Heat and Temperature

A RELATIONSHIP EXISTS BETWEEN A RELATIONSHIP EXISTS BETWEEN HEAT, TEMPERATURE, AND THE HEAT, TEMPERATURE, AND THE

MOTION AND POSITION OF MOTION AND POSITION OF MOLECULES.MOLECULES.

OVERVIEWOVERVIEW

THERMODYNAMICSTHERMODYNAMICS• STUDY OF MACROSCOPIC PROCESSES INVOLVING HEAT, STUDY OF MACROSCOPIC PROCESSES INVOLVING HEAT,

MECHANICAL AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGYMECHANICAL AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY• APPLICATIONS - SYSTEMS WITH ENERGY INPUTS AND APPLICATIONS - SYSTEMS WITH ENERGY INPUTS AND

OUTPUTS: HEAT ENGINES, HEAT PUMPS, OUTPUTS: HEAT ENGINES, HEAT PUMPS, REFRIGERATORS, …REFRIGERATORS, …

• BASED UPON BUT NOT CONCERNED WITH MICROSCOPIC BASED UPON BUT NOT CONCERNED WITH MICROSCOPIC DETAILS DETAILS

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORYKINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY

• COLLECTIVE HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE COLLECTIVE HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER AND THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER AND THE SURROUNDING SPACESURROUNDING SPACE

• CURRENT VIEWCURRENT VIEW• MATTER COMPRISED OF MICROSCOPIC PARTICLES - MATTER COMPRISED OF MICROSCOPIC PARTICLES -

ATOMSATOMS• ATOMS COMBINE TO FORM MOLECULES ATOMS COMBINE TO FORM MOLECULES • MANY MACROSCOPIC PHENOMENA CAN BE TRACED MANY MACROSCOPIC PHENOMENA CAN BE TRACED

TO INTERACTIONS ON THIS LEVEL.TO INTERACTIONS ON THIS LEVEL.

MOLECULESMOLECULES

• CHEMICAL ELEMENTS - DEFINED BY EACH CHEMICAL ELEMENTS - DEFINED BY EACH UNIQUE TYPE OF ATOMUNIQUE TYPE OF ATOM

• COMPOUNDS - PURE SUBSTANCES MADE UP OF COMPOUNDS - PURE SUBSTANCES MADE UP OF TWO OR MORE ATOMS CHEMICALLY BONDEDTWO OR MORE ATOMS CHEMICALLY BONDED

• MOLECULES MOLECULES • SMALLEST UNIT RETAINING THE PROPERTIES OF A SMALLEST UNIT RETAINING THE PROPERTIES OF A

COMPOUNDCOMPOUND• SHORTHAND HERE: “MOLECULES” CAN STAND FOR SHORTHAND HERE: “MOLECULES” CAN STAND FOR

EITHER ATOMS (MONATOMIC MOLECULES) OR EITHER ATOMS (MONATOMIC MOLECULES) OR MOLECULES MOLECULES

PHASES OF MATTER PHASES OF MATTER SOLIDSOLID

DEFINITE SHAPE DEFINITE SHAPE AND VOLUMEAND VOLUME

RIGID 3-D RIGID 3-D STRUCTURESTRUCTURE

ATOMS/MOLECULES ATOMS/MOLECULES BONDED IN PLACEBONDED IN PLACE

ALLOWED ALLOWED MOTIONS: MOTIONS:

RESTRICTED TO RESTRICTED TO VIBRATION IN PLACE VIBRATION IN PLACE

ONLY ONLY

LIQUIDLIQUIDDEFINITE VOLUME, DEFINITE VOLUME, INDEFINITE SHAPEINDEFINITE SHAPE

ONLY WEAK ONLY WEAK COHESIVE BONDS COHESIVE BONDS

CONSTITUENT CONSTITUENT MOLECULES MOLECULES MOSTLY IN MOSTLY IN CONTACTCONTACT

ALLOWED ALLOWED MOTIONS:MOTIONS:

VIBRATION, VIBRATION, ROTATION, LIMITED ROTATION, LIMITED TRANSLATIONTRANSLATION

GASGASINDEFINITE INDEFINITE VOLUMEVOLUME

AND SHAPEAND SHAPE

MOLECULES MOLECULES MOSTLY NOT IN MOSTLY NOT IN

CONTACT CONTACT

ALLOWED ALLOWED MOTIONS:MOTIONS:

VIBRATION AND VIBRATION AND ROTATION ROTATION (MOLECULES WITH (MOLECULES WITH MORE THAN ONE MORE THAN ONE ATOM)ATOM)TRANSLATION ON TRANSLATION ON RANDOM, MOSTLY RANDOM, MOSTLY FREE PATHS FREE PATHS

TEMPERATURETEMPERATURE

• A MEASURE OF THE INTERNAL A MEASURE OF THE INTERNAL ENERGY OF AN OBJECTENERGY OF AN OBJECT

• THERMOMETERSTHERMOMETERS• USED TO MEASURE TEMPERATUREUSED TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE• RELY ON THERMOMETRIC RELY ON THERMOMETRIC

PROPERTIESPROPERTIES• EXAMPLE: BIMETALLIC STRIPS AND EXAMPLE: BIMETALLIC STRIPS AND

THERMOSTATSTHERMOSTATS

HEAT HEAT

• A FORM OF ENERGY TRANSFER BETWEEN TWO A FORM OF ENERGY TRANSFER BETWEEN TWO OBJECTSOBJECTS

• EXTERNAL ENERGY - TOTAL POTENTIAL AND EXTERNAL ENERGY - TOTAL POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY OF AN EVERYDAY-SIZED KINETIC ENERGY OF AN EVERYDAY-SIZED OBJECTOBJECT

• INTERNAL ENERGY - TOTAL KINETIC ENERGY OF INTERNAL ENERGY - TOTAL KINETIC ENERGY OF THE MOLECULES IN THAT OBJECTTHE MOLECULES IN THAT OBJECT

• EXTERNAL CAN BE TRANSFERRED TO EXTERNAL CAN BE TRANSFERRED TO INTERNAL, RESULTING IN A TEMPERATURE INTERNAL, RESULTING IN A TEMPERATURE INCREASE INCREASE

HEAT VERSUS TEMPERATUREHEAT VERSUS TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURETEMPERATURE• A MEASURE OF HOTNESS OR A MEASURE OF HOTNESS OR

COLDNESS OF AN OBJECTCOLDNESS OF AN OBJECT• BASED ON AVERAGE BASED ON AVERAGE

MOLECULAR KINETIC ENERGYMOLECULAR KINETIC ENERGY

HEAT HEAT • BASED ON TOTAL INTERNAL BASED ON TOTAL INTERNAL

ENERGY OF MOLECULESENERGY OF MOLECULES• DOUBLING AMOUNT AT SAME DOUBLING AMOUNT AT SAME

TEMPERATURE DOUBLES HEAT TEMPERATURE DOUBLES HEAT

HEATHEAT

• TWO RELATED PROCESSESTWO RELATED PROCESSES• ““HEATING” = INCREASING INTERNAL ENERGYHEATING” = INCREASING INTERNAL ENERGY• ““COOLING” = DECREASING INTERNAL ENERGYCOOLING” = DECREASING INTERNAL ENERGY

• HEATING METHODSHEATING METHODS• TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE: ENERGY ALWAYS TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE: ENERGY ALWAYS

MOVES FROM HIGHER TEMPERATURE REGIONS TO MOVES FROM HIGHER TEMPERATURE REGIONS TO LOWER TEMPERATURE REGIONSLOWER TEMPERATURE REGIONS

