Critical approaches Critical approaches to television to television

studiesstudies

1. Introduction1. Introduction

Robert Allen (1992) Robert Allen (1992) ––

““How are meanings and pleasures How are meanings and pleasures produced in our engagements with television?produced in our engagements with television?””

––

This This

places criticism firmly in the area of audience places criticism firmly in the area of audience interaction with text (also the area which cultural interaction with text (also the area which cultural studies has particularly adopted).studies has particularly adopted).

However, answers to his question donHowever, answers to his question don’’t preclude critical t preclude critical examination of related questions, examination of related questions, egeg. The commercial . The commercial and political forces which shape the television with and political forces which shape the television with which we engage.which we engage.

Thus a sensible model for criticism would be one which Thus a sensible model for criticism would be one which has to do with process, which recognises the has to do with process, which recognises the interrelationships between institution, text, audience interrelationships between institution, text, audience and cultural context.and cultural context.

Allen recognises this complexity when he comments on Allen recognises this complexity when he comments on the unsatisfactory nature of the unsatisfactory nature of quantitative research (quantitative research (egeg

content analysis) in trying to make sense of television. content analysis) in trying to make sense of television. He refers to the different agendas of social scientists He refers to the different agendas of social scientists and to the considerable body of research which is taken and to the considerable body of research which is taken up with the supposed influence and effects of televisionup with the supposed influence and effects of television

John Hartley (John Hartley (Reading TelevisionReading Television, 1998) , 1998) ––

negative negative views exist about TV as a medium. views exist about TV as a medium.

He talks aboutHe talks about““the homethe home--talk of the knowledge class; the class talk of the knowledge class; the class which wants to take power over information which wants to take power over information media and cultural technologies like television, media and cultural technologies like television, not only by running the culture business on not only by running the culture business on behalf of the shareholders and stakeholders, but behalf of the shareholders and stakeholders, but by regulating it, and controlling the by regulating it, and controlling the literaciesliteracies

and and

discourses by means of which it is understooddiscourses by means of which it is understood””..

2. Models of the mass media 2. Models of the mass media –– theoretical approachestheoretical approaches

••

According to Graeme Burton (2000), television (and According to Graeme Burton (2000), television (and those who operate the television system) is a part of those who operate the television system) is a part of society and culture, and not a separate entity which society and culture, and not a separate entity which impinges on society from impinges on society from ““withoutwithout””..

••

Nevertheless, TV makers and performers are placed in Nevertheless, TV makers and performers are placed in a special position within society by virtue of their access a special position within society by virtue of their access to TV production.to TV production.

••

Culture and society are largely indistinguishable from Culture and society are largely indistinguishable from one another: social structures and relationships are one another: social structures and relationships are driven by cultural values, are an expression of these driven by cultural values, are an expression of these values.values.

••

Culture is manifested through the artefacts and the Culture is manifested through the artefacts and the behaviours of a society: social interaction is a form of behaviours of a society: social interaction is a form of cultural behaviour: TV is a form of cultural behaviour.cultural behaviour: TV is a form of cultural behaviour.

••

We assume meanings, values, ideologies within these We assume meanings, values, ideologies within these artefacts and behaviours.artefacts and behaviours.

••

We construct those meanings under the influence of We construct those meanings under the influence of the very ideologies which we are attempting to define.the very ideologies which we are attempting to define.

••

Therefore critical detachment is a mental feat: it may Therefore critical detachment is a mental feat: it may even be argued that our notions of objectivity are even be argued that our notions of objectivity are themselves subjective.themselves subjective.

BurtonBurton’’s points draw attention to the s points draw attention to the following:following:

••

That talking about TV requires scepticism about That talking about TV requires scepticism about objectivityobjectivity

••

That views about TV may coThat views about TV may co--exist and not be mutually exist and not be mutually exclusiveexclusive

••

That all the concepts expressed in this course stand in That all the concepts expressed in this course stand in some relation to one another and not alonesome relation to one another and not alone

••

That the central thrust of criticism seems to reflect on That the central thrust of criticism seems to reflect on what meanings are produced how, by whom, and with what meanings are produced how, by whom, and with what social and cultural significance.what social and cultural significance.

