VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS: IDENTIFICATION

AND SUCCESS

by

JULIE LANDGRAF JOHNSON, B.A.

A THESIS

IN

COMMUNICATION STUDIES

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Approved

Accepted

May, 1991

Copyright Julie Landgraf Johnson (1991)

AC~WLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks to Dr. G. H. "Bud" Morris for his guidance in the

preparation of this thesis. As chair of my thesis committee, his efforts

toward the maintenance of quality and the pursuit of a more clear

understanding of the concepts in this paper consistently equalled my own

and encouraged me to strive to improve. To the other members of the

committee, Dr. H. Dan O'Hair and Dr. RobertS. litis, I also offer my thanks.

Additionally, thank you to the Phi Theta Kappa Society, their

administration, and especially to Mr. Rod Risley, Mr. Mike Watson, and

Ms. Kathy Harms Mercer. Your openness and support of this project made

its conception a reality.

The support of the professors, instructors, assistants, and staff of

the Department of Communication Studies also contributed much to the

completion of this document. To Melanie, "my pencil person," and to Lisa,

my comrade in the "thesis struggle," I give special recognition. Your

advice and support were invaluable.

Thanks also go to Troy: consultant, copier, carpooler, cheerleader,

cook, caretaker, and confidant. Your patience, support and love teach me

more than all of education.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Development of the Concept

Relationship Between Identification and Commitment

Possible Outcomes of Identification

Creating Identification in Organizations

Voluntary Organizations

Ill. METl-()[)

Pilot Study

Participants

Organization of the Questionnaire

Analysis of the Pilot Questionnaire

Present Study

Participants

Instruments

Questionnaire

Document analysis

Telephone interviews

IV. RESULTS

Questionnaire

Document Analys1s

Ill

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4

5

8

15

18

22

27

27

27

30

32

36

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42

43

46

46

51

Interviews

Research Questions

Research Question One

Research Question Two

Research Question Three

Research Question Four

V. DISCUSSION

Implications

Limitations

Suggestions

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

A. PILOT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE

B. PRESENT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE

C. PRESENT STUDY INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

IV

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106

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Many explanations have been given for the success of organizations.

Popular literature attributes success to such factors as qualities of

leadership and strong organizational cultures (Peters & Waterman, 1981;

Peters & Austin, 1985). Another avenue for explaining success is to

consider qualities of membership that can influence organizational

performance. In the literature on organizational communication, the

identification or commitment of organizational members toward the

goals and objectives of the organization has been considered a key (Burke,

1937; Simon, 1976; Cheney, 1983a; Cheney, 1983b; Thompkins & Cheney,

1983).

Members identify with or are commited to an organization when

they substitute organizational objectives for their own aims as value

indices which determine their decisions (Simon, 1976). It is as if

members develop a personal relationship with their organization. Overall,

identification influences the nature of the decisions organization

members make (Simon, 1976; Cheney, 1983a; Cheney 1983b; Thompkins &

Cheney, 1983), which may in turn affect the success of the organization.

It is often presumed that identification processes in organizations lead

to a host of beneficial organizational outcomes, including goal

commitment, goal achievement, quality of performance, and job

satisfaction. Thomas Rotondi, Jr., (1975b) refers to former IBM Chief

Executive Officer T.J. Watson, Jr., as stating that the single most

1

important factor in the success of an organization is the faithful

adherence of employees to the beliefs of the organization.

In organizations that must rely upon voluntary membership,

identification may be a particularly critical factor, since other

compelling reasons for members to contribute, such as salary, are ruled

out. Neither researchers of voluntary organizations (Schindler-Rainman &

Lippitt, 1975; O'Connel, 1976; Wilson, 1976; Allen, 1982; Smith, 1982)

nor those interested in organizational identification, however, have

focused upon this possibility. After extensive research regarding

voluntary organizations, Wortman (1981) suggests that the application of

organizational identification to voluntary organizations will prove to be

an intriguing one. In the absence of most extrinsic motivational cues,

such as monetary rewards and punishments which are often associated

with the workplace, what drives individuals to loyally participate in

voluntary organizations?

The purpose of this study is to explore how identification

manifests itself in members of voluntary organizations. Specifically, it

examines how identification is related to volunteer success and length of

time in affiliation with a particular voluntary organization, as well as

how identification is created by an organization.

To examine these relationships, respondents completed a

questionnaire using Mowday, Steers, and Porter's Organizational

Commitment Questionnaire (1979) coupled with original questions. In

addition, turning point analysis (Baxter & Bullis, 1986) was utilized to

interpret responses gathered in moderately scheduled interviews.

Finally, a detailed examination was conducted of formal communication

2

between a selected volunteer organization and particular volunteers.

Unifying symbol distribution, official written correspondence, records of

award winners, and the 1989-90 Year End Report compiled by the

international headquarters staff were studied in depth.

In the following chapters, a review of the important literature

concerning identification theory is presented. Next, research questions

are posed and an explanation of the methods and participants chosen is

offered. Finally, the results of this study are presented and discussed.

3

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Individuals who substitute organizational objectives for their own

aims when making decisions are seen as having achieved a level of

identification. A host of positive outcomes may result in organizations

which are able to achieve these high levels of identification. These

include increased trust (Johnson & Hall, 1990), improved efficiency in

decision making and consistency of decisions with organizational

objectives (Simon, 1976), a lessened chance of sabotage of new ideas

(Tompkins & Cheney, 1985), and enhanced organizational control (Sias &

Drummond, 1990). Clearly, high levels of identification are desirable to

organizations. The general theoretical issue presents itself then, as

being what accounts for identification?

Most research regarding identification has centered upon those

organizations that are characterized by nonvoluntary memberships,

specifically the workplace. In this setting, an examination of the value

indices which determine members' decisions has been used as a means to

measure the extent of organizational identification. If the member

substitutes organizational objectives for his own aims, that member is

seen as having achieved a level of identification. Several confounding

variables, however, could also account for this substitution in decision

making. Job stability, salary, evaluations, company benefits, and the like

might substitute for identification as incentives which encourage

members to adhere to organizational objectives.

4

If, apart from the above mentioned extrinsic influences, one can

isolate the factors which contribute to identification among members,

then researchers will be in a position to provide a more realistic view of

what causes identification and if and how identification can be created

and maintained. Attempts to create identification might then be properly

directed, and many positive outcomes might accrue.

To investigate identification within voluntary organizations seems

a logical way to control for the confounding factors. While these

organizations may require as much member dedication as many

workplaces require, the extrinsic influences which may bind workers to

jobs are absent. Thus, it is logical to conclude that the establishment and

maintenance of identification in this setting is the result of other forces.

As a means of exploring these other forces, the review of

literature which follows orients the reader to the development of the

concept of identification and distinguishes it from other closely related

terms. The nature and characteristics of voluntary organizations are then

examined. Finally, the paucity of research into incentives for

volunteerism is noted, and research questions for this study of

identification with voluntary organizations are outlined.

Development of the Concept

The literature regarding organizational identification is based upon

Kenneth Burke's writings on social order and persuasion, and Herbert A.

Simon's perspective on decision making. Both perspectives help to

illuminate the relationship between the individual and the organization

5

(Sass and Canary,1990). Burke puts forth an audience-centered

conceptualization of identification from his rhetorical orientation, and

maintains that identification is the symbolic process underlying basic

tendencies in social relations. Burke declares the importance of

identification by stating that one's participation in a collective, social

role cannot be obtained in any other way than by identification.

In A Rhetoric of Motives (1969), Burke maintains that

identification is necessary to compensate for the "mystery" or

estrangement in the division of labor and in other ordered domains of

human experience. This estrangement relates to the rhetorical situation

Burke labeled 'segregation.' He proceeds to suggest that identification is

the means by which humans are compensated for this division. In order to

move away from segregation and toward congregation, an individual acts

to identify with some target(s) (i.e., persons, groups, collectives, and so

on). An individual receives from these associations a sense of 'belonging'

and from this; he or she comes to have a variety of "corporate identities.''

Burke writes that these are vital to us because they grant us personal

meaning. These identities may bring to us prestige and status or, by the

same token, criticism. So by praising (and by implication, blaming) the

identifying unit, we praise or blame ourselves. In essence, the

identifying unit becomes a part of our own personality.

As individuals "work out" their corporate identities, they are

inclined to communicate and cooperate with persons and groups who share

the same interests; they achieve a degree of what Burke terms

"consubstantiability.'' This represents an area of "overlap," which may be

either real or perceived, between two individuals or between an

6

individual and a group; it is a basis for common motives and for "acting

together." On one level, this idea is expressed in the everyday use of

"identification" to symbolize a state. For example, the statement by a

television viewer that he or she "identifies" with a character in a daytime

serial conveys the notion that the two are, to some extent,

"consubstantial." In more specific terms, such a comment might suggest

that the viewer sees himself or herself as having ideas, attitudes, or

intentions similar to those of the appealing character, or as acting in a

manner similar to the character.

Herbert A. Simon (1976) analogizes organizational identification to

acquiring an "organization personality." He states that the values and

objectives of organizations are usually imposed on an individual by the

exercise of authority over him; but to a large extent, these gradually

become "internalized." A loyalty or attachment to the organization

develops and these organizational values and objectives become a part of

the individual's values and objectives. He states that, "a person

identifies himself with a group when, in making decisions, he evaluates

the several alternatives of choice in terms of their consequences for the

specified group" (p. 221 ). More succinctly, he defines identification as

the "process, whereby the individual substitutes organizational

objectives for his own aims as the value indices which determine his

organizational decisions" (p. 221 ).

In Simon's view, there are two types of identification targets: (1)

identification with the organization objective, such as when one

identifies, in general, with organizations that provide higher education;

and, (2) identification with the conservation of the organization itself,

7

such as when one identifies with a specific institution of higher

education. In the first example, identification may occur because the

individual believes in the value of higher education. The target of

identification is more focused in the second case in that a particular

institution may be subjectively viewed as offering the best of this valued

commodity.

Cheney (1983a) describes identification as an active process by

which individuals link themselves to elements in a social scene. After a

series of revisions of Burke's writings, Tompkins and Cheney (1985)

defined organizational identification: "A decision maker identifies with

an organization when he or she desires to choose the alternative which

best promotes the perceived interest of the organization" (p. 194).

Relationship Between Identification and Commitment

Rotondi (1975a) refers to the statement that "identification" has

probably been used in more different ways than any other psychoanalytic

term (p. 96). Possibly due to its popularity, identification has been

viewed as being synonymous with several terms, such as loyalty,

role-playing, and commitment. The following section will discuss the

inaccurate application of some terms to the concept of identification and

will then draw a parallel between identification and the concept of

commitment.

In empirical studies of cosmopolitanism/localism (e.g., Lewis,

1967), loyalty has been measured by ascertaining the employees'

willingness to resist attractive outside offers of employment. One

obvious drawback of viewing organizational identification solely as a

8

function of loyalty is the inability of such a measure to adequately

discriminate between organizational identification and related behavioral

concepts, such as compliance or conformity. Additionally, other

empirical research has measured organizational identification by asking

respondents to rate their sense of personal identification with their

employing organization (e.g., Lee, 1969). This methodology presupposes

that respondents are able accurately to assess their degree of

organizational identification, which can in many cases be done when

assessing loyalty. Since identification responses have been considered to

be unconscious in nature (Rotondi, 1975b), such an assumption is likely to

be unrealistic. Hence, loyalty appears to be an inordinately simplistic

explanation of organizational identification behavior.

Identification is not synonymous with the idea of role-playing.

Williams and Williams (1987) labeled identification as a "legitimate

psychological phenomenon, as opposed to a directed and artificial

condition" (p. 484). The authors' line of study began as a search for an

understanding of whether or not it was possible to consistently promote

attitude change with simulation games. The outcome was the discovery

of the importance of identification for changing attitudes within the

boundaries of a controlled experiment. Even in this unique application,

however, it was stressed that the theory of identification proved to be

not just a pseudonym for role-playing. Williams and Williams state that

identification theory refers to a specific psychological set that, when

established, promotes attitude change in subjects involved in

simulations, while role-playing is a much more general technique

(p. 485). Role-playing connotes identifying, but the term in itself does

9

not specify how this is to be accomplished. Simply instructing a subject

to "play a role" is not enough to achieve identification (p. 486).

The relationship between identification and commitment in

organizations is not a clear one, but these terms have been developed in

the organizational literature as virtual synonyms. By citing an often

quoted definition of commitment, their relationship can be assessed.

According to Porter et al. (1974, p. 604; see also Buchanan, 1974),

commitment is

the strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular organization ... as characterized by: (a) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and values, (b) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and (c) a definite desire to maintain organizational membership.

The characteristics in the above definition clearly resemble those

mentioned in the preceding definitions of identification. It is the opinion

of this researcher that many communication scholars have been studying

the concept of identification while utilizing the term commitment. The

following section will explore the relationship between the two terms in

an attempt to rectify this semantic confusion.

Organizational commitment and identification have been central

variables of interest to organizational communication researchers. For

example, commitment has been related to such communication activities

as network involvement (Eisenberg, Monge, & Miller, 1983), leadership

(Morris & Sherman, 1981 ), and the socialization strategies of new

employees (Buchanan, 1974). According to Larkey (1990, p.4),

commitment has been an important topic of study in management

1 0

literature for over three decades, and yet apparently remains an elusive

topic; important because of the perception that committed employees

will remain employed and carry out company goals, and elusive because

research has approached commitment from many different perspectives

but has yet to produce a coherent picture. Commitment has occupied many

researchers who have looked for ways to manage it, hoping to decrease

turnover and absenteeism, and to improve performance (Buchanan, 1974;

Cook & Wall, 1980; Krackardt & Porter, 1985). These areas have been

cited previously as the positive outcomes which may result from high

levels of member identification. Commitment is not only important to

understand because of the impact it has on these critical human resource

issues, but it must be recognized as a core issue because it lies at the

root of human capacity to be influenced (Salancik, 1978). This capacity

to be influenced may, in fact, be a contributor to identification as a

product of organizational socialization.

During the 1960's and 1970's, organizational scholars produced a

multitude of conceptualizations of identification and commitment. These

are generally based upon the writings of Simon (1976) and/or Becker

(1960). By the 1980's, "organizational identification" virtually

disappeared from use and one model of organizational commitment

(Mowday et al., 1979; 1982) emerged as predominant (Sass & Canary,

1990, p. 4).

