardt LJ. How manydependent heroin users are there in Australia? Med J Aust 2000;173:528-31.

2. Hall WD, Degenhardt LJ, Lynskey MT. Opioid overdose mortality inAustralia, 1964-1997: birth-cohort trends. Med J Aust 1999;171:34-7.

3. Law MG. Modelling the hepatitis C virus epidemic in Australia.J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1999;14:1100-7.

4. Ward J, Mattick RP, Hall W. Methadone maintenance treatment and otheropioid replacement therapies. Sydney: Harwood Academic Publishers;1999.

5. Ball JC, Ross A. The effectiveness of methadone maintenance treatment:patients, programs, services, and outcome. New York: Springer-Verlag;1991.

6. Greenstein RA, O’Brien CP, McLellan AT, Woody GE, Grabowski J,Long M, et al. Naltrexone: a short-term treatment for opiate dependence.Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1981;8:291-300.

7. O’Connor PG, Kosten TR. Rapid and ultrarapid opioid detoxificationtechniques. JAMA 1998;279:229-34.


Self-test questions

The following statements are either true or false(answers on page 23)

1. Buprenorphine is taken sublingually because of itslow oral bioavailability.

2. The long half-life of methadone allows it to be givenonce a day.

Thyroxine interacts with celery seed tablets?

Geraldine Moses, Senior Pharmacist and Manager, Queensland MedicationHelpline, Mater Misericordiae Public Hospitals, South Brisbane

Introduction

Interactions between so-called ‘natural therapies’ and clinicalmedicines are an unquantified problem in the Australiancommunity, due to a lack of awareness and reporting fromconsumers and health professionals alike.

The Queensland Medication Helpline is a direct link toconsumers and their medication concerns. Over the past fiveyears we have reported, to the Adverse Drug ReactionsAdvisory Committee, a variety of suspected adverse effectsand interactions between clinical and herbal/nutritional

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medicines. An interesting example is the potential interactionbetween thyroxine and celery seed tablets.

Case reports

Our first case involved a 55-year-old woman who, afterconsiderable monitoring, had finally been stabilised on a dailydose of thyroxine 100 microgram. A month later, her doctorfound that her T

4 levels were low again and her dose was

doubled. The patient then remembered that in the past monthshe had also started taking celery seed tablets for osteoarthritis.Suspecting a potential interaction, she ceased the celery seedtablets without increasing the thyroxine dose as the doctor hadadvised. Next time her thyroxine levels were checked they hadincreased to within the normal range. She tried recommencingcelery seed a month later but after a week she felt lethargic,bloated and had dry skin. When she stopped the celery seedtablets, she reported that her ‘general energy levels improved’.

A second report was received from a 49-year-old woman whohad taken thyroxine for many years. When her T

4 became

extremely low her doctor suspected that she had not beentaking her tablets. The patient argued that she had taken herthyroxine, but she had recently commenced taking celery seedtablets to treat arthritis. She ceased the celery seed tablets andone month later her thyroxine levels had returned to within thenormal range.

Evidence

Celery seed extracts (Apium graveolens) are a popular herbalremedy for the treatment of arthritis, gout, fluid retention andcystitis. Celery seed/fruit should not be confused with theedible celery stem.1 Studies have shown that celery plantextracts have anti-inflammatory activity against carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema.2 Hypotensive and hypoglycemicactivities have also been reported.1 In preliminary research,five of 23 celery-based preparations showed antiarthritic

effects, but no anti-inflammatory or antipyretic effects. Thecelery seed activity was thought to be dependent on processingat low temperatures.3

An extensive literature search did not find other reports of aninteraction between celery seed extracts and thyroxine.However, when reference was made to these case studies in anarticle in a Queensland newspaper, the Queensland MedicationHelpline received a flood of calls about similar experiences. Atotal of 10 cases are now on file. Although the validity of theseanecdotal reports needs to be tested, as their numberaccumulates so too does the suspicion that the interaction isreal. A pharmacokinetic study of the T

4-celery interaction is

under consideration by the Mater Hospital Pharmacy Services’Therapeutic Advisory Service.

Conclusion

Anecdotal evidence indicates a potential interaction betweenthyroxine and celery seed tablets. Since consumers often failto volunteer details of self-medication with complementarymedicines, prescribers and pharmacists should ask directlywhat herbal/nutritional medicines consumers are taking. Ifcelery seed tablets are being co-administered with thyroxine,it is strongly recommended that thyroid function tests areclosely monitored and any suspected interaction reported.

R E F E R E N C E S

1. Newall CA, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD. Herbal medicines – a guide forhealth-care professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Press; 1996.

2. Lewis DA, Tharib SM, Veitch GBA. The anti-inflammatory activity ofcelery Apium graveolens L. (Fam. Umbelliferae). Int J Crude Drug Res1985;23:27-32.

3. Turmeric has anti-inflammatory effects. Reuters Health eLine [serialonline] 2000 June 8. http://www.reutershealth.com/frame/eline.html

Your questions to the PBACCelecoxib

The listing of celecoxib as a general benefit on thePharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) from 1 August 2000was welcomed by arthritis sufferers Australia-wide. However,the decision to list the 200 mg capsules with an issue quantityof 60 rather than 30 has surprised many pharmacists. Thisexceeds the 30 day supply rule, taking into account themanufacturer’s recommended one capsule a day dosage.

A more serious problem is the number of potential adversesulfonamide-type reactions that may occur around Australia,and the subsequent waste of Commonwealth funds whencelecoxib is discontinued by the patients. In our town of 5000there has been a high demand for celecoxib and within oneweek of listing we had six adverse sulfonamide-typereactions, with swelling of the throat, body rash and fever. Onepatient ended up in Moruya Hospital and the rest were referredto their general practitioner.

As a medication review pharmacist, I am concerned about theincidence and severity of these reactions. They usually occurwithin a few days of commencing celecoxib and the patienthas to cease the medication. As celecoxib 200 mg is the mostcommonly prescribed dose, I believe that the decision by thePharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee to list the200 mg capsules in a quantity of 60 was a poor one, and willresult in a significant waste of PBS funds.

Richard Lord

Pharmacist

Narooma, NSW

PBAC response:

The Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee (PBAC)recommends the maximum quantity and the number of repeatsthat should apply to the prescribing of a particular medication.The maximum quantity recommended for listing by the PBAC

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usually corresponds to the pack size produced by themanufacturer.

For drugs which are intended for use in chronic conditions, thePBAC recommends a maximum quantity and number ofrepeats which will provide sufficient supply of the drug for sixmonths’ therapy at normal dosage levels.

The current dosage of celecoxib for the treatment ofosteoarthritis is 200 mg once daily or 100 mg twice daily, withsome patients requiring 200 mg twice daily. The dosage forrheumatoid arthritis is 100 mg or 200 mg twice daily. ThePBAC therefore recommended a maximum quantity of 60capsules for both the 100 mg and 200 mg strengths of celecoxibin an attempt to encompass the complete dosage range requiredby patients. The maximum quantity listed in the PharmaceuticalBenefits Scheme (PBS) Schedule for celecoxib 200 mg providesfor one month’s therapy at maximum dosage levels and fortwo months’ therapy at minimum dosage levels. The maximumnumber of repeats (three, for consistency with the listings ofthe non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) provides for asupply of four months or eight months of medication dependingon the patient’s dose.

Doctors are under no obligation to prescribe the full maximumquantity specified in the Schedule for a particular drug. Theymay, at their discretion, prescribe smaller quantities thanthose listed in the Schedule.

The mechanism via which adverse drug reactions are monitoredin Australia is administered by the Adverse Drug ReactionsAdvisory Committee (ADRAC) of the Therapeutic GoodsAdministration. Pharmacists who see unexpected reactions cannotify the ADRAC Secretariat by filling out the blue report cardwhich is enclosed in every copy of the PBS Schedule.

Medications which may lower seizure threshold

Neil Buchanan, Emeritus Professor, University of Sydney, Sydney

Most people who have epilepsy are warned that certainsubstances, especially other medications and alcohol, ‘do notmix with their pills’. This is partly correct and is more validwith the older, enzyme-inducing drugs (phenytoin,phenobarbitone and carbamazepine) than with the newerantiepileptic drugs.

What people with epilepsy are not sufficiently informed aboutare the factors which lower the seizure threshold and makethem more liable to have seizures. Such factors include stress,sleep deprivation, alcohol, menstruation and, especially inchildren, intercurrent infection and fever. Antiepileptic drugsmay occasionally make seizures worse, either idiosyncraticallywhen being introduced, or if the dose is excessive. Table 1shows some medications which may provoke seizures bylowering the seizure threshold, rather than by interacting withantiepileptic drugs.

We do not know how often seizures occur because a drug hasaltered the seizure threshold. Many reports are anecdotal. Inthe past two years of specialist practice I have seen 25 patientswhere clinical judgement would suggest a particular medicationhas provoked a seizure. The commonest seizure-provokingdrug was pethidine. With hindsight, 19 of the 25 patients mighthave avoided this problem if they had known that it could haveoccurred. The severity of the seizures varied, but three patientswere admitted to intensive care units.

The list of potential seizure-provoking medications shown inTable 1 is probably incomplete. The list has been compiled frompersonal observations, discussions with colleagues, data fromthe Adverse Drug Reactions Advisory Committee (ADRAC)and published product information. The purpose of compilingsuch a list does not imply the use of these drugs is prohibited.Rather it aims to alert doctors and people with epilepsy tomedications that could provoke seizures. Attention to the mentionof epilepsy in the precautions section of published productinformation would identify most potential problems.

