i

Creating Word-Consciousness

at the Intermediate Level: A Study

By

Dr. Shirin R. Shaikh

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About the Author

X

Name: Dr. Shirin Shaikh

Educational Qualification: M.A., M.Phil, Ph.D, SET

Designation: Assistant Professor

Dr. Shirin Shaikh is an Assistant Professor in the

subject of English in Poona College of Arts, Science and Commerce,

Pune. She has an experience of more than 14 years in the field of

teaching English as a second language at undergraduate as well as

post-graduate level. She has completed her international Certification

in TESOL/TEFL with distinction from Oxford Seminars, Houston,

Texas, U.S.A. She is a Global Professional Member of TESOL

International Association. She is also a founder member of My

Incubation Center, Institute of Advance Studies in English. She is a visiting faculty in several Post Graduate Centers in Pune.

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About the book

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The main aim of this book is to connect in a straightforward way

the growing body of second language vocabulary research with

teacher actions in classrooms.

Words are pervasive in our life. The words that we use

express and shape our identity. Our vocabulary gives away our

social and educational background. It is a major factor in

determining what we understand. It opens or closes access to

sources of information that will impact our future. Today

vocabulary acquisition is considered an integral area of language

teaching by linguists, teachers and researchers. They have come to

understand the role of lexicon in language learning and

communication. Therefore during the past three decades, the field

of second language acquisition has seen renewed interest in

vocabulary learning. But the scene was different few decades ago.

For many years vocabulary was considered unimportant in

language teaching. Its neglect in part may be due to specialisation

in linguistic research on syntax and phonology. This may have

fostered a climate in which vocabulary was considered an

unimportant element in the learning of a second or foreign

language. This view largely dominated the 1940’s, 1950’s and

1960’s. The period between 1940-60 was an uncertain period for

vocabulary as an aspect of language teaching. In this period

vocabulary was seen mainly as a problem of selection and

gradation for the target learners. It was only in 1970’s that

vocabulary was given some place of importance in language

teaching but still it was considered less important when compared

with syntax and phonology.

For years, second language learners have complained about

their lack of vocabulary in their new language. During this time,

experts in our field did not give much importance to vocabulary.

However, since the mid-1990s there has been a renewed interest in

research on second language vocabulary issues such as student

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needs, teaching techniques, learner strategies, incidental learning

and vocabulary for specific purpose.

Today lexical knowledge is acknowledged to be central to

communicative competence and the acquisition and development

of second language.

This study is probably the first systematic attempt to

expand the students’ active vocabulary and to create word-

consciousness in the classroom. The aim of the present study is to

examine students’ knowledge of vocabulary at the college level

and note the problem areas and follow the eclectic method to

increase the students’ word power in order to enable them to use

more precise words instead of general ones. The students are

taught words in lexical sets for quick expansion of vocabulary and

they are also made to consider the paradigmatic and syntagmatic

relations of words for better understanding of word meanings.

Chapter I of this book deals with English as an international

language and its position in India today. It also highlights the

importance of vocabulary, aspects of vocabulary and the principles

of selection and gradation of vocabulary. Chapter II reviews the

work already done in the field of vocabulary. Chapter III focuses

on the aims and procedure adopted in the present study. It also

highlights techniques of teaching new words and expanding

vocabulary. Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data collected.

The relative difficulty level of different questions in the pre-test

and the post-test, the students’ progress in the use of vocabulary

and the conclusions of the study are presented in this chapter.

I sincerely hope that the present study and the discussions

will have an impact on the way teachers and learners view the

teaching and learning of vocabulary in a second language.