• ENERGY-FORM CONVERSION: TRANSFER OF HEAT ENERGY-FORM CONVERSION: TRANSFER OF HEAT BY DOING WORKBY DOING WORK

HEAT FLOWHEAT FLOW

THREE MECHANISMS FOR HEAT TRANSFER THREE MECHANISMS FOR HEAT TRANSFER DUE TO A TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCEDUE TO A TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

1.1. CONDUCTIONCONDUCTION2.2. CONVECTIONCONVECTION3.3. RADIATION RADIATION

NATURAL FLOW IS ALWAYS FROM HIGHER NATURAL FLOW IS ALWAYS FROM HIGHER TEMPERATURE REGIONS TO COOLER TEMPERATURE REGIONS TO COOLER ONES ONES

THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS • THE STUDY OF HEAT AND ITS RELATIONSHIP THE STUDY OF HEAT AND ITS RELATIONSHIP

TO MECHANICAL AND OTHER FORMS OF TO MECHANICAL AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGYENERGY

• FIRST LAWFIRST LAW• CONSERVATION OF ENERGYCONSERVATION OF ENERGY

• SECOND LAWSECOND LAW• NO PROCESS CAN SOLELY CONVERT A QUANTITY OF NO PROCESS CAN SOLELY CONVERT A QUANTITY OF

HEAT TO WORK (HEAT ENGINES)HEAT TO WORK (HEAT ENGINES)• HEAT NEVER FLOWS SPONTANEOUSLY FROM A COLD HEAT NEVER FLOWS SPONTANEOUSLY FROM A COLD

OBJECT TO A HOT OBJECT (REFRIGERATORS)OBJECT TO A HOT OBJECT (REFRIGERATORS)• NATURAL PROCESSES TEND TOWARD A GREATER NATURAL PROCESSES TEND TOWARD A GREATER

STATE OF DISORDER (ENTROPY)STATE OF DISORDER (ENTROPY)

SECOND LAW, THIRD SECOND LAW, THIRD STATEMENTSTATEMENT

• REAL PROCESS = REAL PROCESS = IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS

• MEASURE OF DISORDER = MEASURE OF DISORDER = ENTROPY ENTROPY

SECOND LAW, IN THESE SECOND LAW, IN THESE TERMS: TERMS:

• THE TOTAL ENTROPY OF THE TOTAL ENTROPY OF THE UNIVERSE THE UNIVERSE CONTINUALLY INCREASES CONTINUALLY INCREASES

• NATURAL PROCESSES NATURAL PROCESSES DEGRADE COHERENT, USEFUL DEGRADE COHERENT, USEFUL ENERGYENERGY• AVAILABLE ENERGY OF AVAILABLE ENERGY OF

THE UNIVERSE THE UNIVERSE DIMINISHING DIMINISHING

• EVENTUALLY: “HEAT EVENTUALLY: “HEAT DEATH” OF THE UNIVERSE DEATH” OF THE UNIVERSE

• DIRECTION OF NATURAL DIRECTION OF NATURAL PROCESSESPROCESSES• TOWARD MORE DISORDERTOWARD MORE DISORDER• SPILLED MILK WILL NEVER SPILLED MILK WILL NEVER

“UNSPILL” BACK INTO THE “UNSPILL” BACK INTO THE GLASS!GLASS!

Atoms and Periodic Properties

DIFFERENT FIELDS OF STUDY DIFFERENT FIELDS OF STUDY CONTRIBUTED TO THE CONTRIBUTED TO THE

DEVELOPMENT OF A MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT OF A MODEL OF THE ATOM.THE ATOM.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE DISCOVEREDDISCOVERED

1.1. ALL MATTER = INDIVISIBLE ALL MATTER = INDIVISIBLE ATOMSATOMS

2.2. AN ELEMENT IS MADE UP OF AN ELEMENT IS MADE UP OF IDENTICAL ATOMS.IDENTICAL ATOMS.

3.3. DIFFERENT ELEMENTS HAVE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS HAVE ATOMS WITH DIFFERENT ATOMS WITH DIFFERENT MASSES.MASSES.