As a further correlate between the terms identification and

commitment, an examination of the two distinct theoretical orientations

which have emerged in defining organizational commitment is in order.

The two orientations are labelled moral and calculative. Organizational

1 1

commitment from a moral orientation is measured along three attitudinal

factors: identification, involvement, and loyalty. The calculative

perspective, on the other hand, is based upon exchange theory and Becker's

(1960) notion of "side bets." This perspective assumes that individuals

negotiate and bargain with their organization to produce a positive

balance of rewards and costs that they incur in the organization. The

greater the positive relationship, the more personal commitment there

will be towards the organization. Becker (1960) extended this simple

idea to include both concepts of time and "side bets," or the investment

quality of organizational participation. As time and investment increase,

the individuals will be more committed to the organization, as they could

lose more by leaving the organization. These two orientations have

served as the theoretical bases for instruments designed to measure

organizational commitment (Barge & Schlueter, 1988).

Mowday et al. (1982) review ten different studies of organizational

commitment and the associated definitions. The definitions reviewed by

Mowday have three elements in common: (1) internal dispositions, such

as willingness or affective attachment; (2) actions, such as activities of

involvement or socially accepted behaviors; and (3) transactions, such as

investments or side-bets. All three of these elements are inherent in the

description of the phenomenon of identification discussed by Cheney

(1983b) in his review of the rhetoric of identification according to Burke.

The internal disposition is the tendency toward membership as an

antidote to the estrangement created in division of labor. As expressed

by Burke, "identification is affirmed with earnestness precisely because

there is division. Identification is compensatory to division" (Cheney,

1 2

1983b, p.145). In other words, the nature of organizing predisposes us

toward the tendency to reach out and to belong. This willingness to

identify is characterized by an individual's affective needs. Actions are

the behaviors motivated by this predisposition, whether it is behaving in

the ways that have been demonstrated to be socially acceptable, or in

ways that support and contribute to the identity, goals, and values of the

organization. Transactions are the interdependent links that grow over

time. As the actions of initial identity lead to investments over time, the

actor becomes entrenched in social exchanges, not just exchanges with

individuals, but exchanges with the organization as an entity. With each

action, the relationship is confirmed, building and renewing an outward

form of commitment/identification. These three components--internal

disposition, action, and transaction--work together to describe the

process of identification and develop a picture of commitment that is

based on interactive processes (Larkey, 1990, pp.12-13). All three

components must be present and must be acting together in order for

identification and or commitment to take place.

Cheney and Tompkins see identification and commitment as

different but " ... related as the substance and form of social action ... "

(p. 9). In other words, these researchers see the terms as being similar,

but different in their modes of operationalization. In contrast, Sass and

Canary (1990) contend that organizational identification and

organizational commitment are operationally equivalent (p. 16). In a

study which sought to operationalize the most widely accepted

conceptualizations of commitment and identification, the authors suggest

it is valid to infer the product form of identification IS indistinct from

1 3

attitudinal commitment. While the study revealed variances in similar

sign and degree with job satisfaction, career commitment, length of

employment, time in career, age, and education, identification and

commitment did prove to be collinear; they showed equal mean values

within (but not as similarly between) genders. Further, the correlation

between commitment and identification proved to be slightly stronger

than the reported correlation between two measurement scales, the

Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) (Mowday, Steers, &

Porter, 1979) and the Affective Commitment Scale (Meyer & Allen, 1974).

Because there has been proven an even stronger correlation between the

OCQ and the unedited Organizational Identification Questionnaire, these

findings indicate that the commitment-identification distinction needs

rethinking.

The authors suggest that to further clarify the relationship, a

return to their respective terminological anchors is needed.

Behaviorial commitment is clearly the operationalization of Becker's (1960) side-bet theory of commitment. Attitudinal organizational commitment as developed by Mowday et al. (1982) is both a conceptual and operational descendent of Simon's (1976) concept of organizational identification ... we encourage communicologists to study identification rather than commitment (p. 14).

This sentiment is echoed by Barge and Schlueter's (1988) suggestion that

a useful theoretical departure from current research would be to

reconceptualize commitment as a process versus a state. In their

opinion, such a departure would force researchers to examine the

identification strategies and tactics in organizational messages.

1 4

So, while the terms loyalty and role-playing produce some similar

feelings as identification, neither term encompasses enough depth

concerning attitude change to be synonymous with the concept of

identification. However, while commitment and identification may be

utilized in very different ways, their common characteristics are

numerous. For the purposes of this study, behavioral commitment and

identification are considered operationally equivalent, so that when an

individual achieves one, the other is assumed to be present.

The concept of identification as it is used in this study is a blend

of the ideas of many theorists. Burke's thoughts on social order and

persuasion coupled with Simon's organizational perspective create the

groundwork upon which Cheney and Tompkins build the most accepted

definition. In addition to providing one with a set of "corporate

identities" which in turn lead to consubstantiability, the concept may

also afford insight to the impact of organizational policies and outcomes.

In other words, an individual-to-organization perspective may be taken

for study as well as one focusing on the organization-to-individual.

Possible Outcomes of Identification

Identification serves several important and pragmatic

functions. Identification is instrumental as individuals attempt to make

sense ofexperiences, to organize thoughts, to achieve decisions, to anchor

the self, and to persuade and be persuaded (Cheney, 1983b). Consequently,

the concept of identification may afford insight into a variety of work

attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes. Additionally, Gheney suggests that

1 5

the impact of many organizational policies and activities may be studied

by focusing on their relationship to individuals' organizational

identification. Perhaps most important is the relationship between

identification and decision making.

Cheney (1983b) views identification as a critical communication

process that not only influences how employees view the organization,

but their on-the-job decision making as well (Barge & Schlueter, 1988).

Decision making is a vital concern for organizations as well as an

integral part of identification. Because " ... all behavior involves conscious

or unconscious selection of particular actions out of all those which are

physically possible to the actor and to those over whom he exercises

influence and authority ... " (Simon, 1976}, studying decision making is an

important aspect of organizational communication. Although much

research has been conducted, few conclusive results have been collected

concerning the criteria used in making decisions. Because " ... the task of

'deciding' pervades the entire administrative organization quite as much

as does the task of 'doing'-- indeed, it is integrally tied up with the

latter" (Simon, 1976, p. 5), it merits attention.

Tompkins and Cheney (1983) enumerate four reasons why

organizational communicators should study decision making. First, the

authors maintain that decision making is essential to organizational

functioning. Second, that communication and decision making are

inseparable. Third, because the examination of the decision making

process provides a means of tapping the mutual influences of people and

1 6

organizations. And finally, the decision provides a finite unit for

analysis.

It is interesting to see the ramifications of decision making "in

line" with the organization. According to Johnson and Hall (1990), if one

is highly identified with the organization, one is trusted by one's

contacts. Tompkins and Cheney's (1985) definition of identification as

support for the organization's interests in decision making indicates that

highly identified employees may be less likely to sabotage a new idea or

resist plans for innovation. They may be seen as more trustworthy in this

respect (p.15). Viewed in this sense, organizational identification

reduces the range of decision: the decision maker's choice is largely

confined to the alternative(s) associated with his or her personal targets

of identification. From an organizational (or managerial) perspective,

member identification is beneficial in that it "guarantees" that decisions

will be consistent with organizational objectives, even in the absence of

external stimuli (Simon, 1976).

Identification has also been related to the establishment of

organizational control (Sias & Drummond, 1990). This approach

encompasses an interpretive perspective on unobtrusive control methods.

The process of identification "focuses the attention of the decision maker

on particular values and facts ... the organization member considers that

with which he or she identifies" when making a decision (p.125). In using

identification as an instrument of unobtrusive control, the organization

seeks to have the individual members "buy into" the organization's values

and beliefs. Once this is accomplished, the organization can be relatively

assured that an individual member will behave in accordance with the

1 7

organization's overall values, beliefs, and goals. Thus, rather than relying

on obtrusive control methods such as salary, discipline, and authority, the

organization relies upon the fact that individual members will consider

the organization's values in making organizational decisions (Sias &

Drummond, 1990).

Since the two are integrally related, the inescapable act of

decision making must be a part of the discussion of identification.

Decision making is not only a vital area of concern for ensuring effective

organizational communication, but identification is also a proven

instrument for establishing unobtrusive organizational control.

Creating Identification in Organizations

Since identification is credited with so many positive

organizational outcomes, it is understandable that researchers have

sought to investigate how identification can be created. The following

section explores the two orientations which have been adopted toward

this issue.

Identification has generally been viewed in one of two forms: as a

product or as a process. Individuals who view organizational

identification as a product work from the assumption that organizational

messages and practices create identifications. The focus, according to

Bullis and Bach (1989), is placed on organizational strategies and not on

the individual's experiences. Akin to this viewpoint is the notion that

organizational identification is simply the product of organizational

socialization (Kreps, 1983; Stohl, 1986; Falcione & Wilson, 1988).

1 8

As a product, identification is assessed by examining three

components, construed by Patchen (1970) and referred to by Rotondi

(1975a): similarity, membership, and loyalty. In order for identification

to result from organizational socialization efforts, first, a similarity

component must be present. The individual must possess shared interests

or goals with other organizational members or perceive these shared

characteristics to exist. Second, a membership component, which

consists of a feeling of solidarity with the organization in which an

individual experiences a feeling of belongingness must be present.

Finally, a loyalty component is necessary. This is characterized by a

feeling of support for the organization in which an individual not only

supports, but also defends organizational goals and policies.

Through reference to Aristotle, Burke (1972) illustrates an

elementary case of identification being used in its product form: "When

you are with Athenians, it's easy to praise Athenians, but not when you

are with Lacedaemonians" (p. 55). He offers the example as perhaps the

simplest case of persuasion via identification. Seen in this context,

identification is the way in which a rhetor explicitly states to another, "I

am like you" or "I have the same interests as you."

While an important perspective, identification as a product is only

part of a much larger picture which includes not only the aforementioned

overt strategies by organizations to achieve the product of identification,

but also those strategies designed to be more covert. In his Dramatism

and Development, Burke (1972) advances three interpretations of the

product of identification as a rhetorical strategy:

1 9

The first is quite dull. It flowers in such usages as that of a politician who, though rich, tells humble constituents of his humble origins. The second kind of identification involves the workings of antithesis, as when allies who would otherwise dispute among themselves join forces against a common enemy. This application also can serve to deflect criticism, as a politician can call any criticism of his policies 'unpatriotic,' on the grounds that it reinforces claims of the nation's enemies. But the major power of identification derives from situations in which it goes unnoticed. My prime example is the word 'we,' as when the statement that 'we' are at war includes under the same head soldiers who are getting killed and speculators who hope to make a killing in war stocks (p. 28).

When one conceptualizes identification as a process, the individual

is seen as the key and most necessary participant. While viewing

identification and socialization as related, identification in this form is

not seen as the product, but instead as a fundamental process of

individual relational development. An advantage of conceiving of

identification as a process is its allowance for change. As an individual's

perceptions and feelings may be expected to change over time, so too may

one's organizational identification.

Most applications of identification in the literature give

disproportionate attention to the view of identification as a form of

inducement (i.e., a product of an organization). Bullis and Bach (1989)

report that research surrounding identification has historically over

emphasized the organization's perspective and under emphasized the

individual's perspective. Tompkins and Cheney (1983) state that as a

process "the 'substance' and 'form' of an individual-organizational

relationship" is an ongoing "dramatic narrative" within which

identifications point individuals to specific commitments. This in turn

20

modifies identification. As a product, identification is reflected in a

person's assessments of their attachment to the organization (p. 9). It is

the opinion of this writer that neither view taken singularly is sufficient

for explaining and understanding this complex concept. Echoing Tompkins

and Cheney, for the most complete understanding of the theory of

identification it must be considered both a product and a process.

Whether viewed as a product or as a process, identification clearly

affects the way in which an individual relates to an organization. In part,

it is this relationship and the outcomes which result that lead

organizational communication scholars to study identification. Many

positive outcomes may occur, such as decision making which is in line

with organizational goals and which results in an effective means for an

organization to exert unobtrusive control.

As the concept of identification has evolved from Burke's and

Simon's original conceptions, it has retained a distinction apart from

other seemingly synonymous terms, such as loyalty and role-playing,

while bearing a striking resemblance to the concept of commitment.

Identification is construed as both a product of organizational

communication as well as a process of individual relational development

through which an organization may receive not only high member

identification, but also may exercise control over those members in an

unobtrusive manner. This unobtrusive control may be achieved through

the individual's desire to choose the alternative which best promotes the

perceived interests of the organization. Through this decision making

which is in accord with organizational goals and objectives, a level of

unobtrusive control may be exercised by the organization. In short, a

21

level of dedication results from organizational identification which has

not been accounted for by any other theory.

These positive outcomes can be carried over to the voluntary sector

as well. An increasingly important economic and social force, voluntary

organizations do not possess the obvious reasons for identification, such

as job security and salary. So they represent an opportunity to

investigate identification in a way that is relatively free of confounding

variables.

Voluntary Organizations

Voluntary organizations permeate American society. These

organizations have proven to be important not only philanthropically and

socially for the specific purposes they serve, but also as an important

economic force in industry. In the renaissance of volunteerism of the

1970s, studies revealed that the so-called "voluntary sector" had become

quite extensive. For example, during that decade voluntary associations

accounted for more than 80 billion dollars of our annual economy (Filer

Commission, 1974); 84 percent of the adult population donated to

voluntary organizations (Gallup, 1979); there may have been at that time

as many as six or seven million voluntary groups in the United States

(Nielsen, 1980); and one voluntary group (the YMCA) would be ranked as

the eighth largest hotel chain in the nation (Sakal, 1979). Since the

1970s, dozens of new national organizations have been formed to foster

volunteerism, the United States government has shown unprecedented

22

interest in this type of organization, and literature and training programs

about volunteerism have flourished.

The matter of defining "volunteer organization," "voluntary

organization," and related terms used to refer to voluntary and non-profit

groups of various kinds has received much attention, but without real

consensus. An acceptable definition is any formal group which is

non-governmental and not-for-profit in its legal status and basic

purposes. Within this broad category may be found two main

sub-categories: the volunteer organization and the paid-staff non-profit

organization. These should not be viewed as forming a dichotomy, but

rather as showing significantly different modes of operation along the

voluntary continuum (Smith, 1982). According to Wortman (1981 ), there

are several pertinent characteristics of voluntary organizations: (1)

service is intangible and hard to measure, (2) strong employee

(volunteer) commitment to a cause may undermine their allegiance to the

organization, and (3) restraints exist on the use of rewards and

punishments.