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Contents

Chapter -1 :: Introduction 1-16

1.1 English as an International Language…………………………………..1

1.2 English in India Today…………………………………………..............2

1.3 The Term ‘Vocabulary’ and its Importance………………………….....4

1.4 Aspects of Vocabulary…………………………………………..............5

1.5 Factors Contributing to the Meaning of an Utterance………………….6

1.6 Classification of Words……………………………………………..…...8

1.7 Types of Vocabulary…………………………………………………......9

1.8 The Students’ Problem………………………………………………….10

1.9 Selection of Vocabulary……………………………………………...…11

1.10 Gradation of Vocabulary………………………………………………..12

1.11 Methods of Teaching New Vocabulary………………………................13

Chapter -2 :: Review of the Work Done 17-32

2.1 Earlier Research in the Field of Vocabulary…………………………....17

2.2 A Test of the P.U.C. Students’ Vocabulary in Chota Nagpur (1961) by

Helen Bernard…………………………………………………………...19

2.3 An Investigation into the Teaching of Vocabulary in the First Year of

English (1962) by J.N. Kachroo………………………………………...20

2.4 Vocabulary Learning: The Use of Grids (1983) by P.D. Harvey……...21

2.5 Advanced Vocabulary Teaching: The Problem of Synonyms (1984) by

Marilyn Martin………………………………………………………….23

2.6 The Keyword Method: An Alternative Vocabulary Strategy for

Developmental College Readers (1985) by Judy Roberts and Nancy

Kelly…………………………………………………………………….25

2.7 Long-term Retention of Vocabulary After Keyword and Context

Learning (1987) by Mark A. Mc Daniel, Michae Pressley and Paul

Dunay…………………………………………………………………...26

2.8 Poor Language Learners and their Strategies for Dealing with New

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Vocabulary (1988) by Graeme Porte…………………………………...28

2.9 Teaching Vocabulary by Oral Translation (1989) by Pal Heltai……….28

2.10 Two Approaches to Vocabulary Instruction: TheTeaching of Individual

Word Meanings and Practice in Deriving Word Meaning from Context

(1989) by Joseph R. Jenkins, Barbara Matlock and Timothy A.

Slocum………………………………………………………………… 29

2.11 The Semantico-Functional Variability of Words and Teaching of

Vocabulary to Advanced EFL Students (1989) by Irina Kerim–Zade and

Vladimir Pavlov…………………………………………………… 30

Chapter - 3 :: Aims and Procedure 33- 44

3.1 Aims…………………………………………………………………….33

3.2 Eclectic Method………………………………………………………....33

3.3 Techniques of Expanding Vocabulary………………………………….35

3.4 Scope……………………………………………………………………37

3.5 Procedure………………………………………………………………..38

3.6 Data for the Present Study……………………………………................41

3.7 Method of Gradation According to the Questionwise Performance…..42

3.8 Method of Gradation According to the Overall Performance…………43

Chapter- 4 :: Analysis of the Data and Conclusions 45-56

4.1 Lexical Structure: A Major Consideration……………………………..45

4.2 The Relative Difficulty Level of Different Questions …………………48

4.3 The Pre-Test Results……………………………………………………52

4.4 Shortcomings of the Students…………………………………………..52

4.5 The Post-Test Results…………………………………………………..53

4.6 The Overall Progress in the Use of Vocabulary……………………….53

4.7 Findings about the Pre-Test and Post-Test Results……………………54

4.8 Conclusions……………………………………………………………..55

4.9 Suggestions for Teachers……………………………………………….55

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Appendix – I……………………………………………………………57-60

Appendix – II…………………………………………………………...61-64

Appendix - III…………………………………………………………...65-66

Appendix - IV…………………………………………………………...67-68

Appendix - V…………………………………………………………...69-70

Bibliography…………………………………………………………….71-76

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Chapter1

1.1 English as an International Language

English holds a place of supreme importance as an international

language. It is the most widely used language in the world. A Chinese

and a Japanese almost automatically find themselves conversing in

English. Similarly, the crew of a Russian airliner approaching Cairo use

English to ask for landing instructions. These examples show that the use

of English is not restricted to any English-speaking country. The

significant aspect of English is its unprecedented distribution. It is the

first language of the countries like the United Kingdom, the United

States of America, New Zealand, Australia and Canada. It is the first

language of more than 320 million people. According to Kachru (1983),

‘A significant segment of the world’s population uses it as their other

tongue (as a second or foreign language. It is this side of English which

has actually elevated it to the status of an international (or universal)

language’.