4.4. CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS ARE MADE OF ATOMS IN ARE MADE OF ATOMS IN SPECIFIC INTEGER RATIOS.SPECIFIC INTEGER RATIOS.

5.5. ATOMS ARE NEITHER ATOMS ARE NEITHER CREATED NOR DESTROYED CREATED NOR DESTROYED IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS.IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS.

EARLY MODELS OF THE ATOMEARLY MODELS OF THE ATOM• DALTON - ATOMS INDIVISIBLEDALTON - ATOMS INDIVISIBLE

• THOMSON AND MILLIKAN EXPERIMENTSTHOMSON AND MILLIKAN EXPERIMENTS• ELECTRON MASS VERY SMALL, NO MEASURABLE ELECTRON MASS VERY SMALL, NO MEASURABLE

VOLUMEVOLUME• WHAT IS THE NATURE OF AN ATOM’S POSITIVE WHAT IS THE NATURE OF AN ATOM’S POSITIVE

CHARGE?CHARGE?

• THOMSON’S “PLUM PUDDING” MODEL THOMSON’S “PLUM PUDDING” MODEL • ELECTRONS EMBEDDED IN BLOB OF POSITIVELY ELECTRONS EMBEDDED IN BLOB OF POSITIVELY

CHARGED MATTER LIKE “RAISINS IN PLUM PUDDING”CHARGED MATTER LIKE “RAISINS IN PLUM PUDDING”

THE NUCLEAR ATOMTHE NUCLEAR ATOM• ATOMIC NUMBER ATOMIC NUMBER

• NUMBER OF PROTONS NUMBER OF PROTONS IN NUCLEUSIN NUCLEUS

• ELEMENTS ELEMENTS DISTINGUISHED BY DISTINGUISHED BY ATOMIC NUMBERATOMIC NUMBER

• 113 ELEMENTS 113 ELEMENTS IDENTIFIEDIDENTIFIED

• NUMBER OF PROTONS NUMBER OF PROTONS = NUMBER OF = NUMBER OF ELECTRONS ELECTRONS IN IN NEUTRAL ATO MSNEUTRAL ATO MS

• ISOTOPES ISOTOPES • SAME NUMBER OF SAME NUMBER OF

PROTONS; DIFFERENT PROTONS; DIFFERENT NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NEUTRONSNEUTRONS

CLASSICAL “ATOMS”CLASSICAL “ATOMS”PREDICTIONS OF CLASSICAL THEORYPREDICTIONS OF CLASSICAL THEORY

• ELECTRONS ORBIT THE NUCLEUSELECTRONS ORBIT THE NUCLEUS• CURVED PATH = ACCELERATIONCURVED PATH = ACCELERATION• ACCELERATED CHARGES RADIATEACCELERATED CHARGES RADIATE• ELECTRONS LOSE ENERGY AND SPIRAL ELECTRONS LOSE ENERGY AND SPIRAL

INTO NUCLEUSINTO NUCLEUS• ATOMS CANNOT EXIST!ATOMS CANNOT EXIST! EXPERIMENT - ATOMS DO EXISTEXPERIMENT - ATOMS DO EXIST⇒⇒ NEW THEORY NEEDED NEW THEORY NEEDED

BOHR’S THEORYBOHR’S THEORY

THREE RULES:THREE RULES:1.1. ELECTRONS ONLY ELECTRONS ONLY

EXIST IN CERTAIN EXIST IN CERTAIN ALLOWED ORBITSALLOWED ORBITS

2.2. WITHIN AN ORBIT, THE WITHIN AN ORBIT, THE ELECTRON DOES NOT ELECTRON DOES NOT RADIATERADIATE

3.3. RADIATION IS EMITTED RADIATION IS EMITTED OR ABSORBED WHEN OR ABSORBED WHEN CHANGING ORBITSCHANGING ORBITS

WRITING ELECTRON WRITING ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONSCONFIGURATIONS

• ELECTRONS FILL ELECTRONS FILL AVAILABLE ORBITALS IN AVAILABLE ORBITALS IN ORDER OF INCREASING ORDER OF INCREASING ENERGYENERGY