With regard to anaesthetic agents, there are reports of seizurespost-anaesthesia. Whether this relates to the anaesthetic agentitself or withdrawal seizures after an anaesthetic is not clear.While propofol is effectively used in the management of statusepilepticus, there are definite reports of seizures after its use asan anaesthetic. From the patient’s point of view, the reasonwhy is not of great concern.

The implications are:

• medical practitioners should be aware of the possibility ofa change in seizure threshold

• people with epilepsy should be aware of the possibility thatmedicines may lower their seizure threshold

• medications which may alter the seizure threshold shouldonly be used if really necessary and no safer alternativeexists.

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Table 1

Medications which may lower seizure threshold

Medications Relative frequency Commentsof seizure provocation

Anaesthetic drugsenflurane rareisoflurane rarepropofol well described

Antiarrhythmicslignocaine uncommonmexiletine rare

Antibioticspenicillins • with big intravenouscephalosporins dosesamphotericin • probably cannot beimipenem avoided

Antidepressantstricyclics uncommon • patients should beselective serotonin reuptake inhibitors uncommon informed of riskmonoamine oxidase inhibitors uncommon • increased seizures usuallydoxepin rare occur within 2–6 weeksnefazodone uncommon of starting antidepressant

Antihistaminesazatadine • widely used and found in manycyproheptadine over-the-counter medicinesdexchlorpheniramine • suggest avoiding unless essentialmethdilazine • use non-sedating antihistamines inpheniramine maleate preferencepromethazine

Antimigrainesumatriptan rare

Antipsychoticschlorpromazine uncommon avoid – if possibleclozapine common avoid – if possibleflupenthixol rarefluphenazine rarehaloperidol uncommonolanzapine uncommon See ADRAC Bulletin 1999;18:3pimozide uncommonrisperidone uncommonthioridazine uncommonthiothixene uncommontrifluoperazine uncommon

Bronchodilatorsaminophylline well described avoid – if possibletheophylline

Cough and cold remediestriprolidine and pseudoephedrine probably quite rare • widely used and found in manypseudoephedrine over-the-counter medicines

• suggest avoiding unless essentialHormonal preparations

oral contraceptives uncommon • patients should be warned of riskhormone replacement therapy uncommon • increased seizures occur within

1–4 weeks of starting oral contraceptivesor hormone replacement therapy

Immunomodifierscyclosporin common

Narcotic analgesicspethidine common avoid – use morphine

See ADRAC Bulletin 1997;16:3fentanyl uncommon avoid – if possible

Stimulant medicationsdexamphetamine uncommon parents/patients should probably be mademethylphenidate anecdotal reports aware of a quite low risk

relatively common inhigh dosage

probably quite rare

10


Cytochrome P450 drug interactions: arethey clinically relevant?

Jennifer Martin, Clinical Pharmacology Registrar, and Michael Fay, MedicalOncology Registrar, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne

SYNOPSIS

The cytochrome P450 system is an evolutionary system todeal with the breakdown of endogenous and exogenouschemicals in the body. There is an increasing amount ofinterest in this area as new information is enabling us tounderstand why people metabolise drugs differently andwhy there is a spectrum of adverse effects in differentpeople. Understanding the cytochrome P450 system alsoexplains the mechanisms of some drug interactions, andenables us to predict which of these are likely to be relevantin clinical practice.

Index words: pharmacokinetics, drug metabolism,warfarin.

(Aust Prescr 2001;24:10–2)

Introduction

The cytochrome P450 enzyme system is one of severalmetabolic systems which evolved to enable organisms to dealwith lipid-soluble environmental chemicals. Latterly, theimportance of the system in metabolising drugs has beenrecognised. The cytochrome P450 system performs thisfunction by oxidising, hydrolysing or reducing the chemicals.This enables another group of enzymes, conjugation enzymes,to attach polar groups to make the metabolites water soluble sothat they can be excreted in the urine. Although there are otherenzyme systems that perform similar functions, the cytochromeP450 system is important because it is involved in mostclinically relevant metabolic drug interactions.

The cytochrome P450 family

To date, about 55 human isoforms of cytochrome P450 havebeen discovered. These isoforms are given numbers andletters to signify their common evolutionary families. CYP1,CYP2 and CYP3 are important in drug metabolism. Eachmember of a family contains similar amino acids. Subfamiliesare classified by the protein sequence. The known clinicallyrelevant cytochromes are CYP3A4, CYP2D6, CYP1A2,CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP2E1. CYP3A4 is the mostabundant enzyme. Most of the enzymes are involved inmetabolising endogenous substrates to carry out housekeepingfunctions. For example, they are involved in the intermediarymetabolism of steroids such as testosterone, and of lipids.Other isoforms are responsible mainly for metabolisingexogenous chemicals including drugs.

Each of the isoforms has a wide substrate specificity, but eachhas its own specific substrate profile. This enables the whole

range of chemical structures to be metabolised. These isoformshave differing regulatory mechanisms to control their activity.The regulatory mechanisms involve chemicals which induce orinhibit the enzyme. For example, CYP1A2 metabolises somecarcinogenic tars in cigarette smoke and is induced by thesechemicals. Members of other CYP gene families are induced bydrugs such as barbiturates, anticonvulsants and rifampicin.

As well as showing some degree of substrate selectivity, theindividual isoforms also show selectivity for inhibitors. Forexample, sulfaphenazole is a specific inhibitor of CYP2C9whereas quinidine is a potent and selective inhibitor of theisoform CYP2D6.

Some of the isoforms exhibit genetic polymorphisms. Thefrequency of these polymorphisms differs markedly betweenethnic groups. These genetic differences mean some peoplehave an enzyme with reduced or no activity. Patients who are‘slow metabolisers’ may have an increased risk of adversereactions to a drug metabolised by the affected enzyme. Oneisoform, CYP2D6, also has alleles that result in ‘superfast’metabolisers.

The liver is the main site of drug metabolism. However,isoforms occur in many tissues and CYP3A4, in particular, isfound at quite high concentrations in the mucosa of the smallintestine. This means that drug substrates for this isoform aresubject to metabolism during absorption, while they are passingthrough the small intestinal mucosa, and during their first passthrough the liver. Serious drug interactions resulted in thewithdrawal of mibefradil (a T-type calcium channel blockerthat inhibits CYP3A4) because of deaths occurring from theconcurrent administration of drugs that are CYP3A4 substrates.

Principles

With new knowledge regarding substrate specificity, druginteractions involving the cytochrome P450 system are oftenpredictable. However, they may not necessarily be clinicallysignificant. There are several principles that help predictwhether or not a drug interaction will be clinically significant.These include pharmacokinetic (what the body does to thedrug) and pharmacodynamic (what the drug does to the body)factors. Other factors such as the wide variability of patientresponse to the same drug, concomitant medical illness andfactors relating to the route and timing of administration mayalso be important.

Concentration-effect relationship

Clinically significant interactions occur when one drug affectsthe metabolism of another causing a change in concentration.

11


This change in concentration can have clinical implicationsdepending on the concentration-effect relationship. A numberof factors influence this, including:

• the position of the drug concentration on the dose-responsecurve at the time of the interaction

• the slope of the concentration-effect curve

• the size of the change in concentration of the drug

• the therapeutic index of the drug.

If the drug concentration is near the top of the response curve,adding a drug that increases its concentration will notincrease its efficacy, regardless of the size of the interaction.However, the increase in concentration still may be relevantwith respect to toxicity. An example of this is with drugs thatincrease the concentration of amlodipine. Increasing theconcentration beyond a certain point does not increase thehypotensive effect.

As a general rule, if an enzyme inhibitor doubles theconcentration, an enhanced drug response can occur. However,even a small increase may be important for medications witha narrow therapeutic index. Likewise a small decrease may beimportant for medications (such as cyclosporin) that rely on acertain concentration for their efficacy.

Patient factors

Gender, hormonal status, age and pre-existing conditions canall affect whether a drug interaction is likely to be clinicallysignificant. For example, giving high doses of cisapride tosomeone with a normal heart, or normal doses to someonewith a long ECG QT interval, will increase the likelihood ofan arrhythmia. Drugs which reduce cisapride metabolism byinhibiting CYP3A4 (e.g. macrolides) can increase itsconcentration and further increase the chance of a potentiallyfatal arrhythmia occurring.

Administration

The route of administration and the timing of a dose can beimportant. Oral administration is more likely to havecytochrome P450 interactions because the drug is then subjectto cytochrome P450 interactions in the gut wall as well as inthe liver. An example of this is grapefruit juice. When taken atthe same time as felodipine, it inhibits gut wall CYP3A4,increasing felodipine absorption across the gut wall andtherefore bioavailability.

First-pass metabolism

In general, if a drug has a high first-pass metabolism throughthe liver one can expect a marked increase in its concentrationif it is taken with another drug which inhibits metabolism.Whether or not this change in concentration is clinicallysignificant is related to the factors affecting the concentration-effect relationship. Examples of drugs which undergo first-pass metabolism by CYP3A4 include1:

• very high first-pass metabolism: buspirone, ergotamine,lovastatin, nimodipine, saquinavir, simvastatin

• high first-pass metabolism: oestradiol, atorvastatin,felodipine, indinavir, isradipine, nicardipine, propafenoneand tacrolimus

• intermediate first-pass metabolism: amiodarone,carbamazepine, carvedilol, cisapride, cyclosporin,diltiazem, ethinyloestradiol, etoposide, losartan,midazolam, nifedipine, nelfinavir, ondansetron, pimozide,sildenafil, triazolam and verapamil.

