personality chapter 2: human adjustment john w. santrock mcgraw-hill © 2006 by the mcgraw-hill...

PersonalityChapter 2:

Human AdjustmentJohn W. Santrock

McGraw-Hill © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

McGraw-Hill

©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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What Is Personality?

Theoretical perspectives on personality:–psychodynamic

–behavioral and social cognitive

–humanistic

– trait

Personality = pattern of enduring and distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize how an individual adapts to the world

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What Is Personality?

Four important questions about personality:–What role do innate and learned characteristics play in

personality?

–To what extent is personality conscious or unconscious?

–How influential are internal or external factors in determining personality?

–What characterizes a well-adjusted personality?

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Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychodynamic Perspectives - view personality as being primarily unconscious and as developing in stages

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Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud–born in Austria in 1856 / died in England in 1939

– spent most of life in Vienna

–became medical doctor specializing in neurology

–developed psychoanalytic theory through work with psychiatric patients

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Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud believed most of the mind is unconscious

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory stated that personality has three structures: – id - pleasure (sexual and aggressive instincts)

– ego - reality (deals with demands of reality)

– superego - conscience (morality)

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Defense Mechanisms

When ego blocks pleasurable pursuits of id, person feels anxiety

Defense mechanisms = ego’s protective methods for reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

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Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms include:– repression

– rationalization

– displacement

– sublimation

– projection

– reaction formation

– denial

– regression

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Freud’s Theory of Personality Development

Freud was convinced that problems develop because of early childhood experiences

Freud proposed 5 stages of personality development:– oral

– anal

– phallic

– latency

– genital

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Freud’s Theory of Personality Development

Freud claimed that at each stage, demands of reality conflict with source of pleasure

Adult personality depends on how person deals with the conflict

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Psychodynamic Revisionists

Criticisms of Freud:– too much emphasis on sexuality

– first 5 years are not as important

–ego and conscious thought more important

– sociocultural factors more important

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Horney’s Sociocultural Theory

Karen Horney (1885–1952) –developed first feminist criticism of Freud’s theory

Need for security is most important human motive

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Horney’s Sociocultural Theory

People develop strategies to cope with anxiety:– move toward people, seeking love and support

– move away from people, becoming more independent

– move against people, being competitive and domineering

The secure person uses these ways of coping in moderation

The insecure person uses one or more strategies in exaggerated fashion

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Jung’s Analytical Theory

Carl Jung (1875–1961)– thought Freud underplayed unconscious mind

Collective unconscious - impersonal, deepest layer of unconscious mind, shared by all human beings

Archetypes - emotionally-laden ideas and images in collective unconscious that have meaning for all people

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Adler’s Individual Psychology

Alfred Adler (1870–1937) –People strive toward creating own goals

–Emphasis on social motivation

–Everyone strives for superiority

Compensation - individual attempts to overcome inferiorities or weaknesses by developing own abilities

Overcompensation - individual exaggerates to conceal a weakness

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2-16Adjustment Strategies Based on

Psychodynamic Approaches

1. Think about your experiences as a child and now.

2. Recognize you have unconscious feelings, drives, and desires.

3. Examine your thoughts, feelings, and behavior to determine extent you are using defense mechanisms.

4. Evaluate extent to which security needs are met.

5. Examine feelings of superiority or inferiority and discover areas of life in which you can excel.

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Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives

Psychodynamic perspectives:– view personality as primarily unconscious

– stress that personality develops in stages

–emphasize the role of the individual’s past experiences

–emphasize mental representation and transformation of experience

–emphasize the influence of conflict on personality

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Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning = learning process in

which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with meaningful stimulus and acquires capacity to elicit a response similar to response to meaningful stimulus

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Classical Conditioning

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1906) argued classical conditioning consists of:– conditioned stimulus

– conditioned response

Learning (Conditioning) Paradigm–Neutral + UCR UCR

–CS CR

Classical conditioning has been applied to understanding fear

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2-20Figure 2.6 Classical Conditioning: Boss’s

Criticism and High Blood Pressure

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Skinner’s Behaviorism

B. F. Skinner (1938–1990) argued that our actions on the environment have consequences that shape our behavior

Operant conditioning = learning process that occurs when consequences of the behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence

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Reinforcement and Extinction

Positive reinforcement - frequency of behavior increases because it is followed by rewarding stimulus

Negative reinforcement - frequency of behavior increases because it is followed by removal of an aversive stimulus

Reinforcement = process by which a stimulus or event that follows a behavior increases probability that the behavior will occur again

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Reinforcement and Extinction

Extinction - frequency of a previously reinforced behavior that is no longer reinforced decreases

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Punishment

Punishment decreases likelihood that a behavior will occur

Positive punishment - behavior decreases when followed by unpleasant stimulus

Negative punishment - behavior decreases when positive stimulus is removed

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2-25Positive and Negative Reinforcement, Positive

and Negative Punishment

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Applying Skinner’s Approach to Personality

Skinner’s behaviorism emphasizes that cognition is unimportant in personality

Personality is observable behavior, which is influenced by rewards and punishments in the environment

In the behavioral view, personality often varies according to the situation

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Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory was first proposed by Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel

Social cognitive theory states that behavior, environment, and cognitive factors are important in understanding personality

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Observational Learning

Bandura (1986) identified four main processes:– retention– production– attention– reinforcement

Observational learning (imitation or modeling) = learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior

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Observational Learning

Bandura’s 1965 classic study - children who had seen a model punished for aggression only showed the model’s aggression when offered a reward

Reciprocal determination - Bandura’s view that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors interact to create personality