• SHELL CAPACITIESSHELL CAPACITIES• S = 2S = 2• P = 6P = 6• D = 10D = 10• F = 14F = 14

• EXAMPLE: STRONTIUM EXAMPLE: STRONTIUM (38 ELECTRONS) (38 ELECTRONS) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d 104p65s2

PERIODIC CHEMICAL PERIODIC CHEMICAL PROPERTIESPROPERTIES

• UNDERSTOOD IN UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF ELECTRON TERMS OF ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONCONFIGURATION

• ELECTRONS IN ELECTRONS IN OUTER ORBITS OUTER ORBITS DETERMINE DETERMINE CHEMICAL CHEMICAL PROPERTIESPROPERTIES

• SUMMARIZED IN THE SUMMARIZED IN THE PERIODIC TABLEPERIODIC TABLE

• ROWS = PERIODSROWS = PERIODS• COLUMNS = FAMILIES COLUMNS = FAMILIES

OR GROUPSOR GROUPS• ALKALI METALS (IA)ALKALI METALS (IA)• ALKALINE EARTHS (IIA) ALKALINE EARTHS (IIA) • HALOGENS (VIIA)HALOGENS (VIIA)• NOBLE GASES (VIIIA)NOBLE GASES (VIIIA)

• A-GROUP FAMILIES = A-GROUP FAMILIES = MAIN GROUP OR MAIN GROUP OR REPRESENTATIVE REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTSELEMENTS

• B-GROUP = B-GROUP = TRANSITION TRANSITION ELEMENTS OR ELEMENTS OR METALS METALS

THE PERIODIC TABLE THE PERIODIC TABLE

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Atmosphere of Earth

• THE ATMOSPHERE IS A THE ATMOSPHERE IS A THIN SHELL OF GASES THIN SHELL OF GASES THAT SURROUND THE THAT SURROUND THE SOLID EARTH, SOLID EARTH, CYCLING MATERIALS CYCLING MATERIALS BACK AND FORTH.BACK AND FORTH.

THE ATMOSPHERETHE ATMOSPHEREA RELATIVELY THIN A RELATIVELY THIN SHELL OF GASES SHELL OF GASES

SURROUNDING THE SURROUNDING THE SOLID EARTHSOLID EARTH

DENSITY DECREASES DENSITY DECREASES WITH INCREASING WITH INCREASING

ALTITUDE ALTITUDE 50% WITHIN 5.6 KM OF 50% WITHIN 5.6 KM OF EARTH’S SURFACEEARTH’S SURFACE99% WITHIN 32 KM OF 99% WITHIN 32 KM OF THE SURFACETHE SURFACE

EARTH’S RADIUS = EARTH’S RADIUS = 6,373 KM6,373 KM32/6,373 = 1/20032/6,373 = 1/200

COMPOSITION OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHEREATMOSPHERE

• MOSTLY NITROGEN (78%), MOSTLY NITROGEN (78%), OXYGEN (21%) AND ARGON OXYGEN (21%) AND ARGON (1%)(1%)• NITROGEN AND OXYGEN NITROGEN AND OXYGEN

CYCLE IN AND OUT OF CYCLE IN AND OUT OF ATMOSPHEREATMOSPHERE

• ARGON: INERT; OF ARGON: INERT; OF RADIOACTIVE ORIGINSRADIOACTIVE ORIGINS

• TRACE COMPONENTSTRACE COMPONENTS• WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE,

NEON, HELIUM, KRYPTON, NEON, HELIUM, KRYPTON, XENON, HYDROGEN, XENON, HYDROGEN, METHANE, NITROUS OXIDE, … METHANE, NITROUS OXIDE, …