The typology offered by Manser and Cass (1976) is helpful in the

classification of individuals who compose voluntary organizations.

According to these authors, there are five general types of volunteers:

(1) Service volunteers. Traditional "people-helping-people" volunteers who attempt to help others directly and whose main concern is their client (p. 51). (2) Public issue/advocacy volunteers. Includes volunteers "whose concern is with the social, economic, and political roots of problems for large groups of people" (p. 51). (3) Consummatory /self-exe're~sive vnluntoo,r~ "Generally appeal not to altruistic motivaticn but to some self-

23

interest, usually emphasizing fellowship, fun, and enjoyment" (p. 52). (4) Occupational/economic self-interest volunteers. Self-oriented like the consummatory volunteer, but they "seek to protect and enhance their occupational and/or economic interests, while they may at the same time engage in programs beneficial to the community as a whole" (p. 52). (5) Fund-raising volunteers. "primarily involved in the process of raising funds" (p. 52).

Wortman (1981) observes that selection for employment and

promotion based on technical competence does not always occur in

voluntary organizations. Indeed, the question of competence is not

always primary in selection (p. 65). But as Naylor (1985) states, it is the

"appreciation of individual uniqueness which characterizes the

difference" between voluntary and for-profit organizations (p. 27).

It is not clear what may be the most effective incentives for

volunteerism. Smith (1982) maintains that altruism is not the all

encompassing answer, but instead he cites Clark and Wilson (1961) and

suggests three principal types of incentives: tangible rewards, solidarity

incentives, and purposive incentives. Tangible rewards include foods,

services, money, and equivalents. Solidarity incentives are interpersonal

rewards of various kinds, including fellowship, friendship, prestige, and

similar positive outcomes from personal relationships. Purposive

incentives are various kinds of intrinsic, intangible satisfactions that

result from feeling one is contributing to some purpose, helping to

achieve some valued goal, and/or being a means to some valued end

(p. 37). The voluntary sector is an important one; large in its scope and

impressive in its economic contributions. By utilizing the accepted

24

definitions and typologies offered in scholarly research, it is possible to

define voluntary organizations and to classify them. In addition,

classification of the individuals who compose the organizations is also

possible. However while defining some possibilities, research has failed

to posit the most effective incentives for volunteerism, nor even to

consider identification of members with voluntary organizations.

The study conducted in this research addresses the issue of

identification in voluntary organizations. Specifically, four research

questions are explored:

RQ1: How does socialization within a particular voluntary

organization produce organizational identification?

RQ2: How, other than through organizational socialization,

do individuals achieve organizational identification in a

voluntary organization?

RQ3: How is individual success in an organization

associated with the member's identification?

RQ4.: How is tenure in the organization associated with

identification?

The answers to these research questions were expected to yield

information in several areas. First, research question one was aimed at

measuring organizational identification as a product. Specifically, an

understanding of the nature, extent, and effectiveness of the

organization's efforts to produce identification was targeted. Regarding

the second research question, previously cited studies have argued that

there is an imbalance in the research on organizational identification

viewed as a product rather than as a process. Information pertaining to

25

the second research question was meant to examine other possible

influences on the individual, such as altruistic motives as outlined in

Manser & Cass' typology of volunteers (1976). Research question three

was meant to reveal if the corporate identities described by Burke (1969)

are strengthened by perceived successes and/or weakened by perceived

failures. Finally, research question four was posed in order to discover if

organizational identification is a viable explanation for loyal

volunteerism over a long period of time.

In the following chapter, the methods for ascertaining the

relationships between levels of identification with a particular voluntary

organization, length of time in affiliation and success in the organization

are described. These methods include formal document analysis, the

administration of a questionnaire and moderately scheduled telephone

interviews.

26

CHAPTER Ill

METHOD

In order to measure organizational identification, to explore how

identification is created and to ascertain the relationships between

levels of identification with a particular voluntary organization, tenure

in the voluntary organization, as well as success in the organization,

several methods of data collection and analysis were employed. This

chapter discusses these methods. The following section discusses the

pilot study and the present study in regards to their participants, means

of data collection, and analyses.

Pilot Study

Pilot work of one of the instruments was conducted to test it and

to provide preliminary information about the relationships between the

variables identified in the research questions. Additionally, this

preliminary information provided guidance in the formulation of the two

other measurement instruments.

Participants

The questionnaire was designed to capture the opinions of a group

of participants in one voluntary oganization. Respondents were chapter

advisors of the Phi Theta Kappa Society. To fully understand the

magnitude of their role in this voluntary organization, a brief background

of the Society and of the advisors' role in it will be provided.

27

Phi Theta Kappa was established by the presidents of Missouri

two-year colleges for women in 1918. It is the only nationally acclaimed

honor society serving American institutions which offer associate degree

programs. Two-year college presidents and administrators of associate

degree programs in four-year schools have continually recognized

membership in Phi Theta Kappa as an honor and privilege. Membership is

given added significance by the fact that the Society is recognized by the

American Association of Community and Junior Colleges as the official

honor Society for two-year colleges.

The purpose of Phi Theta Kappa is to recognize and encourage

scholarship among college students enrolled in associate degree

programs. To achieve this purpose, Phi Theta Kappa provides opportunity

for the development of leadership and service, for lively fellowship of

scholars, and for stimulation of interest in continuing academic

excellence.

Phi Theta Kappa, furthermore, serves to nurture its members and

associates by sponsoring meetings which educate, stimulate, and enrich;

by according national recognition to students of distinguished

achievement; and by providing a vehicle which reflects the academic

integrity of associate degree programs.

Today, some 40,000 students are inducted annually by the 850

member chapters located in all 50 states, U.S. territorial possessions,

and university extensions abroad.

Each member chapter is headed by at least one advisor. A chapter

advisor is required to be a member of faculty or administration at the

28

sponsoring institution, but length of employment and/or familiarity with

the Society are generally not prerequisites for the role. This accords

with Wortman's (1981) observations of selection for employment and

promotion within voluntary organizations being isolated from

competence, as was referred to previously. Each year many new advisors

are added to the Society, but by the same token, many of the

organization's advisors have held that role for more than 20 years.

The chapter many elect to choose a co-advisor in addition. The

co-advisor's role may be virtually the same as the advisor's or a division

of labor may be created internally, but in any case the advisor is the final

responsible party. The most general description of the advisor's role in

the Society is that he or she serves as a guide and an overseer. Seen also

as a facilitator, a model, a catalyst, and/or a source of inspiration, the

advisor may take on all these titles, but as per the instruction of the

Society's Headquarters, the advisor is not the chapter workhorse. Among

those duties that are prescribed to the advisor though, are reporting new

members to Headquarters, making sure the induction ceremony is

conducted according to the Society's guidelines, and preparing the Annual

Report for Headquarters. Additionally, attendance at all local, regional,

and international conferences whenever possible is stressed.

Advisors are privy to many opportunities within the Society as

well, such as serving as members of committees such as the

Coordinator's Advisory Committee and the Honors Committee or as

officers in the National Advisors Association. Further opportunities

include the possibility of being recognized as a Giles Distinguished

29

Advisor which makes the recipient eligible for the Mosal Scholar

Program, which offers $2,000 stipends to advisors for study.

The 1990 Regional Phi Theta Kappa Conference in Austin, Texas was

the setting in which the pilot questionnaire was administered.

Twenty-five respondents representing every area of Texas were asked to

complete the questionnaire and return it by the next afternoon. Twenty

completed forms were returned.

Organization of the Questionnaire

Nineteen questions relating to the respondents' perceived influence,

personal and organizational priorities for decision making, reasons for

accepting their role, and perceived success in the organization were

explored. Comprising the format of the pilot questionnaire were

closed-ended questions, questions utilizing a Likert scale, rank orderings,

as well as open-ended questions (Appendix A).

Closed-ended questions, for example, "During your time as the

advisor, has your chapter membership increased, decreased, or stayed

about the same?" provided insight to perceived success. Demographic

information, such as name of the chapter for which the respondent serves

as advisor, length of time in association with the organization, and what

other positions that individual holds within the voluntary organization

were also included.

Two Likert scale items measured perceived influence within the

organization by proposing statements such as "My input has a significant

30

impact on the success of Phi Theta Kappa" (1 =very strongly agree, 7=

very strongly disagree).

Rank orderings were utilized to ascertain "priorites," which are a

recognized measure of level of identification (Cheney, 1983a; Tompkins &

Cheney, 1985). Questions such as "In which order do you consider the

following when making decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa?" were

responded to by ranking a provided list of possibilities.

The open-ended questions were meant to provide a forum in which

respondents could address specific topics of their own choosing. Some

direction was provided in the phrasing of the items, but open,

narrative-style responses were encouraged by the inclusion of ample

response space. These questions were designed to directly examine

decisional premises. Open-ended questions included items such as "As a

Phi Theta Kappa advisor, please list your goals in descending order of

importance." and "Why did you assume the role of Phi Theta Kappa

advisor?" In addition, respondents were asked to read several short

scenarios dealing with decision making, assume the role of the main

actor, and report their responses in a narrative style. For example,

"Despite your best efforts, you have had your vacation planned for many months when you realize that the Phi Theta Kappa regional conference will be taking place while you are vacationing in another state. Given the opportunity to choose one or the other, which do you choose to attend and why?"

31

Analysis of the Pilot Questionnaire

Data collected from the pilot questionnaire were subjected to many

analyses. Data from the twenty completed questionnaires were analyzed.

First, the data from closed-ended questions were tabulated. Respondents

reported the number of memberships held in other organizations ranging

from 0 to over 25, with an average of 2.3 (n=18). Concerning their

membership in the Phi Theta Kappa Society, respondents' longevity as

advisors varied from one month to over twenty years, with an average of

6.70 years of service. During this time, 42.1 °/o of the respondents

reported an increase in chapter membership, 57.9°/o reported a chapter

membership which has stayed about the same, and 0°/o reported a decrease

(n=19), indicating that most respondents consider their chapter

membership to have been historically stable. The data regarding how

advisors perceive the chapter to be viewed by the International

Headquarters revealed that 16.7°/o of the respondents reported being

considered excellent, 38.9% reported they are seen as above average,

33.3°/o responded as average, 5.6°/o say the chapter is viewed as below

average, and 5.6°/o answered that they are seen as poor (n=18).

Advisors hold other positions in the Phi Theta Kappa Society. These

include state leadership positions (2°/o), membership in the National

Alumni Association (15°/o), National leadership roles (.05°/o), and honorary

membership in the Society (.05°/o). Sixty-five percent of the respondents

reported no other roles taken. Because some of the respondents hold

32

multiple roles while others hold none, the above percentages are not

additive.

Second, the 7-point Likert scale items were analyzed to reveal the

extent to which the instrument differentiated between individuals with

high and low levels of identification. Respondents' data revealed a strong

belief (2.167, n=18) that they contribute to the success of Phi Theta

Kappa and that their input has a significant impact on the success of the

Society (2.316, n=19).

Third, questions responded to by rank ordering items revealed that

local chapter officers are most influential in decisions made which shape

and guide the Society (36; n=18) with the International Headquarters

staff coming in second (38; n=19). Local chapter members and local

chapter advisors tied for third place ranking (40, n=19; 40, n=17). The

community was ranked as having the least amount of influence (71, n=17).

The order in which respondents consider entities when making

decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa includes the local chapter

organization as first (35). The sponsoring institution was ranked a

distant second (61, n=19) and on the opposite end of the continuum, the

community was ranked last (94, n=18).

The individual goals listed by the advisors were categorized

according to frequency of mention with "benefit to students" or some

derivative ranked as first (14). Leadership training and the promotion of

scholarship were tied and ranked second as an important goal for many

respondents (6). Five goals tied as third in ranking, including support for

33

the sponsoring institution, community service, student recognition and

chapter guidance.

Regarding the final rank order item, 80°/o of respondents ranked Phi

Theta Kappa as first in importance in their personally generated list of

organizations in which they have a role. Those organizations ranked as

being more important and/or tied with Phi Theta Kappa for the first place

position include local church and choir, positions such as division chair

and assistant to the college president, as well as various committee

memberships such as faculty assembly and curriculum and catalog

committee.

Finally, answers to open-ended questions were categorized

according to their frequency. Most advisors assumed their Phi Theta

Kappa role because of the "meaningful student interaction" it affords

them (40°/o), while "personal enjoyment" ranked a close second (30°/o).

Those least frequent answers to why the role was assumed include the

pay received (So/o) and that the individual was simply asked to assume the

role (5°/o).

When presented with a scenario in which a dichotomous forced

choice was the alternative, 30°/o of respondents chose the alternative

which reflected a lower degree of identification, specifically to go on

their family's planned vacation, but they did not respond unconditionally.

Qualifications such as "I would go on vacation if the money paid for it

was absolutely unrefundable ... " or "We have many PTK advisors; someone

else could go to convention in my place ... " were abundant. Forty percent of

respondents chose attendance at the Phi Theta Kappa Regional convention

in the scenario despite their planned vacation. Responses such as "My

34

obligations to PTK takes precedence over my personal needs ... " and "PTK is

my first love; it has my total commitment..." reveal the intense level of

identification held by some respondents. An interesting phenomenon

among 25°/o of the respondents manifested itself in their avoidance of the

dichotomous choices when responses such as "This cannot happen I" were

written on some occasions.

The same type of dichotomous choice was set up in another

question which gave respondents the choice of attendance at an

international Society convention or attendance at a professional

organizational meeting, such as a Speech Communication Association

convention. Ten percent responded by choosing their professional meeting

while 80°/o chose the Phi Theta Kappa conference. Reasons for choosing

the professional meeting included the need to make contacts and the need

for training. Reasons for attending the Phi Theta Kappa conference were

"I'm brainwashed!," "It's my top priority" and "I have a responsibility to

the students at the year-end PTK culmination."

A final open-ended question gave respondents the choice between

seeing only one of two students having problems; a Phi Theta Kappa

member or a student in a class they teach. Twenty percent chose to

counsel the Phi Theta Kappa member with rationale such as

"PTKers ... they're my babies." Thirty-five percent chose the student in

their class for reasons such as "teaching is my first commitment." A

surprising 45°/o chose to ignore the forced choice options by responding

that they would "make time for both students."