Significant interactions by drug class

Anticonvulsants

Carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, and phenytoin reduce theconcentration of oral contraceptives by inducing CYP3A4.This has resulted in some women having unplannedpregnancies.2 Carbamazepine toxicity has occurred with 3A4inhibitors. Phenytoin reduces the concentrations of manydrugs metabolised by the cytochrome P450 system. Thisresults in clinically significant effects for some drugs with alow therapeutic index such as warfarin and cyclosporin.

Immunosuppressants

Ketoconazole widely inhibits the cytochrome P450 systemand doubles the oral availability of concurrently administeredcyclosporin. This interaction has been used to enable patientsto be given lower doses of cyclosporin. Other inhibitors ofCYP3A4 have been used with similar, but less predictableresults.

Tacrolimus is a substrate for CYP3A4. Clinically significanttoxicity has been reported when co-administered with CYP3A4inhibitors, such as diltiazem. CYP3A4 inducers such ascarbamazepine reduce tacrolimus concentrations.

St John’s wort has caused organ rejection when added tocyclosporin therapy, by inducing CYP3A4.3

Protease inhibitors

Ritonavir, a CYP3A4 inhibitor, is often added to saquinavir,a CYP3A4 substrate, as their interaction results in a 33%increase in the maximum concentration of saquinavir.Grapefruit juice can double the bioavailability of saquinavir,although this is not reliable enough to be used clinically. StJohn’s wort, a CYP3A4 inducer, reduces the concentration ofindinavir, a CYP3A4 substrate, by 57%. This is clinicallysignificant as the reduction can lead to failure of therapy.4

Non-drug

Grapefruit juice, by inhibiting CYP3A4, increases theconcentrations of several drugs. This could be clinicallyrelevant especially in older patients, or those with liverfailure.5 Although there is an interaction with felodipine5,there is no clinically significant effect from the interactionwith amlodipine.6

Anti-infectives

Ketoconazole and to a lesser extent itraconazole inhibit allcytochrome P450 enzymes. These antifungal drugs can causemany clinically significant interactions by increasing theconcentrations of other drugs. Fluconazole has clinicallysignificant interactions only if the other drug has a lowtherapeutic index, e.g. cyclosporin. Miconazole oral gelincreases the INR in patients taking warfarin.7 Erythromycinhas similar interactions to ketoconazole. Rifampicin is an

12


enzyme inducer and has been reported to reduce theconcentration of drugs metabolised by cytochrome P450.

Cardiovascular

Felodipine concentrations are increased by grapefruit juice,erythromycin, and itraconazole, but the change in bloodpressure is not usually significant.8 It is more likely to be aproblem in people who cannot tolerate even a small reductionin blood pressure. Diltiazem and verapamil increase theconcentration of cyclosporin and, because of cyclosporin’slow therapeutic index, this is likely to be clinically significant.

Cisapride and pimozide can cause QT prolongation bythemselves if their concentrations are high enough. However,this effect will occur more frequently if the drugs are takenwith CYP3A4 inhibitors such as diltiazem, macrolides,ketoconazole or grapefruit juice.

Rhabdomyolysis occurs more frequently with increasingconcentration of ‘statins’. The risk may be increased whenstatins such as the predominantly CYP3A4 metabolisedlovastatin, simvastatin and atorvastatin are given with CYP3A4inhibitors like macrolides, diltiazem and grapefruit juice.

Warfarin has a complex metabolic pathway acting as a substratefor a number of cytochrome P450 enzymes. Any change inmedication in patients on warfarin requires close monitoringof the INR for a period long enough to ensure the plasmaconcentrations are at steady state. For example, whenamiodarone, which has a half-life of 26–107 days, is added toor subtracted from warfarin it may not have its full impact onthe INR for 100–400 days.

Antidepressants

Some selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (e.g.fluoxetine, paroxetine and fluvoxamine) inhibit CYP2D6. If apatient taking one of these drugs is given codeine, it cannot beconverted to morphine. This results in lack of analgesicactivity. The same drugs have been reported to prolong theINR when used with warfarin. Paroxetine has also caused aserious interaction by inhibiting the metabolism of perhexilene.3

Nefazodone is a substrate and an inhibitor of CYP3A4. Itincreases the concentration of several CYP3A4 substratesincluding cisapride, terfenadine, astemizole and pimozide.This may cause arrhythmias. Similarly nefazodone reducesthe required doses of triazolam and alprazolam by 75% and50% respectively.10 ADRAC has reported a death fromrhabdomyolysis due to the addition of nefazodone tosimvastatin, a CYP3A4 substrate.3

Tricyclic antidepressants and SSRIs should not routinely beused together as the combination can result in a serotonergicsyndrome. Most tricyclics are extensively metabolised byCYP2D6 and concentrations will increase if an inhibitorydrug, e.g. an SSRI, is co-administered. The addition offluoxetine, paroxetine or fluvoxamine (CYP2D6 inhibitors)to patients on desipramine, imipramine or nortriptyline resultsin a clinically significant (but often unpredictable) increase intricyclic concentration.

Others

The concentration of oral contraceptives may be reduced by

enzyme inducers. This interaction is clinically relevant withgriseofulvin, rifampicin and carbamazepine. Sildenafil is asubstrate of CYP3A4. It should not be prescribed with CYP3A4inhibitors as they increase its concentration and therefore thelikelihood of systemic hypotensive effects.

Conclusion

The safest way of knowing which drugs are likely to havemetabolic interactions is to understand the principles behindthe interactions. Drugs which induce or inhibit the enzymes ofcytochrome P450 should ring alarm bells. Interacting drugswith a low therapeutic index are likely to be affected by evensmall changes in concentration. The importance of the changein clinical effect (such as organ rejection) also needs to beconsidered.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T

We thank Professor Don Birkett for his comments on an earlier draft of thisarticle.

N O T E

For a table of drugs metabolised by cytochrome P450 seehttp://www.drug-interactions.com

R E F E R E N C E S

1. Dresser GK, Spence JD, Bailey DG. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamicconsequences and clinical relevance of cytochrome P450 3A4 inhibition.Clin Pharmacokinet 2000;38:41-57.

2. Wilbur K, Ensom MH. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions between oralcontraceptives and second-generation anticonvulsants. Clin Pharmacokinet2000;38:355-65.

3. Drug interactions and adverse drug reactions. Aust Adv Drug React Bull2000;19:10-2.

4. Piscitelli SC, Burstein AH, Chaitt D, Alfaro RM, Falloon J. Indinavirconcentrations and St John’s wort [letter]. Lancet 2000;355:547-8.

5. Bailey DG, Malcolm J, Arnold O, Spence JD. Grapefruit juice-druginteractions. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998;46:101-10.

6. Josefsson M, Zackrisson AL, Ahlner J. Effect of grapefruit juice on thepharmacokinetics of amlodipine in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol1996;51:189-93.

7. Shenfield GM, Page M. Potentiation of warfarin action by miconazole oralgel [letter]. Aust N Z J Med 1991;21:928.

8. Edgar B, Bailey D, Bergstrand R, Johnsson G, Regardh CG. Acute effectsof drinking grapefruit juice on the pharmacokinetics and dynamics offelodipine – and its potential clinical relevance. Eur J Clin Pharmacol1992;42:313-7.

9. Kivisto KT, Kroemer HK, Eichelbaum M. The role of human cytochromeP450 enzymes in the metabolism of anticancer agents: implications fordrug interactions. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1995;40:523-30.

10. Kent JM. SNaRIs, NaSSAs, and NaRIs: new agents for the treatment ofdepression [published erratum appears in Lancet 2000;355:2000]. Lancet2000;355:911-8.

Self-test questions


3. The inhibition of CYP3A4 by grapefruit juice cancause clinically significant drug interactions.

4. Fluoxetine, paroxetine and fluvoxamine can reducethe analgesic effect of codeine.


13


Stopping antidepressants

Isaac Schweitzer, Professor, Healthscope Chair of Psychiatry, Department ofPsychiatry, University of Melbourne, Melbourne Clinic; and Kay Maguire,Research Fellow, Professorial Unit, Melbourne Clinic, Melbourne

SYNOPSIS

Depressive illness is now recognised as a major healthproblem. As many patients do not need indefinite treatment,clinicians need to be aware of the symptoms associatedwith the discontinuation of antidepressants. Graduallyreducing the dose is the best approach. Abrupt cessation ofantidepressants should be avoided unless medical urgencynecessitates it. Particular care is required when changingfrom one antidepressant to another.

Index words: depression, withdrawal symptoms.

(Aust Prescr 2001;24:13–5)

Introduction

By 2020, major depression is projected to become second onlyto heart disease as the leading cause of morbidity.1 Thelifetime risk of depressive illness is 12–26% for women and4–12% for men.2 It is usually a chronic and recurrent illness(75–80% of treated patients have recurrences) that frequentlyrequires long-term maintenance treatment. Depression is oftenboth unrecognised and undertreated. The aim of treatment isa full remission and long-term recovery rather than short-termresponse.

When is the right time to stop treatment?