There is a significant increase in the demand for English as a

foreign language in countries like Russia and China. English is a

language that informs us about the progress that has been made or is

being made in various fields anywhere in the world. English provides

access to the scientific and technical knowledge indispensable for the

political and economic development of the vast areas of the world. It is a

window that reveals to us the various facets of life.

The importance of English and its international status are

obvious when we compare the use of English in Shakespeare’s time with

that at present. In 1600, the sentences ‘He speaks English’ and ‘He is

Introduction

Creating Word-Consciousness at the Intermediate Level: A Study

2

English’ were considered to have the same meaning. English was almost

unknown outside the British Isles and it was by no means a universally

spoken language. The increase in the number of English speakers in the

world since Shakespeare’s times is in itself a reflection of the importance

of the language. Today English enjoys worldwide distribution and

immense popularity. Sinclair (1985) asserts that English is ‘no longer the

exclusive province of the native speakers’. It is no longer the language of

its native country only but has attained the status of the world language.

1.2 English in India Today

English was introduced in India by the British. Before independence the

goal set before the students of English was that of mastering the language

in order to know the English life, thoughts and literature for developing

their sensibility and expression. But after independence the goal has been

to use it as a tool to obtain up-to-date knowledge in various subjects.

The use of English in India which started as a ‘historico-political

accident’ seems to have become an economic-academic reality. Today it

occupies a place of supreme importance in India as a developing country.

It is the first language of the Anglo-Indians and it is a second language

for a large number of Indians. It is estimated that more than 18 million

Indians use English as a necessary part of their daily lives. In a few

Indian states and Union Territories English has been adopted as the

official language.

When India became independent, it was decided that Hindi

would be the official language. But in 1965, the Indian Government in

the face of bloodshed in Madras and a few other places had to assure the

people that English would continue to be used for the official purposes.

This decision was taken because Hindi was not accepted as a national

language as it was hoped. At present English seems to be the only

language that tends to encourage unity.

English is of great importance to India for the following reasons.

(a) In India different states have their own regional languages as

mediums of instruction and English is a link language used by

Dr. Shirin R. Shaikh

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these states to communicate. People belonging to different states

use English to exchange their thoughts and express their

emotions. Thus English is a unifying factor.

(b) It acquaints us with the thoughts of the English-speaking people.

It connects us with the Commonwealth, the UNO and other

foreign agencies. It also caters to our needs in foreign trades.

(c) English is the language of science and technology and so all

standard books on science and technology are available in

English but they are not available in Indian languages and

translation would never keep pace with the fast advancements in

science and technology.

(d) English still continues to be the language of competitive

examinations. It is also used at the higher levels of

administration. English is no longer a foreign language for

Indians. The Indians have a respectable literature of their own,

known as Indo-English literature. English is still the language of

the intelligentsia in India.

(e) As an international language, it serves as a link among the

countries of the world. It helps to bring the people of different

countries into close contact with each other.

The Radhakrishnan Commission emphasised the importance of

English, as it is a language rich in literature – scientific, technical and

humanistic. To give up English means to cut ourselves from the living

stream of ever-growing knowledge. This in turn would result in

deterioration of the standards of our scholarship. According to the

Radhakrishnan University Education Report (1948-49) English is the

only means of preventing our isolation from the world and we will act

unwisely if we allow ourselves to be enveloped in a dark curtain of

ignorance. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru did not agree to the idea of

discarding English. He considered English as a window on the world of

technology and wanted to give it statutory recognition as an Indian

language.

Creating Word-Consciousness at the Intermediate Level: A Study

4

1.3 The Term ‘Vocabulary’ and its Importance

In any language-teaching situation, four constituents are taken into

consideration. They are sound, structure, meaning and vocabulary. The

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2000) defines

vocabulary as, ‘all the words that someone knows, learns or uses’.

Sound, structure, meaning and vocabulary hold an equal place of

importance, but according to Morris (1964), ‘viewed in the right

perspective as a concomitant feature of the language abilities, vocabulary

is unquestionably a major consideration’.

