copyright © 2010 pearson education, inc. all rights reserved. introduction to human development...
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction to Human
Development
Chapter 1
1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction to Human Development
• Introduction to Development
• The Nature of Human Development
• Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development
• The Scientific Approach to the Study of Human Development
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Introduction to Development
• Development refers to changes over time in a person’s body, thought, and behavior due to biological and environmental influences
• Developmental psychologists focus on common features of human development
• They usually divide the lifespan into developmental periods or stages that most people share
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Developmental Periods in the Human Lifespan
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Interactive Approach
• Human development is the result of several interacting forces
• An interdisciplinary approach is necessary in order to fully understand all the forces that have an impact on the lifespan
• These forces include biological potentials, social and environmental factors, and the individual’s own responses to those circumstances
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Guiding Themes in Human Development
• Biological and environmental factors affect development
• Development occurs within a social context
• Development is best understood by considering domains or categories of human experience
• Development is best understood when placed in a theoretical framework and when studied through use of the scientific methods
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The Nature of Human Development
• Individual biology and the environment interact
• Society and culture are powerful influences
• Children are viewed more favorably today than in the past
• Collectivist cultures stress interdependence and cooperation
• Individualistic cultures emphasize competition and individual achievement
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The Domains of Human Development
• Physical – Changes in physical shape, size, sensory capabilities,
motor skills
• Cognitive– Acquisition of skills in perceiving, thinking, reasoning,
problem solving, language
• Personality– Acquiring stable and enduring personality traits
• Sociocultural– The processes of socialization and enculturation
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Video clip
Interview with UNICEF executive director about the effect of war on children in Gaza: http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/2009/01/16/curnow.gaza.children.veneman.intv.cnn
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Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development
• Theories are organized, coherent sets of ideas that help us understand, explain, and make predictions.
• Theories change over time and may contradict each other.
• Major types of theories:– Biological
– Psychodynamic
– Behavioral
– Cognitive
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Biological Views of Human Development
• Genetics studies the biological instructions encoded in the human genome
• Developmental neuroscience focuses on links between brain function, behavior, and thought
• Evolution and natural selection focus on the adaptation of a species to its environment
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Psychodynamic Approach
• Psychodynamic approach emphasizes role of unconscious mind and the interactions of psychic processes
– Sigmund Freud’s three processes (id, ego, superego) and five psychosexual stages.
– Erik Erikson developed a psychosocial theory, emphasizing individual and social interactions, in which people pass through eight stages.
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
• Trust versus mistrust – birth to 1 year
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt – 12 to 36 months
• Initiative versus guilt – 3 to 6 years
• Industry versus inferiority – 6 to 12 years
• Ego identity versus ego diffusion – 12 to 18 years
• Intimacy versus isolation – 18 to 40 years
• Generativity versus self-absorption – 40 to 65 years
• Integrity versus despair – 65 years and older
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Behavioral Views
• Focus on the processes that produce observable behavior
– Classical Conditioning, Pavlov: reflexive, biologically-based responses to environment
– Operant Conditioning, B.F. Skinner: how rewards and punishment influence our behavior
– Social Learning Theory, Albert Bandura: what we learn from observing others
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Cognitive Views
• Cognitive-developmental theories focus on the processes that underlie the development of thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
– Jean Piaget: Our minds adapt to new ideas through the processes of assimilating and accommodating new information to our schemes, or frameworks of knowledge
– Lev Vygotsky emphasized the importance of learning from other people
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
• Sensorimotor:
– Birth to 2 years
• Preoperational:
– 2 years to 7 years
• Concrete operational:
– 7 years to 11 or 12 years
• Formal operational:
– 11 or 12 years and up
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Integrative Approaches
• Systems theories involve a broader focus on all the contexts in which humans develop
• Urie Bronfenbrenner developed the bioecological model that emphasizes the interaction between individual and family and societal forces
• Systems approach integrates biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and ecological perspectives
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The Bioecological Model
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Video Clip
Description of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=me7103oIE-g
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The Scientific Approach to Studying Human Development
• The scientific method uses specific techniques and ethical guidelines to study human behavior. Methods include:
– Descriptive: case studies, observations, surveys, interviews, and psychological tests
– Longitudinal Studies: study people over time
– Correlational research: looks at relationships between variables
– Experiments: test hypothesis by means of rigid controls
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Case Study and Observation
• Case study: compilation of detailed information on an individual, a family, or a community through interview, observations, & formal testing – Baby biography
• Systematic observation: observational method in which researchers go into everyday settings and observe and record behavior while being as unobtrusive as possible – Naturalistic observation– Laboratory observation
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Questionnaires and Surveys
• Questionnaire: a paper and pencil method that asks respondents to answer questions about past or present behavior, attitudes, preferences, opinions, feelings, and so forth
• Survey: a questionnaire administered to a large group
• Interview: a questionnaire that is administered verbally, usually in a one on one setting
• Representative sampling: selecting a sample from a larger population so that the sample represents or mirrors the population in every important way
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Psychological Tests
• Often involve the measurement of intelligence or personality traits
• Must be carefully constructed and administered so that accurate results are obtained
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Studying Development Across Time
• Longitudinal design – same participants are studied at various points in time to see how they change as they age
• Cross-sectional design –compares individuals of different ages at one point in time– Confounding– Cohort effects
• Sequential cohort design –several overlapping cohorts of different ages are studied longitudinally
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Developmental Research Designs Compared
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Correlation
• Research technique that describes the relationship between two variables – The correlation coefficient
• Correlation tells us nothing about causation
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Experiments
• The study of cause and effect
• Random assignment
• Independent variable – variable that is manipulated in order to observe its effects on the dependent variable
• Dependent variable – variable that changes as a result of manipulating the independent variable
• Replication
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Research Methods
• Regardless of method, it is important to replicate, or repeat the studies to insure consistency of results
• Each method has strengths and weaknesses• Sometimes methods are combined, as in a
quasi-experiment• All methods must observe strict ethical
guidelines and are the subject to scrutiny by Institutional Review Boards
• Guiding ethical principles are informed consent, confidentiality, and doing no harm to the subject
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Moral Foundations of Ethical Research with Human Participants1. Protection from Harm
– Institutional Review Boards evaluate research projects with regard to their potential risks to participants
2. Informed Consent– Informed consent is a clear statement of the procedures
and risks as well as the obligations of both the participants and the researchers
3. Privacy and Confidentiality4. Knowledge of Results5. Beneficial Treatments
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Summary
• Human development is studied within four interacting domains—physical growth, cognitive growth, personality development, and sociocultural development
• We employ various theories in order to study human development using scientific methods
• The major theories we study today are biological, psychodynamic, behaviorism, cognitive-developmental, and systems theories
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Summary
• The rules of science provide specific techniques and ethical guidelines for studying human development
• These methods include:
– case studies
– observations
– questionnaires, surveys, and interviews
– longitudinal, cross-sectional and sequential-cohort designs
– correlation studies
– experiments
• Ethical guidelines like informed consent, confidentiality and doing no harm to subjects must always be used
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.