The decision to stop treatment should be made after anassessment of the patient’s current mood state and otherfactors that may indicate the likelihood of a relapse or recurrenceof depression. These factors include the number and severityof previous episodes, success of treatment of earlier episodes,the risk of suicide if another episode were to ensue and thedisruption caused by depression to the lives of the patient andtheir family. Discussion of these factors with the patient (anda key family member, if possible) would be essential incoming to a decision about discontinuing therapy.3

How to stop treatment

If antidepressants are withdrawn, higher doses should begradually tapered off, unless there are medical indications foran abrupt cessation. These indications could include pregnancy,severe adverse reactions or inability to take oral medications.Precise guidelines concerning the time needed to taper off thedose are lacking. A gradual reduction is recommended toprevent discontinuation effects and to allow adaptation at thereceptor level. A rule of thumb is 6–8 weeks after 6–8 monthstreatment3 or 3–6 months after maintenance therapy. Many

patients, particularly those on lower doses, may be able to stopmore quickly without adverse effects.

If the response to treatment has been unsatisfactory, a switchto a different antidepressant may be necessary. The prescribershould check the product information to see if the two drugsinteract, but reducing the dose over a 1–2 week period may beadequate. Patients taking high doses of an antidepressant orwho are on an antidepressant with a shorter half-life (e.g.paroxetine and venlafaxine) are more likely to developdiscontinuation symptoms during short taper periods. Patientsmust be educated about the importance of supervised dosereduction when discontinuing antidepressants and about whatsymptoms they may experience. They can be reassured thatthese symptoms will remit with time.

Monitoring

Education is a critical aspect of treatment and enhancescompliance with medication. The patient and their familyshould be informed that adverse effects are common, but areusually mild and resolve on continued treatment, and that thedepression is likely to recur if treatment is stopped too soon.4

Other educational messages that are associated with bettercompliance include advice to take the medication every dayand to continue even when feeling better.

Patients must be warned that as depression is typically arecurring disorder, stopping medication is always a trial andmay lead to symptoms reappearing. They also need to beinstructed to contact their doctor as soon as any symptoms startto recur. The assistance of a key family member can play acrucial role in this respect. The doctor may need to continue tomonitor patients periodically after medication has been stopped.

Problems associated with discontinuation

Discontinuation reactions may have physical or psychologicalsymptoms, which appear after stopping or reducing the doseof medication. The symptoms may start within 1–10 days, butusually within three days of stopping treatment. These aredistinct from the symptoms of depression, which can alsorecur within hours to days after cessation of treatment. However,recurrences are less likely than discontinuation reactions tooccur in the first week after stopping treatment. Discontinuationreactions are more common in patients who have been treatedfor more than eight weeks and with higher dosages ofantidepressants. Discontinuation symptoms must also bedistinguished from an intercurrent illness. They are oftenoverlooked in the acute hospital setting.

14


Discontinuation symptoms from abrupt cessation of tricyclicantidepressants (TCAs) (see Table 1) and monoamine oxidaseinhibitors (MAOIs) have long been recognised, but features ofaddiction such as tolerance and addictive use are rare.5

Gastrointestinal effects, flu-like symptoms, affective symptomsand sleep disturbance are the most common problems afterstopping a TCA. Discontinuation effects are also commonafter withdrawal of MAOIs and include disorientation,confusion, myoclonus, ataxia, agitation, cognitive impairment,catatonia, paranoid delusions, aggressiveness, hallucinations,depression, suicidality, slowed speech and sleep disturbance.

The commonest cessation effects of SSRIs are dizziness, light-headedness, nausea, lethargy and headache (see Table 2).Distinguishing a discontinuation syndrome from a recurringdepression can be difficult (see ‘Medicinal mishaps: serotoninstates’ Aust Prescr 1998;21:63). The cessation effects ofSSRIs are generally less frequent than those of the TCAs.Reports vary from 33% for clomipramine to 80% foramitriptyline, while the rate is 35% for paroxetine and muchless (2–14%) for other SSRIs.6 The commonest withdrawalsymptoms are also different for each class of antidepressant.Two symptoms which are prominent after stopping an SSRIare balance and sensory abnormalities. These do not occurafter a TCA is stopped.

There are few reports in the literature about the cessation ofnewer antidepressants. Stopping venlafaxine has resulted insymptoms of dizziness, light-headedness, irritability,dysphoria, insomnia and sweating.6

Effects when changing treatment

If a patient is not responding to an antidepressant, or relapses,a different drug may be necessary. The effects of discontinuingthe first drug may not appear until after starting the new drug.It is important not to confuse the symptoms of discontinuationwith the adverse effects of the new drug. If time permits, it ishelpful if the patient has 3–4 days off medication beforestarting the new drug. This allows discontinuation symptomsto be identified and distinguished from new adverse events.Advice for changing from one antidepressant to another ispublished in Therapeutic Guidelines: Psychotropic.7

Management of discontinuation reactions

Problems occurring on cessation of an antidepressant may beminimised by preventative measures, supportive treatmentand, if necessary, specific treatment. Preventative measuresinclude emphasising the need for a supervised reduction of thedosage, advising the patient of the risk of discontinuationreactions and warning of possible symptoms that may occur.If possible, avoid high doses and abrupt cessation of medication.

Usually supportive treatment is sufficient. The patient shouldbe reassured that symptoms are not life-threatening and thatthey will resolve spontaneously within 1–2 weeks. If symptomsare severe, resuming therapy may be necessary. Thediscontinuation syndrome will then typically resolve within24 hours or so. A slower reduction of the dose may minimisecessation reactions the next time withdrawal is attempted.

Conclusion

Depressive illness is now recognised as a major health problem.Recent guidelines recommend long-term maintenancetreatment for patients with recurrent depression. Higher dosesand longer treatment periods may lead to the more frequentoccurrence of discontinuation reactions in future.Approximately one in three patients do not respond to the firstantidepressant they are prescribed and are switched to another.This changeover period is a risk time for discontinuationreactions as well as drug interactions.

Clinicians need to be aware of the symptoms associated withdiscontinuation of antidepressants and inform their patientswhat to expect. Abrupt cessation of antidepressants should beavoided unless medically necessary and gradually tapering offthe dosage should be the norm.

R E F E R E N C E S

1. Murray CJL, Lopez AD, editors. The global burden of disease. Vol 1.Boston: Harvard School of Public Health; 1996.

2. Keller MB. The long-term treatment of depression. J Clin Psychiatry1999;60 Suppl 17:41-5.

Table 1

Symptoms associated with withdrawal of tricyclicantidepressants4,6

Gastrointestinal nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps,diarrhoea

General somatic distress lethargy, flu-like symptoms, headache

Sleep disturbance insomnia, abnormal dreams includingnightmares

Affective symptoms anxiety, agitation, low mood

Less commonly movement disorders, mania,hypomania, arrhythmias, tachycardia,ventricular ectopic beats

Table 2

Symptoms associated with withdrawal of selectiveserotonin reuptake inhibitors6

Gastrointestinal nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, loss ofappetite, abdominal pain, abdominaldistress

General somatic distress lethargy, flu-like symptoms

Sleep disturbance insomnia, abnormal dreams includingnightmares and decreased need forsleep

Affective symptoms irritability, anxiety symptoms, agitation

Problems with balance dizziness, vertigo, light-headedness,ataxia

Sensory abnormalities paraesthesia, numbness, blurredvision/diplopia, ‘electric shock’,visual lag

15


3. Withdrawing patients from antidepressants. Drug Ther Bull 1999;37:49-52.

4. Delgado PL. Approaches to the enhancement of patient adherence toantidepressant medication treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61 Suppl2:6-9.

5. Haddad P. Do antidepressants have any potential to cause addiction?J Psychopharmacol 1999;13:300-7.

6. Thompson C. Discontinuation of antidepressant therapy: Emergingcomplications and their relevance. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59:541-8.

7. Writing Group for Therapeutic Guidelines: Psychotropic. TherapeuticGuidelines: Psychotropic. Version 4. Melbourne: Therapeutic GuidelinesLimited; 2000.

Self-test questions


5. When changing from one antidepressant to anotherit can be difficult to differentiate discontinuationsymptoms from adverse effects of the new medication.

6. After a patient has recovered from depression, theantidepressant dose is usually tapered off.

A B N O R M A L L A B O R A T O R Y R E S U L T S

Creatinine clearance and theassessment of renal function

Brian J. Nankivell, Department of Renal Medicine, Westmead Hospital, Sydney

SYNOPSIS

The selection of the most appropriate measurement ofrenal function depends on the clinical question beingasked, the accuracy required and the inconvenience to thepatient. Serum creatinine and calculated creatinineclearance yield a reasonable estimation of renal functionwith minimal cost and inconvenience. A urinary creatinineclearance is more accurate if the urine collection is complete.Isotopic measurement of glomerular filtration rate can beused when greater accuracy is required, when renalfunction is poor or muscle mass is significantly outside thenormal range. Glomerular filtration rate should becorrected for body surface area and interpreted in thecontext of physiological effects such as pregnancy andblood pressure.

Index words: glomerular filtration, kidney.

(Aust Prescr 2001;24:15–7)

Introduction

Estimation of renal function is important in a number ofclinical situations (Table 1), including assessing renal damageand monitoring the progression of renal disease. Renal functionshould also be calculated if a potentially toxic drug is mainlycleared by renal excretion. The dose of the drug may need tobe adjusted if renal function is abnormal.