In sum, the pilot questionnaire revealed that the most valuable

question types are those which allow for open responses. These provide

35

opportunity for respondents to describe what they feel is most important

to them and which may form their organizational decision premises. This

question type was included in the present study and prompted the

inclusion of an additional method of data analysis, interviews, which will

be described in the next section. The pilot questionnaire proved to be a

useful instrument, especially in its format. Some weaknesses were also

discovered. These aided in the design of the present study. This is

discussed in the following section.

Present Study

Participants

As in the pilot study, the group members who serve the voluntary

organization in the role of advisor are the target participants for this

study. The pool of respondents was increased and the method of

administration was changed to allow for a larger survey area.

Respondents were chosen using a random computer search of the Society

Headquarter's existing files. Of the 800-plus local chapter advisors, 100

were selected. A wide geographic range was attained, with respondents

residing in 39 different states. Questionnaires were mailed directly to

the respondents at their business address. Included with the

questionnaire was a cover letter and a pre-addressed, stamped return

envelope. A copy of this packet is included in Appendix B.

A 33°/o response rate was achieved, with respondents representing

21 states. No questionnaires were discarded, for all yielded pertinent

information. Respondents ranged greatly concerning the demographic

aspects in question, such as length of ume in affiliation with the

36

organization (from one month to over forty years) and in other roles held.

Additionally, many used the questionnaire as a means to communicate

with the Society Headquarters by including extraneous comments and

questions.

Instruments

Questionnaire. Analyses of the pilot questionnaire revealed the

need to couple the instrument with a recognized and validated

measurement tool. In addition, to compensate for the added length

incurred, some open-ended questions were omitted and representative

questions were formulated and used instead. Generally, the questionnaire

procedure appeared to be useful for the purposes of this study. Revisions

of the instrument produced original questions coupled with Mowday,

Steers, and Porter's Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ).

Although originally developed to test commitment, the nature of

the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire's specific questions best

reflected the aims of this project when compared to other established

instruments, such as Cheney's Organizational Identification

Questionnaire. One reason for this accurate reflection in testing is the

close relationship drawn between commitment and identification, which

was described in this study in a previous section. In addition to being the

most frequently used instrument reflecting a moral perspective, the

Mowday, Steers, and Porter's Organizational Commitment Questionnaire is

the most tested and developed (of measuring items in use) according to

Barge and Schlueter (1988). These researchers go on to suggest that

given its increased use and developed reliability and validity, the

37

Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) would be the preferred

choice for most researchers. The OCQ is characterized by three factors:

"(1) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and

values, (2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the

organization, and (3) a strong desire to maintain membership in the

organization" (Mowday et al., 1979, p. 226).

A 15-item instrument, the OCQ utilizes a 7-point Likert-type scale.

Representative items from the questionnaire include: (1) "I find that my

values and the organization's values are very similar" (acceptance of

organizational values), (2) "I am willing to put in a great deal of effort

beyond that normally expected in order to help this organization be

successful" (willingness to exert effort), and (3) "I could just as well be

working for a different organization as long as the type of work was

similar" (desire to remain a member). To establish the reliability and

validity of the instrument, Mowday et al. (1979) administered the OCQ to

2,363 employees working in a wide range of jobs in nine different

organizations. Internal reliability coefficients are consistently high,

ranging from .82 to .93, with a median of .90 (Cronbach's alpha). Item

analysis also confirmed the homogenity of the measuring instrument as

the average correlations between each item of the commitment scale and

the total score less the item, ranged form .36 to .72, with a median

correlation of .64. Finally, the homogeneity of the OCQ items were tested

by performing factor analyses on the data from six samples. A single

factor solution emerged for four of the six samples. Furthermore, in

those samples revealing two factors, the second factor did not possess an

eigenvalue greater than one and only explained 2.4 to 15.5°/o of the common

38

variance. Test-retest reliability ranged from .53 to .75, with a median

reliability of .63 (Barge & Schlueter, 1988).

Convergent validity for the OCQ was measured in a variety of ways.

First, the OCQ was related to other instruments designed to measure

similar affective responses (Mowday et al., 1979, p. 234). When the OCQ

was correlated with the Porter, Steers, Mowday, and Boulian's (1974)

Organizational Attachment Questionnaire, the convergent validities

across six samples ranged from .63 to .74, with a median of .70.

Discriminant validity was tested by correlating the OCQ with Lodahl and

Kejner's (1965) job involvement scale, Steers and Braunstein's (1976)

career satisfaction measure, and the Job Description Index. In these

studies, the common variance shared by organizational commitment and

the other measures did not exceed 50°/o and was typically less than 25°/o

(Mowday et al., 1979, p. 237). These moderate correlations provide

indications that the measures are related, but they reflect distinct and

unique concepts.

Finally, the predictive validity of the OCQ was measured in five

studies. The theory of commitment suggests that committed employees

should be less likely to leave the organization plus be better performers

than their less committed counterparts. The OCQ is negatively related to

turnover as measured by correlations ranging from -.02 to -.43, with a

median of -.37. Similarly, in two studies, the OCQ was positively

correlated with tenure (.23 and .26). In two of three studies examining

the relationship between the OCQ and absenteeism, a significant weak

relationship emerged (-.13 and -.28). Finally in regard to performance,

studies for two samples of hospital employees (Mowday, Porter, & Dubin,

39

197 4) indicated a low relationship between the OCQ and productivity ( .11

and .1 0). This entire group of studies does suggest evidence of predictive

validity, although the strength of the relationships is somewhat low

(Barge & Schlueter, 1988).

Pilot instrument questions were retained if they met at least one

of four criteria: garnering relevant organization-specific information,

soliciting information which could account for reasons for loyalty other

than identification, providing information regarding research questions

three and four, and/or asking for information of potential direct benefit

to the voluntary organization.

First, if relevant information not garnered by the established

instrument could be obtained from original questions, they were included.

For example, original items soliciting organization-specific information

were retained, such as "The national headquarters sees my chapter as one

that is ... excellent; above average; average; below average; poor." This is

a potential measure of perceived success which relates directly to the

voluntary organization under study.

Second, original items which were thought to provide information

to account for reasons other than identification for member loyalty were

included. An example of this is the question based on Manser and Cass'

(1976) typology of volunteers: "With how many other organizations are

you involved (campus, church, community, professional, etc.)?" This

question was retained due to its potential to provide information

regarding individuals who join and are loyal to organizations as part of

their desire to fulfill some altruistic motivation.

40

A third rationale for including original pilot questions is that some

sought information directly related to research questions three and four.

Mowday, Steers' and Porter's questionnaire does not isolate the specific

influences of success in the organization or longevity as individual

contributors to identification. This study deems those factors as

relevant and thus included original pilot questions such as, "How long

have you been an advisor of Phi Theta Kappa?" and "As a Phi Theta Kappa

advisor, please list your goals in descending order of importance. n

Finally, because the research was partially funded by the Phi Theta

Kappa Society, some questions were included that, in addition to

providing useful research information, could prove to be of direct benefit

to the voluntary organization. An example of this type of question is "In

which area of your Phi Theta Kappa involvement would you most like to

see improvement...?" Questions such as this provide helpful information

to the organization as well as providing a research benefit.

Those original pilot questions which were duplicative of the

established instrument were discarded as were some scenarios which

solicited open-ended responses. Because the OCQ provides ample

duplication of topics which ensures validity, it was assumed that further

repetitiveness was unnecessary. Some open-ended response scenarios

were excluded for two reasons. First, the length of the present study's

instrument needed to be controlled; and second, representative scenarios

were able to be selected which provided adequate information in specific

areas.

Two OCO instrument questions were omitted from the present

study. The items which read, "For me, this is the best of all possible

41

organizations for which to work" and "Deciding to work for this

organization was a definite mistake on my part" were not included in the

present questionnaire as they were deemed duplicative to the extent that

they could provide no new information. The length of the instrument also

influenced the decision to leave out these two items.

In sum, the OCQ measures a combination of employee attitudes and

behavioral intentions reflective of the moral involvement of the employee

with the organization. In terms of methodological issues, the OCQ has

achieved acceptable levels of internal reliability. Furthermore, the face

validity of this instrument appears high as it is true to its theoretical

orientation. The convergent and predictive validity of the instrument is

not in question. Also, sufficient normative data exists for this

instrument. Finally, the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire best

reflects the personality of the voluntary organization under study.

Document analysis. A detailed examination of the organization's

formal communication to advisors was conducted. This communication

includes unifying symbol distribution, official written correspendence,

records of award winners, and the like. These were studied at the

Society's Headquarters in Jackson, Mississippi. The purpose of this

analysis was to verify the self reports obtained in the questionnaire as

well as to obtain additional related information. For example, the

1989-1990 annual report revealed that of 705 advisors surveyed, 58

receive time compensation and 647 receive no time compensation from

their two year college for their role in the Phi Theta Kappa Society.

Additionally, 68 advisors receive salary compensation while 632 receive

none (n=700). Both of these findings could have .rnpllcat1ons for the

42

perceived level of identification measured. Records of national and

international award winners were examined for the years 1990-1980 in

order to check the reported measures of success. Access to

organizational computer records afforded information regarding length of

time in affiliation with the organization and the status of other roles

which the advisors may hold.

Telephone interviews. To discover multiple identifications, it is

helpful to explore language, behavior, and symbolic meanings. Multiple

identifications occur when an individual identifies with more than a

single individual or organization, such as identifying with not only the

goals of a particular voluntary organization, but also identifying with its

methods of goal implementation. Multiple identifications can be found

through on-line examination of interaction or through analysis of written

or reported information that reflects these enduring symbols (Cheney,

1983b). To facilitate this process, a type of account analysis called

turning point analysis (Baxter & Bullis, 1986) was employed. Account

analysis is a technique involving coding written and/or spoken messages

of organizational members for the decision premises and identification

targets pertinent to organizational decisions. A turning point analysis

concentrates upon any event or occurrence that is associated with change

in a relationship (p. 470). The turning point is used as the unit of analysis

upon which to base a descriptive profile of change in the processes of

relational development. Turning point analysis is useful because it: (1)

does not assume that the socialization process follows a clear pattern of

growth as do phase models and identification research. (2) allows a

detailed examination of change potnt: identi1ted t;y parircipants rather

43

than relying on researcher-generated definitions, (3) collects self­

reports in such a way that participants need not rely on their memories of

events which occurred in the distant past, and (4) relies entirely on the

reports of individuals who are actively involved in socialization

processes to report their experiences rather than relying on the

organization's perspective.

Moderately scheduled interviews were conducted over the telephone

with certain advisors as a means of data collection (Appendix C).

Selected subjectively by the Society's Executive Director, ten advisors

viewed as having rather low involvement/identification were selected

from the international pool as were ten highly involved/identified

advisors. Twenty- to thirty-minute interviews were conducted and

recorded over the telephone. Questions such as, "Can you identify a time

or an event which caused you to first become comfortable in your role as

Phi Theta Kappa chapter advisor?" to isolate the turning point of settling

in, and "Are you known on your campus or in your community as

'Mr./Ms./Dr. Phi Theta Kappa?"' to pinpoint representing the organization

as a turning point. A moderately scheduled interview was conducted with

each advisor. Interviewees were encouraged to speak at length and with

candor and were reassured that their anonymity would be maintained.

Overall, data for this study were collected by these means: a

questionnaire, an analysis of organizational documents, and moderately

scheduled telephone interviews. Each method of data collection brought

in slightly different bits of information, while working together to

provide answers to the four research questions. Data were subjected to a

variety of analyses in answer to the research questions. These include

44

simple correlation analyses and measures of frequency, averages and

ranges. In addition, Organizational Commitment Scores (OCQ) scores were

calculated for each respondent and subsequent correlations were

determined between the analyses and the research questions. These

analyses are discussed in detail in the next chapter.

45

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

In this chapter, two layers of analysis are reported. This section

will begin with discussion of the questionnaire instrument followed by

the analyses of the organizational documents and the interviews. The

second layer of analysis in the section following this will synthesize the

analyses to each of the research questions.

Questionnaire

In order to analyze the questionnaire, each respondent was first

given an Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) score which was

computed by summing the answer scores for each question. The scale

from which the score was taken consisted of a highest possible

identification score of 91 to a potential low score of 13. Respondents'

scores ranged from 42 to 87, with an average of 67.27.

Two ways of differentiating high from low identification were

considered. A median split at 66 for respondent scores was considered

along with a cluster analysis. The median split would have categorized

very close scores into high and low identification categories. More useful

than the median split, cluster analysis revealed a large gap between

Organizational Commitment Questionnaire scores of 69 to 73.

Seventy-one was then chosen as the dividing line between high and low

identification.

Thirty-nine percent of the respondents scored a high level of

commitment or identification (score ""/3-d7), whiie ·.)1 °/o scored low on the

46

scale (42-68). A majority of the respondents fell within the low

category, and 80°/o of those respondents (16 of 20) within this range

scored toward the high identification end of the low identification

category with scores between 57 and 68. Additionally, a cluster existed

within the low category between scores of 57 to 61. This cluster

represented 33°/o of the total respondents and 50°/o of the low category

respondents.

Analyses of the questionnaire items used in addition to the OCQ

instrument were also conducted. Concerning closed-ended questions,

60. 7o/o of the respondents reported perceiving that the Society's

Headquarters views their chapter as "average" (n=28). The next most

frequent answer was "above average," with 21.4o/o of respondents choosing

it. The next most chosen answer was "below average" (1 0.7°/o) with

"excellent" and "poor" receiving the same number of responses (3.6o/o).

A second closed-ended question related to local chapter

membership and whether it had changed during the respondents' time as

advisor. Fifty-three percent reported an increase in membership, while

44°/o reported the membership remaining about the same. Only 3°/o reported

a decrease in chapter membership (n=32).

The advisors ranged in tenure with the Society from 6 months to 25

years, with an average of 6.3 years. The number of other organizations in

which respondents are involved ranged from 2 to over 7 (the largest

number choice provided) with an average of 4.1 .

Questions utilizing rank ordering revealed various information,

such as the order respondents consider other entities when making

decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa. The most frequent answer was

47

the local chapter organization (2.4 on a one to seven scale, n=31 ),

followed by the sponsoring institution (3.1 ). A distant third was assigned

to the respondent's family (4.1, n=30), then the community (4.3, n=31 ), the

regional organization (4.7, n=30), and finally the advisor him- or herself

and the international organization each scored an average of 5.0. Nine

choices were ranked in addition to the ones provided. Of those nine, four

respondents indicated that the students were very important, giving an

average of score of 1 .3. That the entity closest to the individual is a

primary consideration when making decisions relating to the organization

suggests that action begins locally.