Vocabulary is considered important because even if one wants to

frame a few sentences, one needs a stock of vocabulary. According to

Thorat et al. (2000), ‘Words are the building blocks of language’. Our

efficiency in using any particular language depends on the number of

words we know in that language. If we know more words, we can use the

language more efficiently. On other hand, if we know only a few words,

we are likely to manage with the words we know and that may lead to

using inappropriate words or using more words to convey the same

meaning. In short, if one does not know the words of a language, one

cannot use the language efficiently.

Regarding the importance of vocabulary, Spender (1980) rightly remarks

‘In order to live in the world, we must name it. Names are essential for

the construction of reality for without a name it is difficult to accept the

existence of an object, an event, a feeling. Naming is the means whereby

we attempt to order and structure the chaos and flux of existence which

would otherwise be an undifferentiated mass. By assigning names we

impose a pattern and a meaning which allows us to manipulate the

world.’

In the initial stages more attention is needed to the accuracy of

sound, rhythm and structural form, so vocabulary may be restricted to a

few words. But in higher classes it is important to enlarge the students’

vocabulary. The students at the undergraduate level are in a better

position to enlarge their vocabulary because at this level the students

know the sound system, sentence patterns and common words reasonably

well. It is also the right time to create word-consciousness among the

Dr. Shirin R. Shaikh

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students. The students at the undergraduate level feel a strong need to

enlarge their vocabulary as they are expected to express their ideas more

effectively.

1.4 Aspects of Vocabulary

There are different aspects of vocabulary. Many of these aspects have

been posited by Richards (1976) and reinforced by Taylor (1990). They

are as follows.

(a) Knowledge of Word Frequency

Knowledge of word frequency means knowing the degree of probability

of encountering a word in speech or in print. Some words in English are

more frequently used in speech than in writing. For example, words such

as ‘actually’ and ‘well’ are used more frequently in speech than in

writing, whereas words like ‘former’ and ‘latter’ occur more often in

written language. The words having high frequency form the ‘Core’

Vocabulary.

(b) Knowledge of Register

According to Taylor (1990), knowledge of register means ‘knowing the

limitations imposed on the use of the word according to variations of

function and situation’. For example, ‘Would you like to have a

cigarette?’ is a neutral formula as it is suitable in most contexts.

However, ‘Want a fag?’ may be an acceptable utterance among friends

but if made to a stranger or a person of high authority, it would be

considered impolite. It is important to label words as formal or informal

in order to avoid the use of formal words in informal situations and vice

versa. But at the elementary level, the teacher should introduce neutral

terms, as they are capable of generalisations.

(c) Knowledge of Collocation

Knowledge of collocation means knowing the syntactic behaviour of a

word and also knowing the network of associations between that word

Creating Word-Consciousness at the Intermediate Level: A Study

6

and the other words in the language. For example, the word ‘overtake’ is

a verb, normally a transitive verb followed by article + noun or pronoun.

It is likely to occur in the context of transport, with items such as ‘lane’,

‘car’ and ‘speed’.

(d) Knowledge of Morphology

Morphology is the study of word formation. The knowledge of

morphology is important as it includes the meaning of prefixes, suffixes

and identification of word classes. Many items of specialised vocabulary

consist of the root plus a prefix or suffix. For example, the word

‘unfaithful’ consists of the root ‘faith’, the prefix ‘un-’ and the suffix ‘-

ful’.

(e) Knowledge of Semantics

Knowledge of semantics means knowing what the word denotes and also

what the word connotes. According to Abrams (1993), ‘the denotation of

a word is its primary significance or reference, such as a dictionary

mainly specifies; its connotation is the range of secondary or associated

significances and feelings which it commonly suggests or implies’ (p.

36). For example, the word ‘home’ denotes the house where one lives,

but connotes cosiness, privacy and intimacy. Similarly, one must know

the different meanings associated with a word. For example, three

different meanings of ‘still’ are expressed in the following sentences.

(i) John is in Australia but his brother is still in London.

(ii) Stand still or they will shoot you.

(iii) A still is needed in the production of sugar.

The teacher at the elementary level should ignore certain

homographs but at an advanced level they must be dealt with. This helps

in clearing ambiguities.

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