Renal function and glomerular filtrationrate

The glomerulus is a high-pressure filtration system, composedof a specialised capillary network. It generates an ultrafiltratethat is free of blood and significant amounts of blood proteins.Renal damage or alterations in glomerular function affect the

kidneys’ ability to remove metabolic substances from theblood into the urine.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the rate (volume per unit oftime) at which ultrafiltrate is formed by the glomerulus.Approximately 120 mL are formed per minute. The GFR is adirect measure of renal function. It is reduced before the onsetof symptoms of renal failure and is related to the severity of thestructural abnormalities in chronic renal disease. The GFR can

Table 1

Indications for renal function testing

Test Setting Clinical indication

Serum creatinine Screening for renaldisease

Monitoring renalfunction

HypertensionUrine abnormalitiesPotential renal diseases(e.g. diabetes)Non-specific symptoms(e.g. tiredness)

Chronic renal diseaseTransplantationDrug toxicity

Calculated GFR/creatinineclearance

Initial evaluation ofrenal disease

Monitoring of renaldisease

GlomerulonephritisProteinuriaChronic renal failureChemotherapy dosing

GlomerulonephritisChronic renal failure

Isotopic GFR Accurate GFR

Low levels of GFR

Altered muscle mass

Monitoring therapy inglomerulonephritis

Deciding when to startdialysisChronic renal failure

Body builderChemotherapy dose inwasted patient

GFR = Glomerular filtration rate

16


where U is the urinary concentration of an ideal filtrationmarker of x, V is the urine flow rate and P

x is the average

plasma concentration of x.

An ‘ideal filtration marker’ is a substance that is freelyexcreted by glomerular filtration, without tubular reabsorptionor secretion. The clearance of ideal filtration markers can beshown mathematically to be an accurate estimate of GFR.

The balance concept

The plasma concentration of a substance in a steady statedepends on the balance of the input (from either endogenousproduction or exogenous intake) and the clearance from theblood (by either excretion or metabolism). When an ideal

predict the signs and symptoms of uraemia, especially when itfalls to below 10–15 mL/min. Unfortunately it is not an idealindex, being difficult to measure directly, and is sometimesinsensitive for detecting renal disease.

Tubular function

Although glomeruli control the GFR, damage to thetubulointerstitium is also an important predictor of GFR andprogression towards renal failure. Renal tubules make up 95%of the renal mass, do the bulk of the metabolic work andmodify the ultrafiltrate into urine. They control a number ofkidney functions including acid-base balance, sodiumexcretion, urine concentration or dilution, water balance,potassium excretion and small molecule metabolism (such asinsulin clearance). Measurement of tubular function isimpractical for daily clinical use, so we usually use the GFRto assess renal function.

Normal range for GFR

The GFR varies according to renal mass and correspondinglyto body mass. GFR is conventionally corrected for bodysurface area (which equates with renal mass), which in normalhumans is approximately 1.73m2 and represents an averagevalue for normal young men and women. When the GFR iscorrected for body surface area, a normal range can be derivedto assess renal impairment.

The normal corrected GFR is 80–120 mL/min/1.73m2,impaired renal function is 30–80 mL/min/1.73m2 and renalfailure is less than 30 mL/min/1.73m2. The corrected GFR isapproximately 8% lower in women than in men, and declineswith age at an annual rate of 1 mL/min/1.73m2 from the ageof 40.

In addition to ageing there are a number of physiological andpathological conditions that can affect GFR, including pregnancy,hypertension, medications and renal disease. These conditionsshould be considered when interpreting a patient’s GFR.

Measurement of GFR by renal clearance

The GFR cannot be directly measured in humans, but can beestimated from urinary clearance of a substance (x), given bythe equation:

Urinary clearance (x) =U

x V

Px

filtration marker is used (and there is no hepatic metabolism ornon-renal clearance) and the input is constant (for example, byendogenous creatinine generation), then the plasmaconcentration is inversely proportional to the GFR.

Methods to estimate GFR

The GFR can be estimated from the serum concentration offiltration markers (such as creatinine or urea) or the renalclearance of these markers. Each method has its advantagesand disadvantages in terms of accuracy, cost and convenience(Table 2).

Serum creatinine or calculated creatinine clearance are themost convenient estimates of GFR, requiring only a singleblood sample. Measured creatinine clearance requires a24-hour urinary collection while isotopic methods involveintravenous injection of a nuclear tracer, and two subsequentblood samples to estimate clearance. Both these methods aremore expensive and less convenient to the patient. Selection ofthe most appropriate test depends on the clinical question, therequired accuracy and cost (Table 2).

Serum creatinine

Serum creatinine is commonly used to screen for renal diseaseor to investigate urinary sediment abnormalities, hypertensionor non-specific symptoms such as tiredness. It is also used tomonitor renal function after transplantation, in chronic renaldisease, and in patients with glomerulonephritis taking disease-modifying therapy. Serum creatinine can also be used to monitorthe effects of nephrotoxic drugs such as gentamicin or anticancerdrugs. Serum urea can be used to estimate renal function but ishighly variable, less accurate and prone to errors.

Serum creatinine is mainly produced by the metabolism ofcreatine in muscle, but also originates from dietary sources ofcreatinine such as cooked meat. Creatinine generation fromthe muscles is proportional to the total muscle mass andmuscle catabolism. In people with a relatively low musclemass, including children, women, the elderly, malnourishedpatients and cancer patients, the serum creatinine is lower fora given GFR. There is a danger of underestimating the amountof renal impairment in these patients, as their serum creatinineis also relatively lower. For example, the GFR may be reducedas low as 20–30 mL/min in a small elderly woman, while herserum creatinine remains in the upper range of normal.

Table 2

Assessment of renal function

Method Accuracy Cost Convenience

Serum creatinine ** $ ***

Serum urea * $ ***

Calculated creatinineclearance *** $ ***

Measured creatinineclearance ** to *** $$ *

Isotopic glomerularfiltration rate **** $$$ *

17


Creatinine is an imperfect filtration marker, because it issecreted by the tubular cells into the tubular lumen, especiallyif renal function is impaired. When the GFR is low, the serumcreatinine and creatinine clearance overestimate the true GFR.Some drugs (such as cimetidine or trimethoprim) have theeffect of reducing tubular secretion of creatinine. This increasesthe serum creatinine and decreases the measured creatinineclearance (Table 3). Paradoxically, when these drugs are used,a more accurate measurement of GFR is obtained as it islargely free from the error contributed by the physiologicaltubular secretion of creatinine.

Calculated creatinine clearance

As serum creatinine is so highly dependent on age, sex andbody size, a number of corrections and formulae have beendeveloped to estimate the muscle mass and assumed creatinineproduction. The most well-known formula is the Cockcroft-Gault formula, which is relatively simple to use and reasonablyaccurate. It is given as:

=(140 – age [yrs]) x weight [kg]

serum creatinine (micromol/L)

Multiply result x 1.22 for male patients

Creatinine clearance(mL/min)

This is a good estimate of GFR, but it becomes inaccuratewhen a patient’s body mass is significantly outside the normalrange (for example, morbid obesity or severe malnutrition) orwhen renal function is very impaired (i.e. GFR <20 mL/min).In these circumstances an isotopic method can be used if theGFR needs to be accurately measured.

Creatinine clearance

Creatinine clearance has been used for many decades toestimate GFR. It involves a 24-hour urine collection to measurecreatinine excretion. As the same sample can be used tomeasure the protein excretion rate, creatinine clearance isoften used for the initial evaluation of renal diseases, such asglomerulonephritis. It can also be used to monitor theprogression of chronic renal failure, the response to therapy orto help decide when to start dialysis in patients with decliningrenal function.

The major problem with measuring creatinine clearance is thatthe collection may be incomplete; often urine is passed into thetoilet rather than into the collection bottles. This results in anunderestimation of renal function, and has led somecommentators to recommend alternative measures such ascalculated creatinine clearance or an isotopic GFR. In hospital,especially when the patient is catheterised, creatinine clearanceprovides an accurate estimate of GFR. Overestimation of theGFR occurs at low levels of renal function, due to tubularsecretion of creatinine. This can be corrected by collecting theurine while the patient is taking cimetidine or by averaging aurea and creatinine clearance in a single 24-hour collection. Toaccurately define the GFR at low levels of renal function, anisotopic GFR is recommended.

Isotopic GFR

Isotopic GFR is the most accurate measurement of GFR,especially at low levels of renal function or with alterations ofmuscle mass. The most common isotopic marker is technetium99m DTPA, given as a single injection. Two plasma samplesare taken at 1–3 hours after injection. The GFR is calculatedfrom the plasma clearance of the isotope. Isotopic GFR can beused for monitoring renal function over time, or in chronicrenal failure patients approaching dialysis. Patients are usuallytested every two to five years, because of the cost andinconvenience of the procedure.

Summary

Renal function can be evaluated by measuring the GFR. As itis not easy to measure the GFR directly, the serum creatinineconcentration is often used to assess renal function. Creatinineclearance provides a more accurate assessment and can becalculated from the serum creatinine or more exactly from theresults of a 24-hour urine collection. Isotopic methods can beused if a very accurate measurement of the GFR is required.