Respondents were also asked to rank on a scale of one to nine those

entities they believe to influence the decisions made which shape and

guide the Society. The highest influence, 1 .9 average rank, was given to

the choice, "Headquarters staff" (n=20). The second, third, and fourth

most influential average ranks were assigned to regional chapter advisors

(2.8), local chapter advisors (2.9), and local chapter officers (3.0). Next

in level of influence were the elected student national officers (3.3).

Clustered closely together were local chapter members (3.6), elected

regional officers (3.7), and the sponsoring institution (3.9). Clearly, the

least influence was credited to the community (4.8). These findings may

point our understanding of identification targets to a more global focus.

While the larger entity may be identified with primarily, the

consideration of the local organization remains an important one as the

source of initial action.

Some open-ended questions were asked as well. Responses to these

revealed that 80°/o of the advisors responding hold no other positions in

48

the Phi Theta Kappa Society while the remaining 20°/o reported holding at

least one other position, such as Regional Advisory Board member and

alumni chapter member.

Respondents were also asked to list their goals as advisors in

descending order of importance. The most frequently listed goal was "to

increase involvement in Phi Theta Kappa," which may be an interpretation

of the organization's stated goal of promoting fellowship. The second

most frequently reported goal related to providing a service, such as

providing a means for student recognition or to serve the community and

the college. This response seems to correlate with the organization's

goal of promoting service.

Another open-ended question asked why the respondents assumed

the role of chapter advisor. The most frequently reported answer was

that the individual was asked to assume the role either by the

institution's administrators, the previous chapter advisor(s), and/or the

student members. Other responses which may underlie the most

frequently mentioned ones include the desire to work with "top notch"

students and the realization that Phi Theta Kappa was needed at a

particular institution.

An additional open-ended question asked for a response to a

scenario in which two troubled students, one a member of Phi Theta Kappa

and one a member of a class taught by the respondent, need to be

counselled. The respondent is instructed that time permits counseling

only one student and is then asked which student he or she would choose

and why. A vast majority, 82.6°/o, reported that the student from the class

should be a priority (n=23). Remarks offered the rationale for this

49

decision, with comments such as "students and classes always come

first" and "academic excellence is what PTK is all about" being mentioned

most frequently. These responses may indicate the identification of

respondents with the organizational goal of the promotion of scholarship.

Although not a single respondent indicated that the Phi Theta Kappa

student would be the student to get counselled, 17o/o of the respondents

insisted that they would somehow make time to counsel both students.

A final open-ended question asked respondents why they think most

advisors remain working in the Society. Over one-half of the respondents

stated that the personal satisfaction of seeing student successes is the

predominant reason (69.7°/o, n=33). Additional responses in descending

order of frequency of mention include a belief in the stated goals of the

Phi Theta Kappa Society, the benefits to the community college and its

students, a desire to contribute to society in general, and that being an

advisor is professionally valuable. The implication for the existence of

extrinsic influences in voluntary organizations can be made from some of

these responses. Many of these rationales may correlate to the

organization's goals of promoting scholarship, leadership, fellowship and

service but this is a difficult implication to draw, due to the vague nature

of the organization's stated goals. What can be inferred, however, is that

of the four goals, that of promoting leadership has been referred to the

least.

A more direct measure of organizational identification was included in

a Likert-scale item. An average answer of 2.97 was calculated for the

question which read, "My input has a significant impact on the success of

Phi Theta Kappa." This direct question revealed that individual advisors

50

tend to agree, although neither very strongly nor strongly, that they

matter in the organization.

A final question was designed to measure identification in a

different manner, by determining the respondents' willingness to continue

in participation with the research at hand. It was stated on the

questionnaire that 20 to 30 minute telephone interviews would be

conducted to augment the questionnaire. Respondents were asked to

provide their name, telephone number, and the name of the college at

which they are a Phi Theta Kappa advisor if they would like to participate.

This item was thought to have the potential to reveal information about

their level of identification because not only would the respondent be

agreeing to invest additional time regarding the organization, but also he

or she would have removed the anonymity associated with the previous

questionnaire resposes. Of the respondents, 54.5o/o volunteered for the

additional participation, while 45.5°/o omitted the answer.

Document Analysis

Analyses of the compiled Phi Theta Kappa Society Year-End Report

(1990) provided information in four areas. These areas are the number of

respondents who had received time and/or salary compensation, tenure

with the Phi Theta Kappa Society, international awards won during the

past ten years, and the reasons given for serving as an advisor in the

Society.

According to the Society's report (1989), while 0.9°/o did not

respond, 8.2°/o of chapter advisors report receiving some form of time

compensation, while 90.9°/o receive nmhing 1 n= /'12). In the present study,

51

examination and correlation of the international records system revealed

that 3.2°/o of the respondents receive some form of time compensation, but

87.1 °/o do not and 9.7o/o did not respond (n=31 ). Concerning salary

compensation, the International report shows that 9.6°/o of respondents

receive some salary compensation, while 89o/o receive none (n= 71 0). Of

the respondents involved in the present study, 6.5°/o receive some salary

compensation, while 87.1 °/o receive none and 6.4°/o did not respond (n=31 ).

It is important to mention findings such as these because the

nature of voluntary organizations would seem to preclude the inclusion of

these extrinsic influences. In the case of certain voluntary organizations

which are at least associated with nonvoluntary settings, such as the

workplace, the other influences which may skew the tabulated levels of

identification may be found. This is the case in the Phi Theta Kappa

Society where advisors are chosen from the pool of college-employed

individuals. The close link to the workplace is thus established.

Those advisors who reported previous membership (honorary or

active) in the Society on the Year-End Report (1990) account for 25.1 °/o of

the respondents. Of the respondents, seventy-four point nine percent

reported no previous membership (n=71 0). In the present study, 25.8°/o of

the respondents are former members and 58.1 °/o are not, while 16.1 °/o did

not respond (n=31 ). This is of interest because of its plausible link to the

tenure factor as an influence on levels of identification.

Success in the organization is posited in a research question as a

possible contributing factor for a high level of identification. A

comparison of the Year-End Report (1990) with the randomly chosen

respondents revealed that those respondents with consistent recognition

52

in regard to the national/international awards system have high levels of

identification as measured by the Organizational Commitment

Questionnaire. Three of the four most frequently mentioned award

winners from 1980 to 1990 in the Society have an OCQ score well within

the highest identification range.

Respondents were also asked on the questionnaire which of the

organizational publications they use once a week or more and how they go

about using it/them. This item was designed to reveal the importance and

effectiveness of organizational information dissemination, specifically

uniform symbol distribution and in-house publications. Approximately

89°/o of the respondents report using the provided Advisor's Manual once a

week or more as a policybook for local chapter procedures and business.

The next most frequently used organizational publication was the

toll-free telephone number to the Society's Headquarters which received

a weekly usage rate of 27 .8°/o. Although selected by relatively few of the

respondents (11.1 °/o), the Phi Theta Kappa insignia was reported to be

displayed and/or worn by these advisors nearly every day. From this, the

strength of unifying symbol distribution, its quality in addition to its

quantity of use becomes evident. From this also can be determined the

need to differentiate between the use of organizational publications in

general and the use of unifying symbols. Further analyses, which will be

discussed in detail later, reveal that those advisors who utilize unifying

symbols in a consistent manner tend to have higher levels of

identification. The low percentage obtained from the questionnaire item

regarding the use of the Society insignia supports the finding that a

53

relatively low number of respondents, a select few, have achieved

inordinately high levels of identification.

Finally, document analysis revealed the reasons respondents give

as to why they serve as advisors. The most frequent responses were

compared to those given in the present study. Both research instruments

reveal that the overriding rationale is one of personal enjoyment,

specifically witnessing and encouraging student successes (78.5°/o,

n=71 0). Other responses were also recorded in the Year-End Report

(1990), such as being appointed (48.5°/o), because of the programs Phi

Theta Kappa offers (22. 7°/o), and because no one else would assume the

role (19.9°/o). Each of these same responses was mentioned in the

questionnaire utilized in the present study.

Interviews

Analyses of moderately scheduled telephone interviews utilized the

15 inductively constructed turning point categories suggested by Bullis

and Bach (1989) as well as the Phi Theta Kappa Society's designations as

to high and low involvement advisors. The fifteen types of turning points

identified by Bullis and Bach (1989) are as follows: moving in, settling

in, socializing, sense of community, receiving informal recognition,

gaining formal recognition, jumping informal hurdle, approaching formal

hurdle, representing the organization, disappointment, protecting one's

"self," doubting one's "self," getting away, alienation, and miscellaneous.

While not all of the 15 suggested turning points proved to be of use in

this study, eight applied directly to the present study and were thus

included. These eight turning pomts ,,,, -:jre usao a;; gUides and were of

54

particular use in the construction of the interview schedule, although

more specific turning points presented themselves during analysis as

being unique to this voluntary organization. The following is a list of the

eight chosen turning points, each followed by the specific responses

which emerged from them in the present study. They are listed in the

order they appeared in the interview schedule. Each item was responded

to by 20 advisors.

The turning point labeled "settling in" was characterized in the

present study by various events; however, the most frequent response

(30o/o) was that the individual had "always" felt comfortable in the role of

chapter advisor. Next in frequency was the response that becoming

comfortable is a slow process that is, in many cases, still going on (25°/o).

Some specific events did surface as contributing to this particular

turning point, notably attendance at a regional or international conference

(15o/o).

The means by which an individual may compensate for feeling

personally "lost" in a role may provide insight to the next suggested

turning point called "protecting oneself." Seventy percent of the

respondents in the present study told of either some reason why they felt

the need to protect themselves (" ... there is so much to know." and " ... there

is always too much to do.") or they revealed the strategies through which

this protection is achieved. Particular strategies were mentioned

frequently, such as establishing other identities ("Phi Theta Kappa is not

my full time job." and "I've established myself as an instructor and an

administrator.") and clarifying the nature of the assigned role ("I don't

55

think the advisor should do it all, even though that's what the students

think.").

The turning point of feeling a "sense of community" is one that

most (70°/o) of the respondents in the present study have accomplished.

This seems to have been facilitated by close and easy contact (especially

via the toll-free telephone number) with the Headquarters office (71.4°/o),

attendance at conferences (42.9°/o), representatives of the Headquarters

office attending regional and local meetings (28.6°/o) and having a "sister

chapter" (14.3°/o). (In order to create "sister chapters," an active chapter

is usually paired with an inactive or young chapter so that both gain some

benefit from the other.) For the 30o/o who did not report this feeling,

three reasons were cited most frequently. First, 50°/o of this group of

respondents stated that not being able to attend regional and especially

international conferences led to their lack of a sense of community.

Other responses include a feeling of geographic disassociation and a lack

of local participation and interest.

Negative turning points were also explored in the interviews.

"Disappointment" was characterized in the present study by the

respondents' "nagging thoughts" of needing to do more for the

organization. This response was reported by 30°/o of the advisors.

Interestingly, 35°/o of the respondents reported they have never let down

the Society. In addition, the turning point of "alienation" was explored.

Forty percent of respondents report never to have experienced this

turning point, while 25°/o state that they had a feeling of alienation at a

first international conference ("I felt 'on the outs' with all the other

advisors who had been around for so long" and "The whole thing just

56

seems so damn southern!"). A key finding is that most of the respondents

who could isolate some specific negative turning point were also chosen

by the organization as representative of advisors who have rather low

levels of activity.

The turning points of "receiving informal recognition" and "gaining

formal recognition" were explored together in the interviews.

Respondents were split concerning these areas, with 50°/o reporting

positive experiences and 50o/o reporting negative ones. Characteristics of

the positive responses include campus awareness and support of the

organization, publicity on campus and faculty support. Negative

responses were characterized by comments such as "We're not treated any

differently than any other club" and "We are seen by the faculty as an

elitist organization."

A final turning point which was examined was "representing the

organization." Respondents were asked if they were known as "Mr./Ms./Dr.

PTK" and while So/o did not respond, 30°/o stated that they were, especially

on their campus. Sixty-five percent reported that they were not known as

the Phi Theta Kappa representative and many of these seem to be

especially proud of the multiple identities they have managed to create

and maintain ("I have been a teacher for 30 years ... l'd better be seen as

both I" and "I play down my role of advisor. PTK is for the students.").

A final question was included in the interview schedule which was

meant to verify a questionnaire as well as a document analysis item.

This question asked respondents to describe what keeps them from

severing their ties with the organization. Emphasizing the responses

obtained through the other two instruments, the majority of interviewees

57

(60°/o) reported that the benefit to and love for the student members keep

them involved. In another attempt to extrapolate meaning from the

responses of advisors and correlate them with the stated goals of the

Society, the majority of the above responses could be reflective of the

organization's goals of service or of fellowship.

Research Questions

In this section, answers to the research questions are developed on

the basis of the preceding analyses and comparisons of the responses of

participants who were highly identified with those who had achieved less

identification.

Research Question One

Research question one asked how does socialization within a

particular voluntary organization produce organizational identification?

One way this question was addressed was through an examination of the

self-reported personal goals of the advisors. Because the Society has a

published list of its four main goals (to promote scholarship, leadership,

fellowship and service), a questionnaire item was included to ascertain if

these organizational goals had been adopted by the respondents. As has

been referred to previously in this document, in highly identified

organizational members, the organization's goals are adopted as the

member's goals and represent the value indices upon which member

decisions are based. Of the advisors in the most strongly identified group

as reflected by the OCQ scores, 77°/o (1 0 of 13) reported at least one

personal goal in line with those of the organi::atiorl. In all but three of

58

the ten, more than one goal was identical to those put forth by the

organization. The most frequent response was "to increase involvement

in Phi Theta Kappa" or some derivative.

Responses such as this may relate directly to the organization's

successful socialization efforts. In this instance, the goal of fellowship

may have been personally adopted as a decision premise upon which to

establish priorities. This goal seems the logical one reflected since it

appears to be a prerequisite for the others. Comments such as, "if we can

get them to a meeting, they always come back for more" reinforce this

line of thought. These findings offer reinforcement to the idea that for

identification to take place, an individual must first have substituted

organizational goals for his/her own. In this case, the Society's

socialization efforts in the form of not only publication, but also

promotion of its goals has paid off by advisors' adoption of at least one of

the goals.

