copyright © 2005 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. permission required for reproduction or display....

Copyright © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Personality Personality Assessment, Assessment,

Measurement,Measurement,and Research Designand Research Design

Chapter 2Chapter 2


Sources of Personality Sources of Personality DataData

Self-Report Data (S-Data)Self-Report Data (S-Data) Observer-Report Data (O-Data) Observer-Report Data (O-Data) Test-Data (T-Data) Test-Data (T-Data) Life-Outcome Data (L-Data)Life-Outcome Data (L-Data)


Self-Report Data (S-Self-Report Data (S-Data)Data)

Information provided by a person, Information provided by a person, such as through a survey or such as through a survey or interviewinterview

Individuals have access to a wealth Individuals have access to a wealth of information about themselves of information about themselves that is inaccessible to anyone elsethat is inaccessible to anyone else


Self-Report DataSelf-Report Data

S-data personality testsS-data personality testsUnstructured items—open-Unstructured items—open-

endedendedStructured items—response Structured items—response

options providedoptions provided


Self-Report DataSelf-Report Data

Limitations of S-dataLimitations of S-dataPeople may not respond People may not respond

honestlyhonestlyPeople may lack accurate self-People may lack accurate self-

knowledgeknowledge


Observer-Report Data (O-Observer-Report Data (O-Data) Data)

Information provided by someone Information provided by someone else about another personelse about another person

Key features of O-dataKey features of O-data Provide access to information not Provide access to information not

attainable through other sourcesattainable through other sources Multiple observers can be used to Multiple observers can be used to

assess a personassess a person


Observer-Report DataObserver-Report Data

Selecting observersSelecting observers Professional personality assessorsProfessional personality assessors People who actually know the People who actually know the

target persontarget person Often in better position to observe Often in better position to observe

target’s natural behaviors than target’s natural behaviors than professional personality assessorsprofessional personality assessors

Allows for assessment of multiple Allows for assessment of multiple social personalities social personalities

Because of relationship to target, Because of relationship to target, however, observer may be biasedhowever, observer may be biased



Naturalistic vs. Artificial Naturalistic vs. Artificial ObservationObservation

Naturalistic observation: Observers Naturalistic observation: Observers witness and record events that witness and record events that occur in the normal course of lives occur in the normal course of lives of the participantsof the participants

Artificial observation: Occurs in Artificial observation: Occurs in artificial settings or situationsartificial settings or situations



Naturalistic observation has the Naturalistic observation has the advantage of being able to secure advantage of being able to secure information in realistic context, but at information in realistic context, but at the cost of not being able to control the cost of not being able to control events witnessedevents witnessed

Artificial observation has the advantage Artificial observation has the advantage of controlling conditions and eliciting of controlling conditions and eliciting relevant behavior, but at the cost of relevant behavior, but at the cost of sacrificing realismsacrificing realism


Test-Data (T-Data) Test-Data (T-Data)

Information provided by Information provided by standardized tests or testing standardized tests or testing situationssituations

Idea is to see if different people Idea is to see if different people behave differently in identical behave differently in identical situationssituations


Test-DataTest-Data

Situation designed to elicit Situation designed to elicit behaviors that serve as behaviors that serve as indicators of personalityindicators of personality

Elicited behavior “scored” Elicited behavior “scored” without reliance on inferencewithout reliance on inference


Test-DataTest-Data LimitationsLimitations

Participants might try to guess what Participants might try to guess what trait is being measured and then alter trait is being measured and then alter their behavior to create certain their behavior to create certain impressionsimpressions

Difficult to know if participants define Difficult to know if participants define testing situation as intended by testing situation as intended by experimenterexperimenter

Researcher might influence how Researcher might influence how participants behaveparticipants behave


Test-DataTest-Data

Mechanical recording devices, e.g., Mechanical recording devices, e.g., “Actometer” used to assess children’s “Actometer” used to assess children’s activityactivity StrengthsStrengths

Not hampered by biases of human Not hampered by biases of human observerobserver

May be used in naturalistic settingsMay be used in naturalistic settings DisadvantageDisadvantage

Few personality dispositions lend Few personality dispositions lend themselves to mechanical assessmentthemselves to mechanical assessment


Test-DataTest-Data

Physiological dataPhysiological data Includes information about a Includes information about a

person’s level of arousal, reactivity person’s level of arousal, reactivity to stimuli—potential indicators of to stimuli—potential indicators of personalitypersonality

Functional magnetic resonance Functional magnetic resonance imaging (imaging (ffMRI)MRI)


Test-DataTest-Data

Physiological dataPhysiological data Key benefit is that it is difficult to fake Key benefit is that it is difficult to fake

responsesresponses DisadvantagesDisadvantages

Often used in artificial laboratory settingOften used in artificial laboratory setting Accuracy of recording hinges on whether Accuracy of recording hinges on whether

participant perceives situation as participant perceives situation as experimenter intendedexperimenter intended


Test DataTest Data

Projective TechniquesProjective Techniques Person presented with ambiguous Person presented with ambiguous

stimuli and asked to describe what stimuli and asked to describe what she sees; assumption is that she sees; assumption is that person “projects” personality onto person “projects” personality onto ambiguous stimuliambiguous stimuli


