copyright 1998 prentice-hall inc., adapted by prof. dr. vom kolke 1 chapter 7 groups and teams

Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 1

Chapter 7

Groups and Teams


Groups Groups are two or more people interacting

with each other to accomplish certain goals Groups form because of mutual attraction

or because managers assign people to groups (within an organization)

Group size (usually between 2 and 20) influences communication and group dynamics (more then 2 people offers complexer interaction, e.g. coalitions)


Group Size and Task Interdependence

Group size is affected by the kind of task interdependence the group is to perform– Pooled task interdependence

Overall group performance is sum of performances of individual group members (group of sales people in a department store)

Group size determined from the amount of work to be accomplished

Group members can be rewarded on individual performance


– Sequential task interdependence Group members have to perform specific tasks

in a predetermined order (assembly lines, mass production processes)

Group size is dictated by needs of the production process (e.g. no. of steps necessary to produce a CD player)

Group members are to be rewarded on group performance (Individual performance difficult to identify because it‘s dependence on other‘s performance [slow worker at start of assembly line causes all others further down to work slowly])



– Reciprocal task interdependence Each group members performance is dependent

on other group members work (sharing of information, interacting with others necessary to achieve goals [R &D teams, self managed work teams])

Relatively small size because of necessity to coordinate team members‘ acitivities (e.g. communication difficulties increase with group size)

Group members are usually to be rewarded on group performance (as far as individual performance is difficult to be measured)



Groups have common goals and usually specific time frame (two week project) and limited resources (budget)

Many groups are ineffective due to time constraints, resource scarcity or underdeveloped social skills

Teams (as a type of group) achieve goals by using self-management techniques

National and corporate cultures affect groups and teams (e.g. group structure and processes)

Groups


Group structure is composed of rules, norms, roles and status (useful elements to understand groups in all cultures)

Examples: – all groups develop/ maintain social norms– Most groups differentiate member status

(few members occupy high-status positions)

Group Structure

Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 87-5

Elements of Group Structure Rules

– Specify formal behavior– Can sanction disobedience

Norms– Are usually informal and unstated (taken for

granted by group members)

– Are often more effective to regulate group behavior (groups generate ist own norms e.g. punctuality, making formal rules appear irrelevant)


Elements of Group Structure Roles

– Set of norms, defining expected behavior (in a position within the group)

Status and Social Power– Every role has a status (rank of the role in group

hierarchy)– Status is connected to social power (ability to

have others follow one‘s own opinions/ directives)– High status position combined with an

approved role behavior establishes power (at least one form of)

– Group members often occupy multiple roles (causing role conflicts, e.g. manager as friend/ colleague and supervisor)


Leaders and Followers– Two types of leaders: task leaders and

socio-emotional leaders Task leaders (initiating leaders) focus on goal

achievement (clarify goal, present or ask for information, evaluate group‘s progress)

Socio-emotional leaders focus on constructing/ maintaining group cohesion (encourage/ praise others, resolve conflicts)

Elements of Group Structure


– Two leader roles are complimentary in effective groups („balance“ most effective way to manage a group)

Without task leader group risks to evolve into a social club (focus on group‘s sentiments and interpersonal relationship)

Overemphasizing task leadership (e.g. leader makes decisions without participation of others) people might get demotivated (lose their sense of purpose)

– Emphasis on leadership type varies with culture (e.g. autocratic leadership vs. group leaders as facilitators)



Leaders and Followers– Followers differ among cultures in

subordinate participation and leader support– Low power distance countries are least

supportive on following group leader– Task and socio-emotional leader roles can

shift in group (e.g. depending on one‘s expertise or the type of support)

– Again: culture influences leadership shift (e.g. less in autocratic leadership cultures vs. democratic leadership cultures)



Formal and informal groups– Formal groups in companies are assigned to

accomplish specific goals (management appointing a leader, mandatory membership, rule governed behavior)

– Formal groups reflect the idea: pooling resources is superior to individual effort

– Informal groups evolve naturally (based on friendship, common interests, similar experiences), even within formal groups



– Can contribute or undermine achievement of official goals (e.g. protect member interests against management demands)

– In any case exert significant social power (e.g. as supporting group members as „voting block“)

– Culture contributes to using either formal or informal groups (high power vs. low power countries)



Group Development The Five-Stage Model

– Forming: members get to know each other (e.g. personal characteristics, strength/ weaknesses) and reach common goals.

– Storming: members potentially disagree on goals, priorities and (leadership) roles to take (Managers need to be sure conflict stays focused)

– Norming: close ties and consensus (by a set of rules and roles) begin to develop between members to coordinate group‘s activities and goal achievement

– Performing: group understands ist goals/ roles and does its real work

– Adjourning: group is disbanded (after work is done) or tries to postpone disbandment (delaying decisions etc.)


Orientationto Task

Testing of roles

IntragroupConflict

Emotional Responseto the Demands

of the Task

Emotional Responseto the Demands

of the Task

Open Exchangeof RelevantInformation

Emergence of a Solution

Development ofGroup Cohesion

Functional RolesEmerge

Dissolutionof Group

STAGE 1Forming (Orientation)

STAGE 5Adjourning (Termination)

STAGE 2Storming (Redefinition)

STAGE 3Norming (Coordination)

STAGE 4Performing (Formalization)

Five Stages of Group DevelopmentFive Stages of Group Development


Model no rigid process– Groups move back/ forth among stages as

a result of conflicts– Unexpected events (e.g. new members of

crisis) can return group to earlier stage

Group Development


The Punctuated Equilibrium Model – Two different modes of group functioning

1. A first meeting to set group climate and leadership is followed by a period of routine group functioning (equilibrium stage)