• AEROSOLS: DUST, SMOKE, AEROSOLS: DUST, SMOKE, SALT AND OTHER TINY SOLID SALT AND OTHER TINY SOLID OR LIQUID PARTICLES OR LIQUID PARTICLES

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE • HYDROSTATIC VIEWHYDROSTATIC VIEW

• MACROSCOPIC FLUID MACROSCOPIC FLUID APPROACHAPPROACH

• PRESSURE RESULTS PRESSURE RESULTS FROM THE WEIGHT OF FROM THE WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE THE ATMOSPHERE ABOVE YOUABOVE YOU

• RESULT OF EARTH’S RESULT OF EARTH’S GRAVITATIONAL GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTIONATTRACTION

• PRESSURE INCREASES PRESSURE INCREASES WITH ATMOSPHERIC WITH ATMOSPHERIC DEPTH DEPTH

• MOLECULAR VIEWMOLECULAR VIEW• MICROSCOPIC MICROSCOPIC

APPROACHAPPROACH• PRESSURE DEPENDS PRESSURE DEPENDS

ON THE NUMBER OF ON THE NUMBER OF MOLECULES AND THE MOLECULES AND THE FORCE WITH WHICH FORCE WITH WHICH THEY STRIKE A THEY STRIKE A SURFACESURFACE

• MORE MOLECULES AT MORE MOLECULES AT LOWER ALTITUDES LOWER ALTITUDES PRODUCE HIGHER PRODUCE HIGHER PRESSURE PRESSURE

WARMING THE ATMOSPHERE WARMING THE ATMOSPHERE • HEATED BY INCOMING SOLAR HEATED BY INCOMING SOLAR

RADIATIONRADIATION• DIRECT HEATINGDIRECT HEATING

• 16% ABSORBED BY AIR16% ABSORBED BY AIR• 3% ABSORBED BY CLOUDS3% ABSORBED BY CLOUDS

• INDIRECT HEATINGINDIRECT HEATING• 51% ABSORBED BY 51% ABSORBED BY

SURFACESURFACE• INFRARED REEMITTED BY INFRARED REEMITTED BY

SURFACE AND ABSORBED SURFACE AND ABSORBED BY ATMOSPHEREBY ATMOSPHERE

• INVOLVES WATER AND COINVOLVES WATER AND CO2 2

• GREENHOUSE EFFECTGREENHOUSE EFFECT• LOSSESLOSSES

• 20% REFLECTED BY CLOUDS20% REFLECTED BY CLOUDS• 6% SCATTERED BY AIR6% SCATTERED BY AIR• 4% REFLECTED BY SURFACE4% REFLECTED BY SURFACE

STRUCTURE OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE ATMOSPHERE

• TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE GENERALLY GENERALLY DECREASES WITH DECREASES WITH INCREASING ALTITUDEINCREASING ALTITUDE• HEATING MECHANISMS HEATING MECHANISMS

MORE EFFICIENT AT LOWER MORE EFFICIENT AT LOWER ALTITUDESALTITUDES

• COOLING MECHANISMS COOLING MECHANISMS MORE PRONOUNCED AT MORE PRONOUNCED AT HIGHER ALTITUDESHIGHER ALTITUDES

• O BSERVED LAPSE RATEO BSERVED LAPSE RATE IS IS 6.5ºC PER KM6.5ºC PER KM

• INVERSION: COLDER INVERSION: COLDER TEMPERATURES NEAR TEMPERATURES NEAR SURFACE SURFACE

THE WIND THE WIND

THREE GENERAL MOTIONSTHREE GENERAL MOTIONS

1.1. UPWARD MOVEMENT OVER A REGION OF UPWARD MOVEMENT OVER A REGION OF GREATER HEATINGGREATER HEATING

2.2. SINKING OF AIR OVER A COOLER REGIONSINKING OF AIR OVER A COOLER REGION

3.3. HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT BETWEEN WARMER HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT BETWEEN WARMER AND COOLER REGIONSAND COOLER REGIONS• WIND: THIS HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT OF AIRWIND: THIS HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT OF AIR