Test DataTest Data

Projective TechniquesProjective Techniques Strengths: May provide useful Strengths: May provide useful

means for gathering information means for gathering information about wishes, desires, fantasies about wishes, desires, fantasies that a person is not aware of and that a person is not aware of and could not reportcould not report

Disadvantages: Difficult to score, Disadvantages: Difficult to score, uncertain validity, and reliabilityuncertain validity, and reliability


Life-Outcome Data (L-Life-Outcome Data (L-Data)Data)

Information that can be gleaned from Information that can be gleaned from events, activities, and outcomes in a events, activities, and outcomes in a person’s life that is available for public person’s life that is available for public scrutiny—e.g., marriage, speeding scrutiny—e.g., marriage, speeding ticketstickets

Can serve as important source of “real Can serve as important source of “real life” information about personalitylife” information about personality


Issues in Personality Issues in Personality AssessmentAssessment

Links among different data Links among different data sourcessources

Fallibility of personality Fallibility of personality measurementmeasurement All sources of data have limitationsAll sources of data have limitations Results that replicate through Results that replicate through

“triangulation” are most powerful“triangulation” are most powerful


Evaluation of Personality Evaluation of Personality MeasuresMeasures

ReliabilityReliability ValidityValidity GeneralizabilityGeneralizability


ReliabilityReliability

Degree to which measure Degree to which measure represents “true” level of trait represents “true” level of trait being measuredbeing measured

Types of reliabilityTypes of reliability Test-retest reliabilityTest-retest reliability Inter-rater reliabilityInter-rater reliability Internal consistency reliabilityInternal consistency reliability


ValidityValidity

Degree to which test measures Degree to which test measures what it claims to measurewhat it claims to measure

Types of validityTypes of validity Face validity Face validity Predictive or criterion validityPredictive or criterion validity Convergent validityConvergent validity Discriminant validityDiscriminant validity Construct validityConstruct validity


GeneralizabilityGeneralizability

Degree to which measure retains validity Degree to which measure retains validity across different contexts, including across different contexts, including different groups of people and different different groups of people and different conditionsconditions

Generalizability subsumes reliability and Generalizability subsumes reliability and validityvalidity

Greater generalizability not always Greater generalizability not always better; what is important is to identify better; what is important is to identify empirically contexts in which a measure empirically contexts in which a measure is and is not applicableis and is not applicable


Research Designs in Research Designs in PersonalityPersonality

Experimental MethodsExperimental Methods Correlational StudiesCorrelational Studies Case StudiesCase Studies


Experimental MethodsExperimental Methods

Used to determine causality—Used to determine causality—whether one variable whether one variable causescauses another another

Two key requirements:Two key requirements: Manipulation of variablesManipulation of variables Ensuring that participants in each Ensuring that participants in each

experimental condition are equivalent experimental condition are equivalent to each otherto each other


Correlational StudiesCorrelational Studies

Correlation is a statistical procedure Correlation is a statistical procedure for determining whether there is a for determining whether there is a relationship between two variablesrelationship between two variables

Designed to identify “what goes with Designed to identify “what goes with what” in nature, and not designed to what” in nature, and not designed to identify causal relationshipsidentify causal relationships

Major advantage is that it allows us Major advantage is that it allows us to identify relationships among to identify relationships among variables as they occur naturallyvariables as they occur naturally


Correlational StudiesCorrelational Studies

Correlation coefficient varies from Correlation coefficient varies from –1 (perfect negative relationships) –1 (perfect negative relationships) through 0 (no relationship) to +1 through 0 (no relationship) to +1 (perfect positive relationship)(perfect positive relationship)

Correlation does not indicate Correlation does not indicate causationcausation Directionality problemDirectionality problem Third variable problemThird variable problem


Case StudiesCase Studies

In-depth examination of the life of one In-depth examination of the life of one personperson

AdvantagesAdvantages Can find out about personality in great detailCan find out about personality in great detail Can give insights into personality that can be Can give insights into personality that can be

used to formulate a more general theory that used to formulate a more general theory that is tested on a larger sampleis tested on a larger sample

Can provide in-depth knowledge about an Can provide in-depth knowledge about an outstanding figure, such as a political or outstanding figure, such as a political or religious figurereligious figure


Case StudiesCase Studies

DisadvantageDisadvantage Results based on the study of Results based on the study of

single person cannot be single person cannot be generalized to othersgeneralized to others


When to Use Experimental, When to Use Experimental, Correlational, and Case Correlational, and Case

Study DesignsStudy Designs

Each design has strengths and Each design has strengths and weakness; strength of one is weakness of weakness; strength of one is weakness of anotheranother

Which design a researcher uses depends Which design a researcher uses depends on the research question and the goal of on the research question and the goal of researchresearch

Taken together, three designs provide Taken together, three designs provide complementary methods for exploring complementary methods for exploring personalitypersonality


Summary and EvaluationSummary and Evaluation

Decisions about data source and Decisions about data source and research design depend on the research design depend on the purpose of studypurpose of study

There is no perfect data sourceThere is no perfect data source There is no perfect research designThere is no perfect research design But some data sources and some But some data sources and some

methods are better suited for some methods are better suited for some purposes than for otherspurposes than for others

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