Self-test questions


7. In renal disease the creatinine clearance is increased.

8. Cimetidine can increase the serum concentration ofcreatinine.

Table 3

Errors in measurement of renal function usingcreatinine

Effects on Effects oncreatinine serumclearance creatinine

Assay interference

ketosis Nil

hyperbilirubinaemia Nil

cephalosporin Nil

Inhibition of tubular secretion of creatinine

cimetidine or trimethoprim *

Alteration of creatine/creatinine load

eating cooked meat

low protein diet

body building Nil

muscle wasting Nil

Renal disease

* becomes more accurate at low levels of GFR when increasedtubular secretion of creatinine is blocked

18


Two brief illustrations

Benefit, risk and harmAndrew Herxheimer, Emeritus Fellow, UK Cochrane Centre, Oxford, UK

Whenever we choose a treatment, we do so because we believethat on balance it will help the patient – that is, the advantagesoutweigh the disadvantages. Common decisions have beenmade many times before, and are embedded in traditions,guidelines and formularies, but there are still many situationsthat require an individual ‘benefit/risk evaluation’ ordetermination of the ‘benefit:risk ratio’. Unfortunately thesewidely accepted terms muddle thought.

The confusion arises because benefits and risks in the ordinaryuses of the words have completely different dimensions. Abenefit is a material or experiential good ‘thing’, while a riskis a ‘probability’, the chance that something bad will happen.The asymmetry is clear. We should therefore be weighingbenefit against harm, and the probability of benefit againstthe probability of harm. In doing that we should consider thekinds of benefit and harm, their chance of occurring, theirmagnitude and importance (primarily to the patient), as well astheir timing and duration.

The idea of a benefit:risk ratio is especially wrong, becausevery often, the benefit and the risk are not of the same nature,and no one can really ‘weight’ them. One can ask populationsabout how many days, weeks or years of their life they wouldexchange to get rid of this or that handicap, but such comparisonsare very fragile, and such enquiries are rare.

With the oral contraceptive pill we are left comparing a benefitsuch as making love with no fear of getting pregnant (tomorrow)with a risk of venous thrombosis or myocardial infarction (15to 25 years in the future). Doctors should not take suchdecisions unless the case is very clear: it is the population orindividual patients who should decide for themselves.

Controlled trials are designed to assess expected benefits,while harmful effects are mostly unexpected and noted onlyincidentally and unsystematically. This asymmetry is inherentin reports of trials, and leads to a bias that is insufficientlyrecognised.

A thorough evaluation of benefits and harms can be complicatedand difficult, not least because they vary greatly with differentdrug dosages and regimens. In the absence of reliable estimatesof the probabilities and the relative magnitudes of benefits andharms a meaningful evaluation is impossible.

What are the implications for practice? I think that in our rolesas clinicians, members of formulary or guideline committees,or regulators, we must try to be much more specific when weconsider the benefits of treatments and the kinds of harm theymay do. We also need to consider the probabilities of thosebenefits and harms. If we can explain to each other how weweigh up the pluses and minuses for a particular intervention,then we will also be able to explain and discuss them moreclearly and easily with patients. In that process we will cometo understand better what our patients want and what they fear.When they too can weigh the pros and cons of treatments, theycan better contribute to the therapeutic choice and are morelikely to be content with it.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T

I thank Charles Medawar for valuable discussion.

R E F E R E N C E

1. Early Breast Cancer Trialists’ Collaborative Group. Tamoxifen for earlybreast cancer: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet 1998;351:1451-67.

Adjuvant tamoxifen after mastectomy for breast cancer

Benefits: Five years’ treatment reduced the recurrence ratein women with oestrogen receptor positive tumours from38% to 23%, with a corresponding improvement in survival.1

Harms: Five years’ treatment increased the risk ofendometrial cancer, over 10 years causing about two extradeaths per 1000 women treated. Premenopausal womenhave bone loss (1.4% per year). There is an increased riskof thrombosis.1 Anti-oestrogen adverse effects include hotflushes, nausea and vomiting in up to 25% of patients, lesscommonly vaginal dryness or itching, dry skin, deepeningof the voice.

Comment: Whether treatment beyond five years adds to thebenefit is not yet clear.

Tolterodine 2 mg twice daily for symptoms of unstablebladder

Benefits: During four weeks’ treatment, only 9% ofpatients had no or minimal bladder problems. On averagepatients voided 25 mL urine per micturition instead of12 mL on placebo, and had one fewer incontinence episodeevery three days.

Harms: Headache. Anticholinergic effects – dry mouth,dry eyes, somnolence, nervousness, impairedaccommodation, constipation, urinary retention; incidencestated as ‘>1–0.1%’. All wear off when the drug isstopped.

Comment: A minimally effective, but rather troublesomedrug – hardly worth using.


19


The management of acute dystonicreactions

Diane Campbell, Emergency Physician, Emergency Department, Bendigo Hospital,Bendigo, Victoria

Index words: dystonia, benztropine, metoclopramide,adverse effects.

(Aust Prescr 2001;24:19–20)

Introduction

Drug-induced acute dystonic reactions are a commonpresentation to the emergency department. They occur in0.5% to 1% of patients given metoclopramide orprochlorperazine.1 Up to 33% of acutely psychotic patientswill have some sort of drug-induced movement disorderwithin the first few days of treatment with a typicalantipsychotic drug. Younger men are at higher risk of acuteextrapyramidal symptoms.

Although there are case reports of oculogyric crises fromother classes of drugs, including H

2 antagonists, erythromycin

and antihistamines, the majority of patients will have receivedan antiemetic or an antipsychotic drug.

Differential diagnosis

The manifestations of acute dystonia can appear alone, or inany combination (Table 1).

Patients and carers find these reactions alarming. The diagnosisis not always obvious, and in one particularly challengingfortnight last year I saw four patients who were initiallymisdiagnosed as:

• a ‘dislocated jaw’ from prochlorperazine given forlabyrinthitis

• an ‘allergy with swollen tongue’ which was a dystonicreaction to metoclopramide

• a ‘hyperventilation’ who was exhibiting a classic oculogyricreaction

• increasingly ‘strange behaviour’ caused by the overdoseof trifluoperazine for which a young man had been admittedtwo days previously.

These were all acute dystonic reactions. Upper airwayobstruction from pharyngeal muscle spasm or laryngospasmis a rare but potentially life-threatening complication.

The differential diagnosis includes:

• tetanus and strychnine poisoning

• hyperventilation (carpopedal spasm is usually moreprominent than it is in acute dystonic reactions)

• hypocalcaemia and hypomagnesaemia

• primary neurological causes such as Wilson’s disease.

If there is any doubt, it is reasonable to treat as an acutedystonic reaction in the first instance, and investigate furtherif there is no response.

Treatment

Dystonia responds promptly to the anticholinergic benztropine1–2 mg by slow intravenous injection. Most patients respondwithin 5 minutes and are symptom-free by 15 minutes. If thereis no response the dose can be repeated after 10 minutes, butif that does not work then the diagnosis is probably wrong.

The alternatives are antihistamines. Popular American texts2,3

recommend diphenhydramine 1–2 mg/kg up to 100 mg byslow intravenous injection, and the current Oxford Handbookof Clinical Medicine4 suggests procyclidine, but neither ofthese drugs is available in Australia as a parenteral preparation.

Promethazine, 25–50 mg intravenously or intramuscularly,has been used less frequently but it works and it is readilyavailable in most emergency departments and doctors’ bags.It may be a useful alternative for the uncommon patient whohas both dystonia and significant anticholinergic symptomsfrom antipsychotic drugs.

Diazepam, 5–10 mg intravenously, has been used for the rarepatient who does not completely respond to the more specificantidotes. Unlike the other antidotes, it cannot be givenintramuscularly.

There are rare case reports of dystonia caused by all of thesetreatments, including diazepam.

Children should be given parenteral benztropine, 0.02 mg/kg

Table 1

Manifestations of acute dystonia

Oculogyric crisis Spasm of the extraorbital muscles, causingupwards and outwards deviation of the eyes

Blephorospasm

Torticollis Head held turned to one side

Opisthotonus Painful forced extension of the neck. Whensevere the back is involved and the patientarches off the bed.

Macroglossia The tongue does not swell, but it protrudesand feels swollen

Buccolingual crisis May be accompanied by trismus, risussardonicus, dysarthria and grimacing

Laryngospasm Uncommon but frightening

Spasticity Trunk muscles and less commonly limbs canbe affected

20


to a maximum of 1 mg, either intramuscularly or intravenously.This can be repeated once, but if the intramuscular route ischosen, allow 30 minutes to elapse before repeating. Thesame dose should be given orally, twice daily for the next24–48 hours to prevent recurrence. Benztropine comes in a2 mg tablet, so the dose needs to be approximated to thenearest 0.5 mg, or quarter tablet.

Avoiding recurrences

After initial treatment, patients should be given oral medicationfor two or three days, usually benztropine 1–2 mg twice daily.In general practice, most reactions will have been caused byantiemetics. Fortunately benztropine, diphenhydramine andpromethazine all have antiemetic effects so the causative agentcan be safely discontinued.

The best predictor of an acute dystonic reaction is a previoushistory of having had one. Patients should avoid exposureto the precipitating drug, but they are also at higher thanaverage risk if exposed to another drug which causesdystonic reactions. It may be possible to find a substitute whichdoes not cause dystonia.

Antiemetics are usually avoided in children and need not begiven for short-term problems such as gastroenteritis. If anantiemetic is necessary, then antihistamines such aspromethazine have a long established place.

Conclusion

Acute dystonic reactions are a common and distressingcomplication of antiemetic and antipsychotic drugs. Treatmentwith intravenous benztropine is safe and produces rapid relief.Patients who have a possible acute dystonic reaction shouldinitially be treated with benztropine. If they do not respondless common disorders may be considered.

R E F E R E N C E S

1. Bateman DN, Darling WM, Boys R, Rawlins MD. Extrapyramidalreactions to metoclopramide and prochlorperazine. QJM 1989;71:307-11.

2. Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, Wilson JD, Martin JB, KasperDL, et al. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 14th ed. New York:McGraw-Hill; 1998. p. 2361.

3. Shy K, Rund DA. Psychotropic Medications. In Tintinalli JE, Ruiz E,Krome RL, editors. Emergency Medicine: A comprehensive study guide.4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996.

4. Hope RA, Longmore JM, McManus SK, Wood-Allum CA. OxfordHandbook of Clinical Medicine. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press;1998. p. 428.

F U R T H E R R E A D I N G

Rosen P, Barkin RM, Hayden SR, Schaider JJ, Wolfe R. The 5 minuteemergency medicine consult. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins;1999.

Rosen P, Barkin RM, Braen CR, Dailey RH, Hedges JR, Hockberger RS,et al, editors. Emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice. 3rd ed.St Louis (MO): Mosby-Year Book, Inc.; 1992.

New drugsSome of the views expressed in the following notes on newly approved products should be regarded as tentative, as there may have been little experience in Australia of theirsafety or efficacy. However, the Editorial Board believes that comments made in good faith at an early stage may still be of value. As a result of fuller experience, initial commentsmay need to be modified. The Board is prepared to do this. Before new drugs are prescribed, the Board believes it is important that full information is obtained either from themanufacturer's approved product information, a drug information centre or some other appropriate source.

Bupropion

Zyban (Glaxo Wellcome)

150 mg sustained-release tablets

Approved indication: nicotine dependence

Australian Medicines Handbook Section 18.6.2

Bupropion is not a new drug. It was approved in the USA forthe treatment of depression more than 10 years ago. Theantidepressant effect probably involves the drug’s action onneurotransmitters. These actions may also help smokers toquit; depressed smokers gave up smoking during the clinicaltrials of bupropion.

To study the usefulness of bupropion in assisting smokingcessation, 615 smokers were enrolled in a randomised placebo-controlled trial. All the participants were given counselling inaddition to drug treatment. After seven weeks of treatment,19% of the placebo group had given up smoking. In thebupropion group the success rate increased with the dose.Approximately 29% of those taking 100 mg daily gave up,compared with 39% of those taking 150 mg and 44% of thosetaking 300 mg. All the participants put on weight, but the least

weight gain (1.5 kg) was in the patients taking the highest(300 mg) dose of bupropion.1

Bupropion has also been compared with nicotine patches. Inthis trial 244 people were randomised to take bupropion, 244used a nicotine patch, 245 used both medications and 160 weregiven placebos. During the nine weeks of treatment theparticipants were also counselled. When the participants werereviewed after six months, 35% of the bupropion group hadstopped smoking compared with 21% of those using thenicotine patch and 19% of the placebo group. In the combinedtreatment group, 39% had stopped smoking. Treatment withbupropion alone, or in combination with a nicotine patch, wassignificantly better than treatment with the patch alone.2

Patients begin bupropion when they are still smoking. Theystart with 150 mg once a day, and after three days they take150 mg twice a day. Smoking should stop in the second weekof treatment. If the patient is still smoking after seven weeksthey are unlikely to benefit by continuing bupropion.

There is extensive first-pass metabolism and metabolism isthe main method of clearance. Less than 1% of the drug is


21


excreted unchanged in the urine. Bupropion is metabolised bycytochrome P450 2B6. Although clinical interactions havenot been studied, caution is needed when prescribing otherdrugs metabolised by this system. The metabolism of bupropionmay be altered by drugs such as phenytoin and carbamazepine.There is a risk of seizures, so bupropion is contraindicated inpatients with epilepsy or other conditions which alter theseizure threshold.

The drug’s effect on neurotransmitters may cause insomnia asan adverse effect. In clinical trials 40% of patients complainedof insomnia. Other complaints included altered concentration,anxiety and dizziness. Some patients will experience nauseaand a dry mouth. Severe allergic reactions have also beenreported. In the comparative study2 approximately 12% of thepeople taking bupropion stopped treatment because of itsadverse effects.

As with other interventions for smoking, the effectiveness ofbupropion declines with time. A year after the start of theplacebo-controlled trial 23% of those given bupropion had notresumed smoking.1 In the comparative trial 30% of thebupropion group were still abstinent after one year.2

Bupropion has only been approved for short-term use bypatients who are committed to stopping smoking. It shouldalways be used in conjunction with counselling.

R E F E R E N C E S

1. Hurt RD, Sachs DP, Glover ED, Offord KP, Johnston JA, Dale LC, et al.A comparison of sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smokingcessation. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1195-202.

2. Jorenby DE, Leischow SJ, Nides MA, Rennard SI, Johnston JA, HughesAR, et al. A controlled trial of sustained-release bupropion, a nicotinepatch, or both for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 1999;340:685-91.

Insulin aspart

NovoRapid (Novo Nordisk)

100 IU/mL in 10 mL vials, 1.5 mL and 3 mL cartridges, and1.5 mL and 3 mL prefilled syringes

Approved indication: diabetes mellitus


Genetic engineering allows scientists to develop analogues ofnatural substances. Insulin aspart is an analogue of humaninsulin. The properties of the insulin molecule have beenaltered by the substitution of one amino acid.

Substituting aspartic acid for proline increases the rate ofabsorption of insulin after subcutaneous injection. This givesinsulin aspart a rapid onset of action mimicking the physiologicalsecretion of insulin. The effect begins within 20 minutes of aninjection and reaches a peak within one to three hours, with atotal duration of action of three to five hours. This effect givesbetter control of postprandial glucose concentrations than humaninsulin injected 30 minutes before a meal.1

In patients with type 1 diabetes, the reduction in glycatedhaemoglobin (HbA

1c) was greater with insulin aspart than

with soluble human insulin. Although the difference wassignificant it was small; the HbA

1c was reduced by 0.12–0.16.

In type 2 diabetes, insulin aspart also caused a greater reductionin HbA

1c, but this was not statistically significant.

The adverse effects of insulin aspart are similar to those ofsoluble human insulin, but there are no long-term safety data.To reduce the risk of hypoglycaemia, insulin aspart should beinjected immediately before a meal.

R E F E R E N C E

1. Lindholm A, McEwen J, Riis AP. Improved postprandial glycemiccontrol with insulin aspart. A randomized double-blind cross-over trial intype 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999;22:801-5.

Risedronate sodium

Actonel (Aventis Pharma)

5 mg film-coated tablets

Approved indication: osteoporosis, Paget’s disease


Bisphosphonates inhibit the resorption of bone by osteoclasts.By reducing the turnover of bone and increasing bone densitythe bisphosphonates can help patients with Paget’s disease orosteoporosis.

Like the other bisphosphonates, risedronate is poorly absorbed.The bioavailability of the tablet is only 0.63% and this isreduced by food. Patients should only take the tablets withwater. After absorption risedronate is distributed to bone.Although half the absorbed dose is excreted within 24 hoursthe elimination of the drug from bone is slow. The half-life isapproximately 20 days.

Patients must take the tablets while they are standing. Theyshould remain upright for at least 30 minutes. This helps toensure the tablet reaches the stomach and does not irritate theoesophagus. Approximately 12% of patients will complain ofabdominal pain. Other adverse events reported in clinicaltrials include arthralgia, itching, flu-like symptoms, diarrhoeaand dizziness.

Risedronate is approved for several indications. There isevidence from clinical trials to support each indication.

Postmenopausal osteoporosis

More than 3500 women were randomised to take risedronateor a placebo for three years. The women enrolled in the trialshad a history of vertebral fractures. Their fracture risk wasreduced significantly by risedronate. In one study thecumulative frequency of new vertebral fractures after threeyears was 11% in patients taking risedronate and 16% in thosetaking a placebo. Compared to placebo, risedronate alsoincreased bone density in the lumbar spine by 5%.1

Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis

When patients who are taking long-term corticosteroids aregiven risedronate, calcium and vitamin D, their bone densityincreases. Although they are statistically significant, theseincreases are small. After a year of treatment the mean increase,compared to placebo, was 2.4% in the femoral trochanter and2.7% in the lumbar spine.

Risedronate has also been given to patients who had recentlystarted corticosteroids. This prevented the bone loss seen inpatients who were only given calcium supplements.

22


Paget’s disease

In Paget’s disease bone resorption and formation are increased.Compared with osteoporosis, a higher dose is needed tocontrol the activity of the disease. This activity can be assessedby measuring the serum alkaline phosphatose.

One study compared the effect of taking risedronate for twomonths with taking etidronate for six months. After 12 months,the concentrations of alkaline phosphatase were normal in73% of the patients taking risedronate, but in only 15% ofthose taking etidronate. Relapses were less common in therisedronate group. After 18 months, 53% of the group werestill in remission compared with only 14% of the etidronategroup. Risedronate also produced significant reductions inbone pain.2

Although risedronate has an advantage over etidronate so doother oral bisphosphonates such as alendronate and tiludronate.Further studies are needed to find the best bisphosphonate andto assess the safety of long-term treatment.

R E F E R E N C E S

1. Vertebral Efficacy with Risedronate Therapy (VERT) Study Group.Effects of risedronate treatment on vertebral and nonvertebral fractures inwomen with postmenopausal osteoporosis. JAMA 1999;282:1344-52.

2. Miller PD, Brown JP, Siris ES, Hoseyni MS, Axelrod DW, Bekker PJ. Arandomised, double-blind comparison of risedronate and etidronate in thetreatment of Paget’s disease of bone. Am J Med 1999;106:513-20.