In addition, organizational socialization may be seen when

interview respondents reported the aspect of fellowship to be absent

when describing the turning point of "alienation." Twenty-five percent of

the respondents indicated that at a first international convention they

felt left out, a clear indication that what was expected was an act of

fellowship. Again one can see the organization's goals being substituted

for personal ones.

Another answer to research question one was revealed in the

questionnaire's item regarding the use of organizational materials.

Thirty-eight percent of the respondents reported using one or more of the

organization's publications once a week or more. Although respondents

59

were not requested to distinguish between their utilization of

organizational publications and their use of unifying symbols, the

responses regarding them revealed that these may give unique insights to

different levels of identification. Organizational publications such as the

Advisor's Manual provide information regarding organizational policies

and procedures. It is of note that of those who reported using

organizational materials once a week or more, the majority (58°/o) of them

scored low on the OCQ.

The responses attained regarding the use of unifying symbols came

generally from those advisors with higher scores relating to

identification. In this organization, unifying symbol distribution consists

of, at least in part, Headquarters-generated and disseminated copies of

the organization's primary symbol, the Phi Theta Kappa key, in various

forms. Many of these are on actual items and some are prepared

especially for the purpose of duplication and future use. For those high

scoring respondents, most reported using the materials once per week or

more not for gaining information, but instead for the promotion and

publicity of the organization itself and as a means of signifying their

attachment to it.

A final means of responding to the first research question was also

found in an analysis of the questionnaire, specifically regarding the item

which inquired as to the area of Phi Theta Kappa involvement the

respondent would most like to see improvement. Again in an examination

of those scoring in the high category on the OCQ instrument, 38°/o repo~ed

a desire to see improvement in the local chapter organization, 31 °/o in the

sponsoring institution, 15°/o in the regional organization and 15°/o did not

60

respond. It is notable that zero respondents reported a desire to see

improvement on the international level. The previous findings regarding

research question one imply that upon adoption of organizational goals

and acceptance of organizational socialization attempts (i.e., the

utilization of unifying symbols, etc.), identification takes place at rather

high levels.

Cheney (1982) speculated that the entity closest to an individual is

that which has the greatest chance of becoming an identification target.

Accordingly, in the present study it was anticipated that the local

chapter organization would be the target of respondents' identification.

In analyzing the above question however, the majority of respondents

noted a desire for change at the local level. In addition, it has been shown

that when an identification target receives praise or blame, the

individual from whom the identification originates receives the praise or

blame in a parallel manner. It is assumed then, that the entity with

which one is most highly identified is the one toward which the least

amount of change seen as needed. As a result, a desire for improvement

in the Phi Theta Kappa Society automatically implicates the advisor as

needing some improvement. These analyses suggest, contrary to the case

with nonvoluntary organizations, that the primary identification target of

the respondents who are most highly identified is not that which is

closest, but the voluntary organization as a whole.

In summary of the findings regarding research question one, the Phi

Theta Kappa Society's socialization efforts in the form of not only

publication, but also promotion of its goals, have paid off. Additionally,

the assumption that organizational publications, and especially the

61

distribution of unifying symbols, does contribute to the socialization

process of individuals and that this process in turn may lead to high

levels of identification has been supported. Finally, the findings imply

that upon adoption of the organization's goals and acceptance of its

socialization attempts (i.e., the utilization of unifying symbols, etc.),

identification may take place at rather high levels. As a result, any

negative comments aimed at the identification target automatically

implicate the identifier. In sum, once the advisor learns and accepts the

organizational goals, then the consumption of organizational materials

becomes more necessary and desired, subsequently the more the member's

thinking converges with that of the organization. After a certain point,

however, these organizational materials are no longer necessitated as a

means of information and the identification process moves on to higher

levels.

Research Question Two

Research question two asked how, other than through socialization

within a particular voluntary organization, do individuals achieve

organizational identification in a voluntary organization? One means

which may encourage identification was revealed in the interview

question which examined the turning point of achieving a "sense of

community" within the organization. Of the 70°/o who responded that they

do have a sense of being a part of the international organization, 64°/o

reported that the close contact maintained with the Headquarters is the

reason why. On the other hand, those who reported feeling isolated cited

their inability to attend regional and international conferences as their

62

rationale. An implication of these findings is that promoting a sense of

community, beyond simply ensuring easy access to organizational leaders,

is a key in fostering high levels of identification. The Phi Theta Kappa

Society attempts to do just that when it lists fellowship as one of its

goals.

The turning points of "receiving informal/formal recognition" and

"representing the organization" may also contribute to an individual's

achieving identification with an organization. In the present study, of the

56o/o of respondents who reported that they are treated differently by the

faculty and/or administration of their college on a regular basis and/or

when he or she or the chapter wins an award, 60°/o were classified by the

Society as being high in organizational involvement. Additionally, of the

30°/o of advisors who reported being known on their campus as "Mr./Ms./Dr.

PTK," 83°/o of these had been labelled as active by the Headquarters. From

these analyses, it can be ascertained that individuals may achieve

identification through personal gains, such as receiving recognition and

being seen as representing the organization.

Further answers to research question two arise from analyses of

the questionnaire items regarding other roles held in the Phi Theta Kappa

Society, the number of other organizations in which the respondent is

involved and the reasons why the role of advisor was assumed. For the

first item, 80°/o of the respondents hold no other position in the

organization. Of those respondents who do hold other Society positions on

the regional level or higher, each scored high on the OCQ. This correlation

implies that a demonstrated willingness to exert effort on behalf of the

organization, such as attempting to assume higher organizational

63

positions and the responsibilities implicit in them, may be a good

indicator of high levels of identification.

In answer to the second item, 58°/o of the respondents are involved

in five or more other organizations in addition to the Society. Analyses

of the reasons why individuals assumed the role of Phi Theta Kappa

advisor revealed that of those with the highest OCQ scores, the most

frequent answer type was characterized by the promotion of others

and/or the giving of the self. Responses such as "The college and the kids

needed a group like PTK" and " ... no one else would step forward" were

typical. These seem indicative of the organizational goal of service,

however it is difficult to ascertain if the answer types correlate with

the organization's vaguely construed goals.

From these analyses, research question two may also be answered

with a reference to Manser and Cass' (1976) typology of volunteers

offered in Chapter II. Of particular interest here is the service

volunteers who are characterized as traditional "people-helping-people"

volunteers. These individuals attempt to help others directly and have as

their main concern, their client. This type of volunteer seems to be found

with the highest levels of identification in the Phi Theta Kappa Society.

An additional inference to be drawn from the above analyses is that,

especially due to the large number of other organizations in which over

one-half of the respondents are involved, some individuals may simply be

predisposed to be "joiners." An implication of this may be that as the

numbers of organizational memberships increase, so too may the

predisposition to be more open to identification. A further implication of

these findings is that the respondents' reasoning premises seem to be

64

aligned with those of the organization. Specifically regarding the items

dealing with other organizational memberships and rationale supporting

the choice to become a Phi Theta Kappa advisor, respondents seem to be

choosing options such as these based on their own desires for fellowship

and service, two goals specifically stated by the Society. This line of

reasoning is supported further in interview responses regarding what

keeps advisors from severing their ties with the organization, even in

difficult times. The most frequent answer given to this open-ended

question was "the students." Service, in this case to the students

themselves, was the foremost concern for over 55°/o of the respondents.

To summarize the other means by which individuals may achieve

identification other than through organizational socialization efforts, the

levels of oca scores of respondents in this study who reported holding

other Society positions indicate that success or prestige in an

organization do influence identification levels. This influence may also

emanate from within the individual who, by attempting to assume

additional roles signifies a willingness to put forth further effort on

behalf of the organization. Additionally, the ideas that volunteers have

different foci and that some individuals may enjoy volunteerism in and of

itself should not be overlooked as having the potential to influence levels

of identification.

Research Question Three

Research question three asked how is individual success in an

organization associated with the member's identification? One answer to

this question rests in the number of other positions held within the

65

organization. In the case of those respondents who have roles on the

regional level or higher, each scored in the high range of the OCQ. Since

competition for a limited number of roles is implicit in multiple roles

held in this organization, winning them constitutes success. This finding

relates to the assumption that higher levels of identification may be

revealed by the attempt to take on additional roles and responsibilities on

behalf of the organization.

A second answer to this question was calculated from the

questionnaire item which sought information regarding changes in chapter

membership levels during the advisor's tenure. Fifty-three percent of the

respondents listed an increase and 44°/o reported the membership stayed

about the same. Of those who did register a high level of identification,

69°/o reported an increase in chapter membership and 31 °/o said the

membership had stayed about the same. Strikingly, no highly identified

respondent chose the "decreased" option. The percentages for the

advisors with a low level of involvement showed the inverse. Forty-two

percent of the respondents reported a chapter membership increase, 5°/o

reported a decrease, and the majority of 53°/o said it had stayed about the

same. The maintenance and growth of membership reported by each of

these advisors is in itself an outright establishment of success with the

organization. Successes such as these are thought to contribute to high

levels of identification.

Third, analyses of organizational documentation of international

award winners for the years 1980 through 1990 revealed that almost

one-half (46°/o) of those respondents with the highest scored levels of

identification have achieved success by winning international awards.

66

The quantity of award-winning chapters with highly identified advisors is

dramatic. On the whole, it seems that continued measured success (i.e.,

awards won) correlates with higher levels of identification. The key to

this correlation appears to lie in the continuance of success, for among

the advisors who had gained international recognition throughout the

decade under consideration, most of them scored highest on the OCQ.

Another answer to research question three is found in the analyses

of responses to an interview item which pertains to how the advisor is

treated by the faculty and/or administration of his or her college when

either the respondent or the Phi Theta Kappa chapter wins an award. Over

one-half (56°/o) of the advisors reported that they are treated differently,

and in each case, differently equated to being treated to recognition and

publicity on campus.

Another interesting finding concerning success which also

originates from analysis of the interview responses is that only 30o/o of

the respondents report being known on the campus or in the community as

"Mr./Ms./Dr. Phi Theta Kappa." Sixty-five percent (n=18) said that they

are not known solely by this role and So/o did not respond. Of those

advisors who responded that they are known primarily by this one role, all

were labelled by the Society as being highly involved. Of those who were

seen by the Society as having a low level of involvement, all reported not

being known by this single role. For those responding in the negative, all

maintained great pride in recounting their "other identities." This finding

reinforces Burke's notion of the need for corporate identities, in the

plural, in order to be compensated for our innate division.

67

In summary, there does seem to be a relationship between success

and organizational identification. By implementing both formal and

informal means of recognition, members' levels of identification register

consistently high. The examination of success revealed that other roles

held within the organization, the growth and maintenance of individual

chapter memberships, and consistent and enduring achievement of

international awards all may work together to produce positive

experiences for an individual. These positive experiences may be

translated into a positive image of the identification target, as a whole,

and since identification targets and the individuals who identify with

them are sometimes seen as consubstantial, a positive reflection is cast

upon the individual. In the end, a mutually beneficial and circular

relationship is established.

Research Question Four

Research question four asks how is tenure in the organization

associated with identification? Of the respondents in the highest OCQ

group, the length of time in the advisor role ranged from 6 months to 25

years with an average of 6.3 years. Within this group of respondents, a

subgroup of advisors with the greatest tenure had OCQ scores clustered

from 74 to 79. Present study findings suggest there is no direct

correlation between level of identification and member tenure. For

example, the highest OCQ score (87) was achieved by two advisors: one

with nine years of service to the organization and the other with only

three years. In addition, within the early years of participation in the

68

organization, from 6 months to five years, two clusters of oca scores

may be isolated. Forty-two percent of the respondents in this grouping

had low OCQ scores, while 30o/o scored in the high range. Furthermore,

there is only a slightly positive relationship between tenure and levels of

identification after the eighth year of service in the organization. For

example, two respondents, both with 18 years as advisors, yielded vastly

different scores in different categories, 58 and 78.

In sum, the analyses have shown no strong correlation between

tenure and identification with this voluntary organization. The

implication does exist that there may be a slight but steady increase in

member identification after a significant number of years (8) in this

organization.

Overall, identification may be viewed as a product of

organizational socialization efforts coupled with the experience of

success of members who achieve a close and enduring relationship with

the voluntary organization. In order to delve more deeply into the nature

of identification with voluntary organizations, the following chapter will

examine the implications of this study, its limitations and suggestions

for future research.

69

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to explore how identification

manifests itself in members of voluntary organizations. Specifically, the

study examined how identification is created through an organization's

socialization efforts as well as how identification is related to volunteer

success and longevity in a particular organization. This study has

examined the existing body of literature and has related the management

of identification typically found in nonvoluntary organizations to the

realm of voluntary organizations. This final chapter will address five

theoretical and practical implications, isolate some limitations of the

study, and offer suggestions for future research.

Implications

While the existing body of literature in not only organizational

communication but also in popular literature reflects the many beneficial

outcomes which have been associated with organizations achieving high

levels of identification among their members, relatively little work

addresses the issue of how to create identification within organizations.

Moreover, until now, researchers have been silent about identification

with voluntary organizations. This section will discuss the five most

important implications drawn from the present study which relate to

identification and organizations.

70

First, the present study has implied that voluntary organizations

have an intrinsic advantage nonvoluntary ones do not, which is found in

the preexisting level of identification in their members. This is reflected

in the present study's lack of scores toward the low end of the scale of

organizational commitment. The present study revealed a lowest

identification score of 42, while the scale has a possible low score of 13.

Unlike nonvoluntary organizations, more altruistic motives probably drive

individuals in this setting. If altruism is not the dominant reason for

their joining, it may be assumed to be at least the force which served as

the impetus for the process of identification to begin. Because of this, an

innate level of identification among volunteers may be assumed. This

innate level of identification cannot be assumed to be present in

nonvoluntary organizations, where the majority of members may join due

to the benefits which can be gained through the extrinsic cues, such as

salary.

The second main implication from the present study revealed that

the distinction between voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations is far

from precise. In actuality, voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations may

have more characteristics in common than originally thought. Blurring

the line of distinction between the two types of organizations are three

considerations.