Granville Williams (1996) Granville Williams (1996) –– two views two views of the role and function of media in of the role and function of media in

society as either:society as either:••

Media which impose commercial values on everything, Media which impose commercial values on everything, and their views on the audience, which functions as and their views on the audience, which functions as consumer, orconsumer, or

••

Media which are diverse and pluralistic, creative and Media which are diverse and pluralistic, creative and aware that too much media power can work against the aware that too much media power can work against the interest of democracy.interest of democracy.

(This is essentially a contrast between determinism and (This is essentially a contrast between determinism and pluralism).pluralism).

Marxism Marxism ––

determinismdeterminism

Marxist views of society and then the media Marxist views of society and then the media developed throughout the 20developed throughout the 20thth

C. They remain C. They remain

hugely influential and useful. They focus on hugely influential and useful. They focus on economic determinism, class relations and the economic determinism, class relations and the exercise of power and control within social exercise of power and control within social structures. They are sometimes described as structures. They are sometimes described as control theories.control theories.

TV does partly exemplify the idea that society is TV does partly exemplify the idea that society is driven by capital and economic forces. driven by capital and economic forces. Commercial TV is funded by a capitalist system. Commercial TV is funded by a capitalist system. TV programmes discuss the influence of TV programmes discuss the influence of economic forces. And developments in TV economic forces. And developments in TV ––

whether these be new kinds of programmes or whether these be new kinds of programmes or the digital expansion of new channels the digital expansion of new channels ––

are are

driven by economic interests: creating new driven by economic interests: creating new markets, and making more money.markets, and making more money.

TV also represents class relations TV also represents class relations ––

e.g. Keeping e.g. Keeping Up Appearances, News (creates elite persons Up Appearances, News (creates elite persons ––

shows some and not others) etcshows some and not others) etc

TV also represents power relations TV also represents power relations ––

e.g. explicitly e.g. explicitly in the ways programmes show men treating in the ways programmes show men treating women, implicitly as a way of exercising power women, implicitly as a way of exercising power over large sections of society, by representing over large sections of society, by representing certain ways of thinking and behaving as certain ways of thinking and behaving as ““naturalnatural””

and others as not. (Different and others as not. (Different

treatments are all expressions of ideology).treatments are all expressions of ideology).

PluralismPluralism

Pluralist view is about the notion of variety and Pluralist view is about the notion of variety and choice choice ––

of channels, of programmes, of of channels, of programmes, of

opinions. This choice exists, but within limits.opinions. This choice exists, but within limits.

E.g. channel development E.g. channel development ––

kids, sport, kids, sport, documentary, music documentary, music ––

but nothing for disabled but nothing for disabled

people. Same with programmes.people. Same with programmes.

LibertarianismLibertarianism

Another view of the way that media do and should Another view of the way that media do and should operate, which approximates to the notion that absolute operate, which approximates to the notion that absolute freedom is right in principle, and if allowed to exist, will freedom is right in principle, and if allowed to exist, will sort out everything else.sort out everything else.

Idea sounds right, but in practical terms is nonsense. You Idea sounds right, but in practical terms is nonsense. You are not free to start up a TV station because you feel are not free to start up a TV station because you feel like it like it ––

the capital costs favour existing rich players, let the capital costs favour existing rich players, let

alone government constraints.alone government constraints.

Social responsibilitySocial responsibility

This view argues that TV has a freedom modified This view argues that TV has a freedom modified by a sense of responsibility. Theory originally by a sense of responsibility. Theory originally applied to press.applied to press.

Anyway, most Anyway, most govsgovs

not optimistic about the not optimistic about the notion of notion of ““naturalnatural””

responsibility, which is why responsibility, which is why

broadcasting acts and other mechanisms provide broadcasting acts and other mechanisms provide restraints.restraints.

3. Process models 3. Process models –– key conceptskey concepts

If one takes terms such as institution, product, If one takes terms such as institution, product, audience, context, then a process approach audience, context, then a process approach would argue that understanding of one element would argue that understanding of one element is a product of understanding of all elements and is a product of understanding of all elements and their relation to one another.their relation to one another.

The downside of some critical approaches is that The downside of some critical approaches is that they look at the parts rather than at the whole.they look at the parts rather than at the whole.

A process model: the interrelationship of some A process model: the interrelationship of some

key areas in TV studieskey areas in TV studies..