LOCAL WIND PATTERNS LOCAL WIND PATTERNS

GLOBAL WIND PATTERNSGLOBAL WIND PATTERNS

• EARTH RECEIVES EARTH RECEIVES MORE DIRECT SOLAR MORE DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION IN THE RADIATION IN THE EQUATORIAL REGIONEQUATORIAL REGION

• INTERTROPICAL INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONECONVERGENCE ZONE

• COOLER AIR COOLER AIR DESCENDS AT HIGHER DESCENDS AT HIGHER LATITUDESLATITUDES

• JET STREAMJET STREAM

WATER AND THE ATMOSPHEREWATER AND THE ATMOSPHERE

THREE PHASES OF WATERTHREE PHASES OF WATER1.1. LIQUID GENERALLY ABOVE 0ºC (98% OF EARTH’S LIQUID GENERALLY ABOVE 0ºC (98% OF EARTH’S

WATER)WATER)

2.2. SOLID BELOW 0ºC IN THE FORM OF ICE, SNOW AND SOLID BELOW 0ºC IN THE FORM OF ICE, SNOW AND HAIL HAIL

3.3. WATER VAPORWATER VAPOR• SMALLEST COMPONENT OF THE THREESMALLEST COMPONENT OF THE THREE• CONTRIBUTES TO GREENHOUSE EFFECTCONTRIBUTES TO GREENHOUSE EFFECT• ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL WEATHERING AND EROSION ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL WEATHERING AND EROSION

AGENTSAGENTS• RESPONSIBLE FOR MAINTAINING LIFE ON LAND RESPONSIBLE FOR MAINTAINING LIFE ON LAND

EVAPORATION AND EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATIONCONDENSATION

• LIQUID-TO-GAS AND LIQUID-TO-GAS AND GAS-TO-LIQUID PHASE GAS-TO-LIQUID PHASE CHANGES OCCUR AT CHANGES OCCUR AT ANY TEMPERATUREANY TEMPERATURE

• SATURATION SATURATION

HUMIDITY HUMIDITY • ABSOLUTE HUMIDITYABSOLUTE HUMIDITY

• THE AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOR THE AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOR IN THE AIR AT A PARTICULAR IN THE AIR AT A PARTICULAR TIMETIME

• RANGES FROM NEAR ZERO TO RANGES FROM NEAR ZERO TO THE TEMPERATURE THE TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT SATURATION LIMITDEPENDENT SATURATION LIMIT

• RELATIVE HUMIDITYRELATIVE HUMIDITY• A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE

ACTUAL ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY ACTUAL ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY AND THE MAXIMUM ABSOLUTE AND THE MAXIMUM ABSOLUTE HUMIDITYHUMIDITY

• CAN BE MEASURED WITH A CAN BE MEASURED WITH A PSYCHROMETER PSYCHROMETER

FOG AND CLOUDSFOG AND CLOUDS

• FOG - NEAR THE FOG - NEAR THE GROUND; CLOUDS - GROUND; CLOUDS - HIGHER UP HIGHER UP

• COMPRISED OF COMPRISED OF SMALL, SUSPENDED SMALL, SUSPENDED WATER DROPLETSWATER DROPLETS

• FORM AROUND FORM AROUND CONDENSATION CONDENSATION NUCLEINUCLEI• PARTICLES ABOUT WHICH PARTICLES ABOUT WHICH

FOG OR CLOUD FOG OR CLOUD DROPLETS FORMDROPLETS FORM

FOG AND CLOUDSFOG AND CLOUDS

• CLOUD CLOUD CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION SCHEMESSCHEMES• CIRRUS (CURLY), CIRRUS (CURLY),

CUMULUS (PILED CUMULUS (PILED UP), STRATUS UP), STRATUS (SPREAD OUT) (SPREAD OUT)