First, voluntary organizations were thought to be a "pure" setting in

which to study the concept of organizational identification. They were

considered pure in that they were presumed to be absent of the extrinsic

influences which may cloud measurements of identification. This

assumption was found, however, to be faulty. In those voluntary

71

organizations which are linked in some manner to the nonvoluntary

setting, many of the same extrinsic influences may be found. The present

study, for example, included respondents who were participants in the

voluntary organization under study simply because they had been

appointed or because it was an implicit part of their job descriptions. In

addition, one requirement of the Phi Theta Kappa Society is that advisors

be employees, either faculty or staff, of the sponsoring institution. With

this qualification, some of the advisors' voluntary responsibilities are

linked to the extrinsic influence of salary.

Second, while the driving motives underlying volunteerism have

been considered to be altruistic, the present study implies that although

altruism is a necessary component, it is often not the only motivator.

This is another commonality between voluntary and nonvoluntary

organizations. Individuals may become a part of a voluntary organization

for a plethora of reasons, including job advancement and the cultivation

of networks. It is prudent, then, to include the influence of extrinsic cues

in any examination of voluntary organizations, just as would be done in

studying nonvoluntary organizations

Third, just as extrinsic influences should be included in

considerations of voluntary organizations, so too should alternative

means of achieving identification be a consideration when studying

nonvoluntary organizations. This study has not only emphasized the role

of the organization in facilitating the product form of identification, but

also the individual's role in creating the identification process. Because

both are necessary for identification to occur, nonvoluntary organizations

72

should be leery of relying solely upon the capacity of extrinsic cues to

influence identification.

In summary, the line separating voluntary and nonvoluntary

organizations is made indistinct considering three areas of commonality.

First, voluntary organizations may have extrinsic influences present.

Second, the motives for volunteerism should not be considered to be

solely altruistic, for some other gains may be achieved in the process of

volunteering, and third, altruism may be a part of nonvoluntary

organizational participation. So while this study's first implication

reveals a distinct advantage of many voluntary organizations over

nonvoluntary ones, this second implication offers a caveat regarding

harsh distinctions between the two types of organizations.

A third main implication of the present study supports the

orientation toward the process form of identification which emanates

from the individual organizational member. Concerning identification as

a process, the importance of the individual's role is not in question.

Without effort on the part of the individual, identification simply cannot

occur. So, the most crucial implication of the individual's role in

identification is that it is absolutely necessary. This is an implication

which reiterates the original suggestion in this study that identification

be viewed as both a product and process in order to be fully understood

and most efficiently managed.

Three steps compose the basic activities in which individuals may

engage in order to become identified. These steps are based on Burke'~

(1969) idea that identification is compensatory to division. First, the

individual must recognize an area of lacking. A parallel may be drawn

73

between this area of lacking and the notion of division, specifically. This

must then be coupled with the desire to fulfill that lacking. Finally, an

effort must be made by the individual to fulfill the lacking. After these

three steps are completed, much of the burden to foster identification

rests upon the organization to provide a product for consumption. As a

result of completing these three steps, individuals may join

organizations, specifically voluntary ones, and thus be compensated for

the division that had been previously experienced. It is notable that

individuals may have motives or personality types which predispose them

to be "joiners." In previous references to Manser & Cass' (1976) typology

of volunteers in this document, the framework for this implication is

provided in the researcher's suggestion of the category of individuals

called "service volunteers." But whatever the primary motivation, by

joining individuals may open themselves to both single and multiple

identifications. In addition, a cultivation of their altruistic motives may

occur which may dispose them to join even more organizations.

So the process of identification, which springs from the individual

organizational member, is a vital one. It is not only the origination point

for identification to take place, but individual efforts to identify with

various entities may cause an individual to be more open to identification

efforts as well as cultivate altruism.

The fourth main implication of this study reveals that the

historical emphasis in communication literature on the product

orientation of identification is justified, considering that even in this

study, the practical implications for the organization's role in the

manufacturing of the product of identification have predominated. This

74

occurred despite a concerted effort to explore evenly both orientations to

identification. This finding in no way demeans the individual's role,

however, for without the individual's efforts, the process of

identification cannot begin as has been discussed.

The fourth main implication of this study reveals that two steps

should be taken by organizations in order to facilitate the adoption of the

product of identification. This study implies that voluntary and

nonvoluntary organizations seem to be able to foster identification in

basically the same way; therefore, the steps proposed should be directly

applicable to all organizations. It is ironic that the two specific steps

suggested are the ones most likely to be left out of nonvoluntary

organizational efforts to facilitate identification. The steps are

composed of discovering individual identification targets and creating

opportunities for member identification.

First, the organization should discover the target of an individual's

identification. The question of primary concern, then, is not if members

identify but instead with which entity of the organization do they

identify. For commitment as well as the other positive outcomes of

identification to be ensured or measured, it must be determined what the

identification target is. Cheney (1982) suggests that in nonvoluntary

organizations, identification targets are most likely to be those entities

closest to an individual. This seems not to ring true for voluntary

organizations. The present study has shown a reversal of assumed

identification targets between voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations.

From this study, the assumption can be made that due to the frequency of

positive comments regarding the International Headquarters, the bulk of

75

identification is taking place on that level. As reflected in the turning

point analysis used regarding the interviews as well as in the

questionnaire, respondents in the present study vocalized more desire for

change at the local rather than at the international level. In line with the

premise of identification that criticism of identification targets equates

to criticism of the self and that identifications are generally positive in

nature, the inference may be made that the identification target is the

international rather than the local organization. While respondents seem

satisfied with the overall workings, there seems to be unrest closer to

home. If local identification is low and volunteerism continues, global

identification can be assumed to be high. However, since the local

organization is the site of immediate action in most cases, some efforts

need to be made to heighten local identification. These efforts comprise

what is the essence of creating the product of organizational

identification: creating opportunities for members.

The second step for organizations to facilitate identification is to

provide opportunities for member identification. There are three steps in

creating these opportunities. First, organizations must put forth

specific, understandable, clear, and concise goals. By doing so, the

organizational members will be more able to first isolate, then

understand and subsequently identify with these goals. In the voluntary

organization under examination, its goals (to promote scholarship,

leadership, fellowship and service) are diffuse and abstract. The nature

of the stated organizational goals seems to lead to the problem of

recognizing the individual circumstances under which members identify

with the Phi Theta Kappa Society.

76

A second step for organizations to implement in creating

opportunities for identification is to build a sense of community among

members. Turning point analysis has revealed that the desire for a sense

of community is a strong force in the construction of identification.

When this sense is lacking, individuals may withdraw from the

organization and, thus, have quite low levels of identification. This was

illustrated by the responses garnered in the interviews concerning the

turning points of not only "sense of community," but also of "alienation"

and "settling in." To build a sense of community, voluntary organizations

may utilize three suggestions which proved to be useful in the present

study: creating a system of organizational conferences, creating a

support system, and distributing unifying symbols.

First, a system of conferences should be created. Attendance at

conferences, especially at the international level, not only contributes to

a member's feelings of community and of settling in, but also contributes

to a fulfilled expectation of the part of the member in regard to the

stated goals of the organization, specifically, that of promoting

fellowship. Those respondents in the interviews who could identify a

turning point characteristic of a feeling of alienation most frequently

cited not being able to attend a conference. All organizations, then,

should make an effort to schedule gatherings frequently and on many

levels. By implementing the suggestion in this way, more members may

have the opportunity to participate.

A second means for building a sense of community in a voluntary

organization is to establish a system of support. This system may

promote a circular pattern which may result in highly identified

77

individuals affecting those who are less identified. The impetus for this

implication rests in the success of the Phi Theta Kappa Society's "Sister

Chapter" program, in which advisors and chapters seen as less active are

paired with those considered to be more active. Creating a system of

support using means such as this may create a circular pattern which can

help the organization is its efforts to build identification. French and

Raven's (1960) idea that organizational identification functions as a

basis for "referent power" also lends credibility to this implication.

Beginning the pattern is the process of an individual becoming

identified with a particular organization. This may be achieved in various

manners, a process that has been discussed previously. Subsequently, the

individual's contacts see the highly identified individual as less likely to

sabotage new organizational ideas because the organization's goals and

values have been adopted by the individual as his or her own. Thus, the

highly identified individual is seen as being trustworthy. As this highly

identified individual interacts with other individuals, they see how

others view him or her and they too may begin to view the individual as

being trustworthy, loyal, credible, and as possessing a host of other

positive organizational attributes. From these positive associations

which feed upon each other, the original individual may become an

identification target for someone else. In this case, multiple

identifications manifest themselves in which subsequent members

identify themselves with the organization through another individual.

These findings are supported in the Phi Theta Kappa Society's

"Sister Chapter" program in which struggling chapters and/or advisors

aspire to emulate their mentor chapter/advisor, thus being prepared to

78

take on a fledgling "Sister Chapter" of their own someday. Those advisors

who are either new to the organization or who are seen by the

Headquarters as low in involvement are paired with more experienced and

more active advisors. By doing this, the organization is clearly

attempting to foster multiple identifications. This same line of

reasoning holds true in the selection of chapter co-advisors.

These support systems should be encouraged on many levels, and

not just within a single organization. As mentioned previously, multiple

identifications serve many positive purposes, so membership in other

related voluntary organizations may actually prove to be beneficial. Just

as was referred to in the discussion regarding the individual's efforts to

enact the process of identification, becoming a "joiner" or "service

volunteer" may not only serve to cultivate altruism, but also may dispose

one to be more open to identification efforts on the whole.

Third, creating an organizational sense of community may be

achieved through the distribution of unifying symbols. Distinct from

organizational publications in general, unifying symbols serve no real

informational purpose for the consumer, but instead they serve to link the

individual with the organization. In the present study, those most highly

identified with the organization were the advisors who utilized the

distribution of unifying symbols in a quality manner. Specifically, these

respondents used the symbols to promote the organization. Because of

their levels of identification, this organizational promotion seems to

become a sort of self promotion which leads to a mutually beneficial

relationship.

79

The third and final step suggested to organizations for providing

opportunities for members is to provide opportunities for success. In the

present study for example, those respondents who had attained other

organizational roles had higher levels of identification as measured by

the OCQ scores than did those who served the organization in only the

advisory role. The implication thus follows that success in competition

within organizations may yield higher levels of identification. This

reasoning was also supported in the self reports of the increases or

maintenance of chapter memberships during the respondent's tenure. Each

of the individuals in these two groups also scored fairly high on the

instrument. A final support may be found in the analyses of the turning

points utilized in the interviews. While success may be measured in many

ways, one frequently reported measure was through the turning point of

"gaining recognition." Respondents with relatively high OCQ scores

reported gaining some type of recognition on campus or in the community.

The form taken by the recognition did not seem to influence its effects on

perceived success, for whether it was formal or informal the respondent

showed an increase in identification level. Respondents provided

examples of formal recognition such as having an article written about

them or their chapter in the campus newspaper and examples of informal

recognition as being commonly known on the campus or in the community

as "Mr./Ms./Dr. PTK." Each of these may contribute to an individual's

perceived level of identification with an organization.

Because the dividing line between voluntary and nonvountary

organizations is difficult to clearly distinguish, many of the practical

implications discussed above may be generalized to both types of

80

organizations. These include creating a spirit of competition within the

organization through a formal awards system as well as other positions

of leadership individuals may compete to hold. By including an

hierarchical framework in which volunteers strive to achieve more and

more responsibility and to gain more recognition, identification levels

may be increased as well. It is important to remember, however, that the

effects of failed attempts at success remain a mystery, at least in the

results of this study. Concerted efforts to foster member recognition

should also be made. Internally, the organization should disseminate

information regarding member successes and projects. In addition to the

understanding that people generally like to see their names in print is the

realization that recognition among peers has special meaning. A creative

angle to this suggestion is to couple these publicity efforts with

information that could cause individuals who are less identified or who

simply know little about the nature of the organization to take an

interest. The distribution of member testimonials is one way to achieve

this. These testimonials may tap several motives in potential

participants, specifically altruistic ones. External publicity efforts

should also be made, for recognition outside the organization has

implications for formal recognition.

While it may be assumed that length of time in a voluntary

organization correlates with success, the sixth main implication of this

study is that tenure has no direct correlation with level of identification.

In fact, identification appears to increase steadily until a certain point,

at which point it decreases somewhat and then levels off. This finding is

consistent with that of Bullis and Bach (1989) who reported more scores

81

decreased than increased over time on a different measure of

identification, the Organization Identification Questionnaire. The

implications for tenure are also consistent with those of Sass & Canary

(1990).

This study has yielded five main implications for the study of

organizational identification. First, volunteers probably have a

preexising level of identification with their chosen organization. Second,

the distinction between voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations is not a

clear one. Third, that identification as a process is vital and that

individuals need to be familiar with the steps involved to facilitate

identification. Fourth, the organization's role as a creator of the product

of identification predominates concerning practical implications. The

organizations role is characterized by the implementation of two main

steps: discovery of identification targets and creation of identification

opportunities. The fifth and final implication which can be drawn from

this study is that tenure shows no direct correlation to organizational

identification.

Limitations

While the present study has revealed these five theoretical and

pragmatic implications, some limitations of the study as well as to the

study of organizational identification in general may be isolated. First, a

limitation was discovered concerning the specific organization under

study. The Phi Theta Kappa Society does have a publicized enumeration of

its four goals, but due to the diffuse and abstract nature of them the

question arises as to resondents' 2b111t~ to in.2rpr~t ancJ enact them.

82

Even among those respondents most highly identified, no one-to-one

correlations were found concerning goals. The limitation thus presents

itself as the task of discerning which personal goals are in fact adopted

organizational goals. The issue is clouded by the great latitude afforded

by the organization's unspecific and highly interpretable goals.

Concerning the present study, some of the items contained within

the instruments as well as the method for their collection could have

been improved. Specifially, a new alpha should be computed in order to

ensure validity to the partially used OCQ instrument. Some original

questions could have been reworded, in addition. For example, to measure

the correlation of success and identification put forth in research

question three, a questionnaire item would have yielded more pertinent

information if it had been worded to request information concerning the

other roles respondents had attemped to attain in addition to what other

roles the respondents currently hold within the Society. Through this

simple rephrasing, insight could have been gained regarding failed

attempts at success and their effects on identification. This should be

included in future administrations of questions probing the

success-identification relationship. In addition, efforts to provide for

multiple coders and to establish some level of interceder reliability may

have improved this study's reliability.

