Social Thinking, Influence, and Intergroup Relations

Chapter 6:

Human AdjustmentJohn W. Santrock

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Chapter Outline

Social Thinking

Social Influence

Intergroup Relations

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Learning Objectives

1. Describe how people think about the social world

2. Identify how people are influenced in social settings

3. Discuss intergroup relations

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SOCIAL THINKING

Making Attributions

Forming Impressions

Changing Attitudes

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Making Attributions

Fundamental attribution error - tendency for observers to overestimate importance of a person’s traits and underestimate importance of situations when they seek to explain someone else’s behavior

Attributions = thoughts about why people behave the way they do

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6-6Figure 6.1 The Fundamental Attribution Error

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Self-Serving Bias

Self-serving bias - we tend to be self-enhancing, and we often exaggerate positive beliefs about ourselves.

We tend to attribute our successes to our own characteristics and attribute our failures to external factors

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6-8Forming Impressions - Stereotyping and Attitudes

We often use stereotypes in forming impressions

Stereotype = generalization about a group’s characteristics that does not account for variations from one individual to another

Attitudes = evaluations of people, objects, and ideas

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Impression Management

Nonverbal cues (facial expression, eye contact, body posture, gestures) are important in self-presentation

Impression management (self-presentation) = process of acting in a way that presents a desired image

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Impression Management

Techniques of impression management include:– conforming to situational norms

– showing appreciation of others

–behavioral matching (imitating behavior of other person)

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Self-Monitoring

Self-monitoring = paying attention to impressions you make on others and the degree to which you fine-tune your performance

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Changing Attitudes

Attitude persuasion research focuses on:–communicator (source) - who conveys the message

–message - communication

–medium - how message is conveyed

– target (audience) - who receives message

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Review - Learning Goal 1

–What is attribution? What are two ways in which our attributions tend to be biased?

–What determines our impressions of others?

–What factors influence whether people will change attitude?

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SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Conformity

Obedience

Compliance

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Conformity

Solomon Asch (1951) reported participants in a line-matching task conformed one-third of the time

Conformity = change in person’s behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard

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Figure 6.2 Asch's Conformity Experiment

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Factors That Contribute to Conformity

Normative social influence - conforming because we seek approval or avoid disapproval from others

Informational social influence - conforming because we want to be right

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Factors That Contribute to Conformity

Factors that contribute to conformity:–unanimity of group

–prior commitment

–personal characteristics

–group members’ characteristics

– cultural values

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Obedience

Stanley Milgram (1965) reported that up to two-thirds of participants in a research study on punishment would obey an order to deliver an electric shock to a stranger

Obedience = behavior that complies with explicit demands of the individual in authority

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6-20Adjustment Strategies for Resisting an Unjust

Request by a Person in a Position of Authority

1. Give appearance of complying

2. Publicly dissent by showing doubts but still follow order

3. Openly disregard order and refuse to comply

4. Challenge authority

5. Get higher authorities to intervene

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Compliance

Compliance = change in behavior in response to a direct request

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Compliance

Robert Cialdini (2001) identified six principles of persuasion and compliance:– reciprocation (repay what someone provided)

–commitment and consistency (agree to requests consistent with prior commitment)

–social proof (examine what others are doing)

– liking (prefer to say yes to people we know and like)

–authority (pressure to comply with request from authority)

–scarcity (opportunity more valued when less available)

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6-23Adjustment Strategies For Resisting

Persuasion and Compliance Techniques

1. Defend against use of reciprocity pressures

2. Resist influence of commitment and consistency pressures

3. Reduce susceptibility to faulty social proof

4. Reduce unwanted influence of liking

5. Defend against detrimental effects of authority

6. Combat scarcity pressures

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Review - Learning Goal 2

–What factors are involved in conformity?

–What is obedience and how was it demonstrated in Milgram’s study?

–What are the six principles of persuasion and compliance?

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INTERGROUP RELATIONS

Groups and Their Functions

Group Identity: Us Versus Them

Prejudice and Discrimination

Immigration

Ways to Improve Interethnic Relations

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Groups and Their Functions

Functions of groups:– satisfy personal needs

– reward

–provide information

– raise self-esteem

–give identity

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Group Identity: Us Versus Them

Social identity - way you define yourself in terms of your group membership

Kay Deaux (2001) identified 5 types of social identity:–ethnic and religious–political– vocations and avocations–personal relationships– stigmatized groups

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Social Identity Theory

Henry Tajfel (1978) proposed social identity theory - we can improve our self-image by enhancing our social identity (favoring our in-group and disparaging our out-group)Ethnocentrism - tendency to favor one’s own group and believe it is superior to other groups

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Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice = unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual’s membership in a group

Discrimination = unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group

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Sources of Prejudice

Sources of prejudice include:– individual personality

– competition between groups over scarce resources

–motivation to enhance self-esteem

– cognitive processes that contribute to stereotypes

– cultural learning

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Modern Racism

Old-fashioned racism - overt; asserting inferiority of non-whites

Modern racism - negative feelings about minority groups; covert; unconscious; denied

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Immigration

Stressors of immigrants include:– language barriers

– separation from support networks

–dual struggle to preserve ethnic identity and to acculturate

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6-33Adjustment Strategies

for International Students

1. Be patient, it takes time to adapt to a new culture

2. Develop a support system

3. Talk with U.S. students

4. Share your culture

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Ways to Improve Interethnic Relations

Task-oriented cooperation - stress cooperation–Aronson (1986) suggested the jigsaw classroom, in which

each student makes a contribution to the learning of the whole

Intimate contact - sharing one’s personal worries, successes, personal ambitions and coping strategies

Acknowledge diversity - recognizing and respecting differences

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6-35Adjustment Strategies

for Improving Interethnic Relations

1. Participate in cooperative tasks

2. Have intimate contact

3. Pay attention to differences and diversity

4. Engage in perspective-taking

5. Think reflectively

6. Be emotionally intelligent

7. Be an effective communicator

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Review - Learning Goal 3

–What functions do groups serve?

–How does social identity lead to "we/they" thinking?

–How are prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination related?

–What are some of the special stresses faced by immigrants?

–What strategies for improving interethnic relations are effective?