2. At midpoint of allotted time equilibrium is disrupted by recognition that task must be completed („revolutionary“ stage with orientation toward project completion)

– Fits our image ot people working toward a deadline (start less intensely, work harder when approaching dealine)

Group Development


PROJECTSTARTS TRANSITION

PROJECTDEADLINE

PerformOriginalBehaviors

Drop OldBehaviors

Perform New, MoreEffective Behaviors

0% 50% 100%

TIME EXPENDED

Group Development(Punctuated Equilibrium Model)


Cultural influences on group development– Level of participation (less follower participation

in high power than low power cultures)

– Level of conflict and cooperation (more collaboration in collective oriented than individual oriented cultures)

– Level of time pressure (cultures less concerned with time might not set deadlines, could eliminate „midpoint change“)

Group Development


Group Processes Behavior in groups is affected by a

variety of social processes– Communication is central to groups (to

achieve their goals)

– Communication is affected by culture (e.g. group norms: who is how much permitted to talk, who can interrupt a conversation)

Informal communication structure (low power-

distance) vs. formal communication structure (hígh power-distance)

Rule guided communication in HC-cultures (affects group interaction)


– Groups may have a common cultural identity with shared symbols, rituals and values (e.g. subgroups with ethnic/ religious background or common occupational experiences)

– Strong group culture Can produce a highly cohesive group that works

well together (to achieve company goals) Can result in conflict among groups over

organizational resources ( personnel, technology, finances, prestige)

Some conflict is „healthy“ for an organization (source of innovation)

Group Processes


Decision Making: Group decisions could be useful from a – Technical perspective (groups pool skills, talents,

experiences of many people)

– Organizational perspective (higher motivation, better decision implementation)

Group decisions are to find in cultures with individualistic/ democratic values (e.g. German co-determination with worker reps. hold decision making roles on corporate boards)

Group Processes


“Groupthink”: highly cohesive groups can be unable to critically evaluate each other inputs in decision making (prevalent primarily in Asia)

Social Loafing in groups– Self interested individuals put forth less

effort in a group than individually

Group Processes


MakMakinging individual individualcontributionscontributionsidentifiableidentifiable

MakMakinging individual individualcontributionscontributionsidentifiableidentifiable

EmphasizEmphasizing ing valuablevaluable individualindividual

contributionscontributions

EmphasizEmphasizing ing valuablevaluable individualindividual

contributionscontributions

KeepKeepinging group size group sizeat an appropriateat an appropriate

levellevel

KeepKeepinging group size group sizeat an appropriateat an appropriate

levellevel

REDUCEREDUCED BYD BYREDUCEREDUCED BYD BY

SocialSocialLoafingLoafingSocialSocial

LoafingLoafing

Group Processes Reducing social loafing


Team Teams are groups, whose members

intensively collaborate (not just interact) to achieve a specific common goal (e.g. a project)

All teams are groups, not all groups are teams


How Teams Differ from Groups

Shared Leadership roles (groups usually have one strong focused leader)

Individual and mutual accountability (groups are based mostly on individual accountability)

Specific purpose (group‘s purpose usually identical to organization‘s mission)

Collective work products (groups have individual work products)


More open-ended communication/ active problem solving meetings

Performance measured by direct assessment of collective work products (not individual contribution to group)

Team‘s work style: discuss, decide and delegate but do work together (groups discuss, decide and delegate but do work individually)

How Teams Differ from Groups


Types of Groups/ Teams Groups/ Teams can be distinguished

according to the applied perspective– Internal organization of groups

Traditionally managed groups (have an official leader/ manager)

Self-managed teams (share responsibility for managing the work group)

– Time frame for group work Relatively permanent groups (work for longer

periods [more than a year] on a set of repetitive tasks) Temporary groups (project work on new, innovative

issues [task forces])


– Number of different disciplines Single discipline groups (members from one

department [quality circle]) Multiple discipline groups (members from different

departments [cross-functional work groups})

– Cultural diversity Homogeneous groups (members have same

background) Bi- or multicultural groups (members have two or

more ethnic backgrounds)

Types of Groups/ Teams


Permits Increased Creativity– Wide range of perspectives– More or better ideas– Less „group think“

Creativity can lead to– Better problem definition– More alternatives– Better solutions– Better decisions

Groups can become– More effective– More productive

Causes lack of cohesion– Mistrust – Stereotyping – More within-culture

conversation– Language problems

Lack of cohesion can lead to– Inability to validate ideas– Inability to gain consensus

of decisions– Inability to take concerted

action Groups can become

– Less effective– Less efficient

Advantages Disadvantages

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cultural Group Diversity


Convergence or Divergence?

Trend toward using group-oriented management techniques in individualistic societies

Introduction of market-based principles in collective societies leading to more individualism

Continuing tensions among cultures

Multiculturalism threatens dominant groups

Some societies remain homogeneous


Implications for Managers Managing diverse groups

– Give organizational objectives precedence over multicultural considerations (avoid replacing religion or ethnic identity with traits, skills, talents etc.)

– Emphasize clear vision/ superordinate goal (to prevent multiple goals with competing subgroups)

– Create equal power among group members (more power to one subgroup through cultural dominance can lead to nonparticipation by others and destructive conflict)


– Avoid ethnocentrism (viewing one‘s own culture as superior to other cultures)

– Recognize the limits one‘s own culture imposes for understanding the nature of groups in other cultures

Implications for Managers


Implications for Managers (cont.)

New uses of groups and teams– Groups and teams may replace traditional

organizational structures– Use of teams may increase in cross-

cultural negotiations

copyright 1998 prentice-hall inc., adapted by prof. dr. vom kolke 1 chapter 7 groups and teams

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