Similarly, the questionnaire item which requested information

regarding the socialization efforts on the part of the organization could

have been rephrased. As opposed to inquiring as to whether

organizationally distributed information is used once per week or more,

the question of how each of these is used should have been included. In

83

scrutinizing the effectiveness of organizational socialization, quality of

use is of concern in addition to the quantity of use.

Regarding the method chosen to gather data, the Organizational

Commitment Questionnaire scores and the range of scores in the present

study may be biased. If an individual has a low level of identification,

that individual will probably not make the effort even to complete the

questionnaire, much less return it in the mail. This is an understandable

problem in all research of the self-reported nature and it was

compensated for by the inclusion of the other two methods of data

collection: document analysis and moderately scheduled interviews.

Finally, the differences between voluntary and nonvoluntary

organizations should not be assumed to be clear cut. For example, since

the voluntary organization under study was so closely tied to the

respondents' workplace, some of the extrinsic influences thought to be

naturally absent were in actuality present. Influences such as job

description and the pressure of superiors could have been confounding

variables in this study. There is a need for a sharper division in the

conceptualization of job-related versus non-job-related volunteerism. In

addition, there is the need to control for these extrinsic influences in

certain voluntary organizations and to explore the possibilities available

for their manipulation.

Suggestions

The most pressing suggestion for improving future research is to

design an instrument which can alleviate the problems in converting the

Organizational Commitment Oues1iJn1 drre c·ild o:~1er such instruments

84

which have been developed to measure identification in the workplace to

correlate with voluntary organizations. The development of the Voluntary

Organization Identification (VOID) measure could be a combination of

refined existing instrument items, but each should reflect the particular

and unique characteristics of voluntary organization identification.

Because some, but not all, of the extrinsic influences may be assumed to

be absent from voluntary organizations and because altruism may play a

significant role in volunteerism which may not be found in the

nonvoluntary setting, an instrument designed to reflect these unique

circumstances should be developed.

Second, future research should not focus on the use of terms but

should instead choose one and then get on to more important studies. If,

for example, it was generally accepted that the terms commitment and

identification were operationalized equivalently, this would alleviate

much semantic confusion and allow researchers' focus to be more

properly channeled. Definitional arguments need to be put to rest.

In the present study, the turning points suggested fairly

generalizable areas in which some changes in respondent identification

were notable. Through the examination and analyses of actual

communication, it seems that themes could be isolated which may reveal

much about an individuals level of identification and from which entities

it has emanated. One example of language analysis is the organization of

data by recurring metaphorical themes (Larkey, L. K., 1990). Although

procedures such as this will not provide researchers with sweeping

generalizations, this type of analysis may guide researchers to a more in­

depth understanding of the complex nature of organizational

85

identification. The practical implication of this finding rests in the

understanding that if actual categories of turning points can be isolated,

these may also be created, thus allowing for a clear avenue for

identification. Both voluntary and nonvoluntary organizations may benefit

from the exploration and incorporation of this implication. As an

extension of this implication and to suggest a means for its

incorporation, the present study implies the need for an examination of

the actual language used in organizational communication. Language

choices may reveal information about the respondents' level of

identification. For example, in conducting the research interviews more

errors in language occurred among those respondents whom the

organization had labelled as less active. In one instance, the respondent

repeatedly referred to the Society as a fraternity, a descriptor which the

Headquarters staff had made a concerted effort some two years ago to

abandon. Additionally, another low involved respondent continually

mispronounced the proper names of many of the Headquarter's staff

members. An analysis of the language use of organizational members may

give needed insight to members' decision premises which would facilitate

the judgement of their alignment. An implication of this finding is that

the study of the influences which reduce identification is needed.

A final suggestion for future research is to study the effects of

multiple memberships. To a point, it is thought that multiple

memberships not only make individuals more open to identification

efforts, but also that a cultivation of altruistic motiviations may take

place. Due to an individual's personal constraints on time, expense and

86

energy expended however, future research should explore at which point

these positive effects create diminishing returns.

In summary, this study recognizes that many factors combine to

contribute to organizational success; however, the focus in this case has

been upon certain qualitites of membership which can be labelled as

avenues for explaining this success. When members substitute

organizational objectives for their own aims as value indices which

determine their decisions, they exhibit the quality of membership known

as identification. Identification has been linked to many positive

outcomes, such as goal commitment, goal achievement, and quality of

performance in nonvoluntary organizations. This study has drawn

correlates between identification in the nonvoluntary and voluntary

organizational settings. In nonvoluntary organizations, identification

has shown to be related to effective organizational socialization efforts

as well as to success within the voluntary organization. Because of the

strong implications drawn from the study relating to success in voluntary

organizations, implementation of the steps suggested in this document

should be considered and encouraged. Additionally, because of the

indistinct line shown to exist between many voluntary and nonvoluntary

organizations, the suggested steps for identification facilitation should

be considered an integral part of both voluntary and nonvoluntary

organizations.

87

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Burke, K. (1972). Dramatism and Development. Massachusettes: Clark University Press.

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APPENDIX A: PILOT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE

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PHI THETA KAPPA QUESTIONNAIRE _Two Year College _Alumni

1. I contribute significantly to the success of Phi Theta Kappa.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly very strongly agree agree disagree strongly agree nor disagree

disagree

2. Of how many other student/campus organizations are you involved?

1 _2 _3 _4 _5 _6 _7+

3. My input has a significant impact on the success of Phi Theta Kappa.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly very strongly agree agree disagree strongly agree nor disagree

disagree

4. To what extent do the following influence the decisions made which shape and guide Phi Theta Kappa? Please assign values of 1 - 5 with l=most influential, 5=1east influential.

_sponsoring institutions _community _local chapter members _local chapter officers _ local chapter advisors

_state/regional officers _state/regional advisors _national officers _national headquarters staff _other:. ________ _

5. In what order do you consider the following when making decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa? I =considered first, 8=considered last.

_self _family _community _ sponsoring institution

_local chapter organization _state/regional organization _national organization _other ________ _

6. As a Phi Theta Kappa advisor, please list your goals in descending order of importance.

a. (most important goal)----------------------b. --------------------------------------------------------c. -------------------------------d. ---------------------------------------------------------e. ----------------------------------------------------

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7. During your time as the advisor, has your chapter membership ...

_increased _decreased _stayed about the same

8. The national headquarters sees my chapter as one that is ...

_excellent _above average _average _below average _poor

9. How long have you been an advisor of Phi Theta Kappa?

10. Other than local chapter advisor, what position(s) do you hold in the Phi Theta Kappa Society?

11. What is the name of your college (university) and chapter at which you are a Phi Theta Kappa advisor?

college chapter city

12. About how many hours per week do you spend on your various responsibilities and activities? Please see the provided example and please include time devoted to Phi Theta Kappa.

13. Please list the organizations, including Phi Theta Kappa and other campus/community groups, in which you have a role.

14. Please refer to the above question and rank those organizations in order of their importance to you by placing a number immediately to its left (l=most important).

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state

15. Why did you assume the role of Phi Theta Kappa advisor?

16. Despite your best efforts, you have had your vacation planned for many months when you realize that the Phi Theta Kappa state convention will be taking place while you are vacationing in another state. Given the opportunity to choose one or the other, which do you choose and why?

17. The Phi Theta Kappa national convention is being held at the same time as your professional organization's national meeting. Which do you attend and why?

18. On a given day, you have only enough time to visit with one student. Do you speak with a student who is performing poorly in the class that you teach or do you speak with a normally active Phi Theta Kappa member who is now performing poorly? Please explain.

19. It has been proposed that Phi Theta Kappa examine the current national awards system. Which of the following should be done?

Please explain your choice(s).

a. Revert to the awards system which was in effect until the 1989 national convention?

b. Abolish any awards system at the national level. c. Revise the current awards system. d. Allow popular vote to select national award winners.

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APPENDIX 8: PRESENT STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE

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December 20, 1990

Dear Phi Theta Kappa Chapter Advisor:

Happy holidays and Phi Theta Kappa hugs to you! As the Society's 1986-1987 National President, I continue to profit daily from my involvement in Phi Theta Kappa. The organization has given so very much to me, and now I am proud to take the opportunity to give something back. With a few minutes of your time, you too can help not only the organization, but also yourself as an advisor.

I am gathering information which will be used to construct my Master's thesis. Scheduled to graduate in May of 1991 from Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas, the title of my thesis is: Voluntru.y Organizations: Identification and Success. Simply put, I plan to research those variables that call such special individuals to serve as Phi Theta Kappa advisors. In addition, my study will focus on the needs that you as advisors identify as well as on the areas of strength that you see in Phi Theta Kappa. Much of this information will be of direct benefit to the National Headquarters staff, as will be evident to you upon completion of the enclosed questionnaire. All returned instruments will be analyzed and the results will then be provided to Headquarters; complete anonymity is assured to you.

Just 30 minutes of your time is not only an essential element of this research project, but it will also be a benefit to the organization that has helped so many two-year college students realize their full potential. A postage paid, self addressed envelope has been provided for your convenience in returning the questionnaire by January 31, 1991. My sincerest thanks to you for your participation.

Sincerely,

Julie Landgraf Johnson 1988-89 Texas State Alumni President 1986-87 National President

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PHI THETA KAPPA QUESTIONNAIRE Please attach additional sheets of paper as necessary.

1. The national headquarters sees my chapter as one that is ...

_excellent _above average _average _below average _poor

2. Other than local chapter advisor, what position(s) do you hold in the Phi Theta Kappa Society?

3. In what order do you consider the following when making decisions which relate to Phi Theta Kappa? !=considered first, 8=considered last.

_self _family _community _sponsoring institution

_local chapter organization _state/regional organization _national organization _other ________ _

4. As a Phi Theta Kappa advisor, please list your goals in descending order of importance.

a. (most important goal) ----------------------

b. --------------------------------c. -------------------------------d. -----------------------------------------------------e. ----------------------------------

5. There is not too much to be gained by sticking with this organization indefinitely. (Please circle one number which best reflects your attitude.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

6. This organization really inspires the very best in me in the way of performance.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

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7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

7 · It would take very little change in my present circumstances to cause me to leave this organization.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

8. Often, I fmd it difficult to agree with this organization's policies on important matters relating to its members.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

9. During your time as the advisor, has your chapter membership ...

_increased _decreased _stayed about the same

10. How long have you been an advisor of Phi Theta Kappa?

11. What is the name of your college and chapter at which you are a Phi Theta Kappa advisor?

college chapter city

7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

state

12. Which of the following do you use once a week or more? Please provide details of how and why you use it/them.

Advisor's manual _Golden Key _ 3.5 Plus magazine

1 01

_Phi Theta Kappa insignia _National Headquarter's toll free

telephone number

13. It has been proposed that Phi Theta Kappa examine the current national awards system. Which of the following should be done?

Please explain your choice(s).

a. Revert to the awards system which was in effect until the 1989 national convention?

b. Abolish any awards system at the national level. c. Revise the current awards system. d. Allow popular vote to select national award winners. e. Maintain current awards system.

14. Ofhow many other organizations are you involved (campus, church, community, professional, etc.)?

1 _2 _3 _4 _5 _6

15. My input has a significant impact on the success of Phi Theta Kappa.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

16. I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this organization to be successful.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

17. To what extent do the following influence the decisions made which shape and guide the international Phi Theta Kappa Society? Please assign values of 1 - 5 with l=most influential, S=least influential.

_7+

7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

_community _sponsoring institution _local chapter members _local chapter officers _ local chapter advisors

_elected student regional officers _regional advisors

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_elected student national officers _national headquarters staff _other: __________ _

18. Why did you assume the role of Phi Theta Kappa advisor?

19. On a given day, you have only enough time to visit with one student. Do you speak with a student who is performing poorly in the class that you teach or do you speak with a normally active Phi Theta Kappa member who is now performing poorly in Phi Theta Kappa activities? Please explain.

20. I talk up this organization to my friends as a great organization to be a part of.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly

strongly agree agree disagree

agree nor disagree

21. I feel very little loyalty to this organization.

1 2 3 4 5 6

very strongly agree neither disagree strongly

strongly agree agree disagree

agree nor disagree

22. I fmd that my values and the organization's values are very similar.

1 2 3 4 5 6

very strongly agree neither disagree strongly

strongly agree agree disagree

agree nor disagree

23. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization.

1 2 3 4 5 6

very strongly agree neither disagree strongly

strongly agree agree disagree

agree nor disagree

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7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

24. I am extremely glad I chose this organization in which to be an advisor.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

25. I really care about the fate of this organization.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

26. I would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep working for this organization.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

27. I could just as well be working for a different organization as long as the type of work was similar.

1 2 3 4 5 6 very strongly agree neither disagree strongly strongly agree agree disagree agree nor

disagree

28. In which area of your Phi Theta Kappa involvement would you MOST like to see improvement? Please choose only one area.

_Sponsoring institution _Local organization

_Regional organization _National organization

29. Please briefly explain how the above chosen relationship could be improved.

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7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

7 very strongly disagree

30. Why do you think most Phi Theta Kappa chapter advisors remain working in this organization?

We will conduct telephone interviews of approximately 20- 30 minutes to augment this questionnaire. If you would like to participate, please provide the requested information below.

Name: -------------------------------------------------------------College at which an advisor: ------------------------------------------Telephone number: --------------------------------------------

Please return the survey in the provided envelope to :

Julie Landgraf Johnson P.O. Box557

Shallowater, Texas 79363

Thank you for your participation.

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APPENDIX C: PRESENT STUDY INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

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Interview Schedule

1. Can you identify a time or an event when you first became comfortable in your role as Phi Theta Kappa chapter advisor? (settling in).

2. Tell me about a time when you have felt "lost" in your role as chapter advisor. (protecting self/getting away)

3. a. Do you feel "a part" of the national Phi Theta Kappa organization?

b. Can you pinpoint any particular time or event that caused you to have these feelings?

(sense of community)

4. Tell me about a time you feel you let Phi Theta Kappa down. (disappointment)

5. As a Phi Theta Kappa advisor, are your treated any differently by the faculty/administration of College?

a. (If yes) Please give me an example. (receiving informal recognition)

b. How about when you/your chapter wins awards? (gaining formal recognition)

6. Explain to me an incident or time when your felt alienated from Phi Theta Kappa. (alienation)

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7. Are you known on your campus or in your community as "M/D. PTK?" Give me an example. (representing the organization)

8. You're feeling down about Phi Theta Kappa; what keeps you from severing your ties?

9. In what ways would you like to see your relationship with Phi Theta Kappa improve?

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