Social and cultural contextSocial and cultural contextCommercial contextCommercial context

context of viewingcontext of viewing

TV as institutionTV as institution

as medium:as medium: as text:as text:

as audience:as audience:

of production andof production and

broadcast,broadcast, advertsadverts

broadcastingbroadcasting

distributiondistribution

cable,cable,

programmesprogrammes

etc groups &etc groups &satellitesatellite

individualsindividuals

Feedback and interrelationships:Feedback and interrelationships:TV ratings, market research programmesTV ratings, market research programmeswith audience with audience ““participationparticipation””

4. Ideologies4. Ideologies

The notion of ideology The notion of ideology ––

systems of ideas about systems of ideas about the world the world ––

both emerges from and informs any both emerges from and informs any

study of media. Where the ideas are systematic study of media. Where the ideas are systematic enough, they will be given labels enough, they will be given labels egeg, capitalism. , capitalism. Thus in a sense religions are also ideologies. Thus in a sense religions are also ideologies. These ideas include the values and beliefs which These ideas include the values and beliefs which drive our social behaviour and which define our drive our social behaviour and which define our convictions about power relations convictions about power relations ––

who should who should

have power, and who should not.have power, and who should not.

An ideology is part of our consciousness because it An ideology is part of our consciousness because it is what weis what we’’ve grown up with ve grown up with ––

something we something we

share with others in our culture. It is always a share with others in our culture. It is always a collective thing; the very notion of individualism collective thing; the very notion of individualism is itself part of our ideology. is itself part of our ideology. EgEg

formative formative

growing up years growing up years ––

include family, education, include family, education, how TV makes sense of the world for us. These how TV makes sense of the world for us. These ““waysways””

are ideologically determined.are ideologically determined.

TV is an agent or carrier of ideology. TV is an agent or carrier of ideology. AlthusserAlthusser would call it an ideological state apparatus.would call it an ideological state apparatus.

It is a means by which the interests and values of It is a means by which the interests and values of those who have power are made part of the those who have power are made part of the thinking of those over whom power is exerted, thinking of those over whom power is exerted, though the exercise of that power is largely though the exercise of that power is largely invisible.invisible.

Ideology is not political in a partisan sense Ideology is not political in a partisan sense ––

ieie

not not only leftwing. Rather, all social relations have a only leftwing. Rather, all social relations have a political dimension because they all have political dimension because they all have dimensions of inequalities of power, and of the dimensions of inequalities of power, and of the beliefs which inform these inequalities.beliefs which inform these inequalities.

TV, in a variety of programmes, represents TV, in a variety of programmes, represents ideology in action. It cannot help being ideology in action. It cannot help being ideological. It may not consciously promote or ideological. It may not consciously promote or reproduce inequalities, but the fact that it reproduce inequalities, but the fact that it actually does so means that it cannot be actually does so means that it cannot be regarded as regarded as ““innocentinnocent””..

5. 5. CommodificationCommodification

Further extension of Marxist rationale. In the Further extension of Marxist rationale. In the context of TV it applies to:context of TV it applies to:

••

The cultural artefacts which TV programmes areThe cultural artefacts which TV programmes are••

What lies behind the social behaviours and What lies behind the social behaviours and exchanges which TV depictsexchanges which TV depicts

••

Audiences themselves, who are measured and Audiences themselves, who are measured and described by ratings research, and sold as described by ratings research, and sold as commodities. commodities.

Important to remember that TV programmes are Important to remember that TV programmes are commodities which are bought and sold commodities which are bought and sold ––

have have

material value.material value.Also can become cultural goods in themselves Also can become cultural goods in themselves ––

egeg

keeping up with keeping up with eGolieGoli

can become a cool cultural can become a cool cultural activity.activity.

6. Representation6. Representation

Representation: the depiction of social groups and Representation: the depiction of social groups and institutions.institutions.

Not merely about appearance and description, but also Not merely about appearance and description, but also about the meanings (or values) behind the appearance.about the meanings (or values) behind the appearance.

Because TV is a visual medium it provides us with icons, Because TV is a visual medium it provides us with icons, pictures of people and groups which at least look like pictures of people and groups which at least look like life, even if they are only electronic constructs..life, even if they are only electronic constructs..

Our perception of others in life is also dominated by an Our perception of others in life is also dominated by an inclination to assign them to categories and to make inclination to assign them to categories and to make judgements about those categories.judgements about those categories.