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Personal Control

Social cognitive theorists emphasize that adjustment can be measured by people’s belief in their capacity to exercise some control over their own functioning and over environmental events

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Personal Control

Three aspects of personal control:–delay of gratification - deferring immediate gratification to

obtain desirable future outcome

–self-efficacy - belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes

– locus of control - belief that the outcomes of people’s actions depend on what they do (internal locus) or on events outside of their personal control (external locus)

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Personal Control - Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is related to positive developments in people’s lives–Self-efficacy helps people in unsatisfactory situations by

encouraging them to believe that they can succeed

Having an internal locus of control is associated with positive functioning and adjustment

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2-33Adjustment Strategies

For Increasing Your Self-Efficacy1. Select something you expect to be able to do, not something you expect to fail at accomplishing

2. Distinguish between past performance and your present project

3. Pay close attention to your successes

4. Keep written records so that you will be concretely aware of your successes

5. List the specific kinds of situations in which you expect to have the most difficulty and the least difficulty

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2-34Adjustment Strategies Based on Behavior

and Social Cognitive Perspectives

1. Recognize extent to which reinforcement and punishment influence your behavior

2. Examine extent to which you use reinforcement and punishment when interacting with others

3. Use your ability to learn through observation

4. Consider obtaining a mentor

5. Evaluate how good you are at delaying gratification

6. Examine whether you have an internal or an external locus of control

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2-35Evaluating the Behavioral and Social

Cognitive Perspectives

Strengths of the behavioral and social cognitive perspectives include emphasis on:–environmental determinants

– scientific climate for investigating personality

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2-36Evaluating the Behavioral and Social

Cognitive Perspectives

The behavioral view has been criticized for:– taking the “person” out of personality

– ignoring cognition

– inadequate attention to individual differences

– inadequate attention to biology

– inadequate attention to personality as whole

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Humanistic Perspectives

Humanistic perspectives - stress a person’s capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose one’s own destiny, and positive human qualities

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) were leading architects of humanistic perspectives

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Rogers’ Approach

Carl Rogers stressed the importance of becoming a fully-functioning person

Rogers believed the tendency to actualize one’s essential nature is inborn in every person

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Rogers’ Approach

Self-concept - refers to individuals’ overall perceptions and assessments of their abilities, behavior, and personalities

The Self - consists of our self-perceptions and the values we attach to these perceptions

The greater the discrepancy between the real self (self resulting from experiences) and the ideal self (the self we would like to be), the more maladjusted we will be

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2-40Unconditional Positive Regard,

Empathy, and Genuineness Rogers proposed 3 methods to help others develop a

more positive self-concept:–Unconditional positive regard - accepting, valuing, and

being positive toward another person regardless of the person’s behavior

–Empathetic - being a sensitive listener and understanding of another’s true feelings

–Genuineness - being open with our feelings and dropping our pretenses and facades

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Figure 2.9 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives

The humanistic perspectives stress a person’s capacity for personal growth and freedom

These perspectives emphasize the importance of:–our perceptions

– conscious experience

– the positive aspects of human nature

–encourage excessive self-love

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Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives

Weaknesses of humanistic perspectives include tendency to:–avoid empirical research

–be too optimistic

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Trait Theories

Traits - broad, enduring dispositions that lead to characteristic responses

Gordon Allport believed that each individual has a unique set of personality traits

Most trait theories hold that personality can be described in terms of a few super-traits or dimensions

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Trait Theories

Hans Eysenck - three dimensions of personality:– introversion-extraversion

– stability-instability (neuroticism)

– psychoticism

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2-46The Big Five

Factors of Personality

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Traits, Situations, and Culture

Walter Mischel (1968) argued that personality varies across situations more than trait theorists acknowledged–Mischel’s view is called situationism

Personality results from interaction of traits and situations

Cross-cultural research suggests that traits may vary across cultures

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Traits, Situations, and Culture

Cultures around the world may be classified as individualist or collectivist– Individualism gives priority to personal goals rather than

group goals; it emphasizes values that serve the self, such as feeling good, personal achievement and distinction, and independence

–Collectivism emphasizes values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity and relationships

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Evaluating Trait Perspectives

Understanding a person’s traits also may help us better predict the person’s health, thinking, job success, and interpersonal skills

Personality is determined by a combination of traits (person factors) and the situation (environmental factors)

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Types of Assessment

Psychologists use assessments not only in research but also in their attempts to diagnose, treat, and counsel people

Scientific measures aim to be both reliable and valid

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Types of Assessment

Types of assessments used by psychologists:– projective tests

– self-report tests

– behavioral and cognitiveassessments

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Projective Tests

Projective tests - present individuals with ambiguous stimuli

Projective tests assume that this ambiguity allows individuals to project their personalities onto the stimuli

Examples of projective tests include:– Rorschach inkblot test

– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

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Rorschach Inkblot Test

Rorschach Inkblot Test was developed in 1921 by Herman Rorschach– It uses individual’s perception of inkblots to determine

personality

–Concerns about test’s reliability and validity

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2-54Figure 2.13 Type of Stimulus Used in

the Rorschach Inkblot Test

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Thematic Apperception Test

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - projective test designed to elicit stories that reveal something about individual’s personality–TAT used in clinical practice and in research on need for

achievement

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Self-Report Tests

Self-report tests (objective tests or inventories) assess personality traits by asking questions about preferences and behaviors–Self-report tests may elicit deceptive responses when

people try to answer in a socially desirable way

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Self-Report Tests

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used self-report personality test

Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) are two popular self-report tests that assess the big five factors

personality chapter 2: human adjustment john w. santrock mcgraw-hill © 2006 by the mcgraw-hill...

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