Rosiglitazone maleate

Avandia (SmithKline Beecham)

4 mg and 8 mg film-coated tablets

Approved indication: type 2 diabetes

Australian Medicines Handbook Section 10.1

Rosiglitazone is the second drug of its class to be approved foruse in Australia. It has wider indications than troglitazone, thefirst drug to be approved (see ‘New drugs’ Aust Prescr1999;22:150). Rosiglitazone can be prescribed when a patient’sblood glucose is not controlled by diet. It can also be used incombination with metformin and sulfonylureas.

Like troglitazone, rosiglitazone reduces insulin resistance.Although reductions in fasting blood glucose occur soon afterstarting treatment, the full effect on insulin sensitivity is notseen for six to eight weeks. The starting dose of 4 mg daily maybe increased to 8 mg daily after this interval.

The tablets can be taken once or twice daily. They are completelyabsorbed and have a bioavailability of 99%. Rosiglitazone iscompletely metabolised by the liver. Cytochrome P450 2C8 isthe main enzyme involved. The drug is not recommended forpeople with liver disease. Most of the metabolites are excretedin the urine, but a dose reduction is not required if there is renalimpairment.

There are not many published clinical trials of rosiglitazone.A 26-week study of 493 patients with type 2 diabetes found thata twice-daily dose of 2 mg or 4 mg reduced glycated haemoglobin(HbA1

c) by 0.9–1.5% more than placebo. Twice-daily doses

appeared to have greater efficacy than once daily.

Rosiglitazone was as effective as glibenclamide in reducingHbA1

c in

a comparative study. After a year, HbA1

c was

reduced 0.7% by glibenclamide and 0.5% by rosiglitazone4 mg twice daily. The HbA1

c of patients given 2 mg

rosiglitazone twice daily fell by only 0.3%, but both dosesof rosiglitazone had a greater effect on fasting plasmaglucose than glibenclamide did.

Other trials have studied the use of rosiglitazone in combinationwith metformin or sulfonylureas. The combinations usuallyimprove glycaemic control more than monotherapy. Forexample, adding rosiglitazone 4 mg twice daily to metforminwill reduce HbA1

c by 0.8% more than metformin alone.

In the clinical trials rosiglitazone was generally well tolerated.Some patients will develop fluid retention so there is a risk ofprecipitating heart failure. Rosiglitazone increases LDL andHDL cholesterol and can cause anaemia.

The first drug of this class, troglitazone, was withdrawnfollowing reports of hepatic toxicity. Although only 0.2% ofpatients taking rosiglitazone have had hepatic adverse events,there is a concern that the toxicity may be a class effect.Patients should therefore have their liver function checkedbefore treatment and every two months during the first year oftherapy, then periodically thereafter. Rosiglitazone has notbeen approved for use in Europe and an American consumerdrug bulletin has advised its readers not to use rosiglitazonefor five years.1

R E F E R E N C E

1. Health Research Group. The new diabetes drug rosiglitazone (Avandia)rejected by European regulators. Worst Pills Best Pills 1999;12:93-4.

Zolpidem tartrate

Stilnox (Sanofi Synthelabo)

10 mg tablets

Approved indication: insomnia


Zolpidem acts on benzodiazepine receptors. Although it has adifferent structure and is said to be more selective in its action,zolpidem has similar effects to the benzodiazepines.

The drug is rapidly absorbed and peak plasma levels arereached within 3 hours. First-pass metabolism reducesbioavailability to 70%. The liver also eliminates most of thedrug with only 1% appearing unchanged in the urine. A lowerdose is recommended for the elderly and patients with hepaticimpairment. Zolpidem has a half-life of two hours, but itshypnotic effect can last up to 6 hours.

In clinical trials, zolpidem has been more effective thanplacebo in treating chronic insomnia, but does not appear tohave any advantage over temazepam.

Adverse effects caused 4% of patients in clinical trials todiscontinue zolpidem. These effects included dizziness,headache, nausea and daytime drowsiness. Dizziness was themost common adverse effect reported in patients takingzolpidem for 28–35 nights. All patients should be warned ofthe possible risk of feeling drowsy the morning after takingzolpidem. The drug interacts with others, such as alcohol,which depress the central nervous system.

23


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Web site: www.australianprescriber.com

Answers to self-test questions

1. True 3. True 5. True2. True 4. True 6. True

7. False8. True

Patients complaining of insomnia need to be assessed toexclude underlying causes such as depression. Often insomniadoes not require drug treatment. If a patient is prescribedzolpidem, they should take it for less than 4 weeks. Thepotential for withdrawal, tolerance or rebound insomnia isuncertain. Higher doses should not be used because, like otherbenzodiazepines, they have been associated with amnesia.

NEW FORMULATIONS

Morphine sulfate

MS Mono (Mundipharma)

30 mg, 60 mg, 90 mg and 120 mg capsules

Nevirapine

Viramune (Boehringer Ingelheim)

10 mg/mL suspension

Reteplase

Rapilysin (Roche)

10 U powder for injection

NEW STRENGTHS

Diltiazem hydrochloride

Cardizem CD (Aventis Pharma)

360 mg modified-release capsules

Oestradiol

Femtran 25 and Femtran 75 (3M Pharmaceuticals)

2 mg and 5.7 mg transdermal patches

NEW COMBINATION

Enalapril maleate/hydrochlorothiazide

Renitec Plus 20/6 (Merck Sharp & Dohme)

20 mg enalapril maleate/6 mg hydrochlorothiazide tablets

NEW PROPRIETARY BRANDS

Cefaclor

GenRx Cefaclor CD (Faulding)

375 mg sustained-release tablets

Ipratropium bromide

GenRx Ipratropium (Faulding)

250 microgram/mL solution for inhalation

24


EXECUTIVE EDITORIAL BOARD

ChairmanMoulds, R.F.W. – Clinical Pharmacologist

Medical EditorDowden, J.S.

MembersKanagarajah, S. – GeriatricianMarley, J. – General PractitionerTiller, J.W.G. – Psychiatrist

SecretaryReid, S. – Administrative Officer

Minutes SecretaryDennis, G. – Administrative Officer

PRODUCTION

Production Co-ordinatorReid, S.

DesktoppingBarnes Desktopping and Design

Australian Prescriber is indexed by the Iowa DrugInformation Service, the Australasian MedicalIndex and EMBASE/Excerpta Medica.

The views expressed in this journal are notnecessarily those of the Executive EditorialBoard or the Advisory Editorial Panel.

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ADVISORY EDITORIAL PANEL

Australasian College for Emergency MedicineHolmes, J.

Australasian College of DermatologistsMcCrossin, I.D.

Australasian College of Sexual Health PhysiciansCarmody, C.

Australasian Faculty of Occupational MedicineHorsley, R.

Australasian Faculty of Rehabilitation MedicineBashford, G.

Australasian Society for HIV MedicineZiegler, J.

Australasian Society of Blood TransfusionPembrey, R.

Australasian Society of Clinical andExperimental Pharmacologists andToxicologistsKrum, H.

Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology andAllergyKatelaris, C.

Australian and New Zealand College ofAnaesthetistsWesthorpe, R.

Australian and New Zealand Society ofNephrologyDuggin, G.

Australian Association of NeurologistsVajda, F.

Australian College of PaediatricsMellis, C.M.

Australian Dental AssociationWoods, R.G.

Australian Medical AssociationGullotta, J.

Australian Pharmaceutical PhysiciansAssociationLawrie, M.

Australian Postgraduate Federation in MedicineThomson, N.M.

Australian Rheumatology AssociationKirkham, B.

Australian Society for Geriatric MedicinePenhall, R.K.

Australian Society of Otolaryngology Head andNeck SurgeryChapman, E.P.

Australian Teratology SocietyMoroney, P.

Cardiac Society of Australia and New ZealandBett, J.H.N.

Consumers’ Health ForumHancock, L.

Defence Health Service, AustralianDefence ForceShort, B.

Endocrine Society of AustraliaPrince, R.L.

Gastroenterological Society of AustraliaDesmond, P.

Haematology Society of AustraliaFirkin, F.

High Blood Pressure Research Council ofAustraliaWing, L.M.H.

Internal Medicine Society of Australia andNew ZealandKennedy, M.

Medical Oncology Group of AustraliaClarke, S.J.

National Heart Foundation of AustraliaJennings, G.

Pharmaceutical Society of AustraliaPlunkett, W.

Royal Australasian College of Dental SurgeonsSambrook, P.J.

Royal Australasian College of Physiciansde Carle, D.J.

Royal Australasian College of RadiologistsCarr, P.

Royal Australasian College of SurgeonsFrancis, D.M.A.

Royal Australian and New Zealand College ofObstetricians and GynaecologistsKovacs, G.

Royal Australian and New Zealand College ofPsychiatristsMitchell, P.B.

Royal Australian College of GeneralPractitionersGambrill, J.

Royal Australian College of MedicalAdministratorsJellett, L.B.

Royal Australian College of OphthalmologistsSteiner, M.

Royal College of Pathologists of AustralasiaPotter, J.M.

Society of Hospital Pharmacists of AustraliaAlderman, C.

Thoracic Society of Australia and New ZealandSeale, J.P.

Urological Society of AustralasiaMillard, R.

© Commonwealth of Australia 2001

National Prescribing Service

Published by the CommonwealthDepartment of Health and Aged Care

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