These judgements inform our reading of TV These judgements inform our reading of TV representations, and there are three experiences representations, and there are three experiences through which these judgements may be formed:through which these judgements may be formed:

1.1.

We read the utterances and the nonWe read the utterances and the non--verbal behaviour verbal behaviour of people on TV as we would in real life of people on TV as we would in real life ––

social social

experience.experience.2.2.

There are also the judgements we may be inclined to There are also the judgements we may be inclined to make through our media experience of reading TV make through our media experience of reading TV characters or TV narratives.characters or TV narratives.

3.3.

Layered onto this is the encoding of TV material by Layered onto this is the encoding of TV material by its makers (its makers (egeg

use of camera) use of camera) ––

indirect experience..indirect experience..

7. Textual analysis 7. Textual analysis –– image, semiotic, image, semiotic, structuralstructural

Image analysisImage analysisGood approach Good approach ––

distinguish between:distinguish between:

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What makes up the imageWhat makes up the image••

What it may meanWhat it may mean

••

What helps fix the meaningsWhat helps fix the meanings

In other words, denotation, connotation, In other words, denotation, connotation, anchorage.anchorage.

Another approach, looking at three other elements Another approach, looking at three other elements in the search for meaning:in the search for meaning:

••

The positioning of the viewer in relation to the The positioning of the viewer in relation to the text, through the positioning of the camera in text, through the positioning of the camera in relation to its subject;relation to its subject;

••

The treatment of the image in terms of devices The treatment of the image in terms of devices of form, such as focus, foregrounding, framing, of form, such as focus, foregrounding, framing, colour;colour;

••

The context of the image in terms of what is The context of the image in terms of what is depicted, how these items are juxtaposed, what depicted, how these items are juxtaposed, what symbolic connotations they may have.symbolic connotations they may have.

Semiotic analysisSemiotic analysisThis approach draws on theories about sign and This approach draws on theories about sign and

meaning.meaning.Have signifier Have signifier ––

the sign element the sign element egeg

coke can coke can

(denotation)(denotation)signifiedssignifieds

––

possible meanings possible meanings ––

happiness.. happiness..

(connotation)(connotation)signification signification ––

meaning for viewer, viewer meaning for viewer, viewer

chooseschooses

CODES are another semiotic concept.CODES are another semiotic concept.Codes Codes ––

coherent systems of signs, made coherent coherent systems of signs, made coherent

and meaningful by conventions or rules as to and meaningful by conventions or rules as to how they are used.how they are used.

EgEg

photograph photograph ––

how has the subject been how has the subject been photographed?photographed?

Structural analysisStructural analysisStructuralism usually used with semiotics. Has much to do Structuralism usually used with semiotics. Has much to do

with the organisation of and the meanings in narrativeswith the organisation of and the meanings in narrativesTwo concepts here:Two concepts here:SyntagmSyntagm

––

coherent collection of signs, perhaps from coherent collection of signs, perhaps from

different codes, which form a definite unit (building different codes, which form a definite unit (building block) of narrative. We recognise this instinctively when block) of narrative. We recognise this instinctively when referring to shot, sequence, scene, episode etc.referring to shot, sequence, scene, episode etc.

Binary oppositions Binary oppositions ––

most obviously symbolised by most obviously symbolised by opposing protagonists (heroes and villains) opposing protagonists (heroes and villains) ––

are a way are a way

of structuring ideas and plot lines.of structuring ideas and plot lines.

8. Discourse analysis8. Discourse analysis

Discourse refers to collections of meanings about Discourse refers to collections of meanings about a given subject.a given subject.

Discourses have a great deal to do with ideology Discourses have a great deal to do with ideology because their meanings are ideological.because their meanings are ideological.

Also obviously includes representation if discourse Also obviously includes representation if discourse is discussing different types of people.is discussing different types of people.

9. Genre study9. Genre study

The very fact that so much of TV product can be The very fact that so much of TV product can be categorised is highly significant in terms of categorised is highly significant in terms of understanding the relationship of the audience with it, understanding the relationship of the audience with it, and the commercial structures which produce it. Genre and the commercial structures which produce it. Genre study leads to:study leads to:

••

Understanding of audience pleasuresUnderstanding of audience pleasures••

Revelation of cultural mythsRevelation of cultural myths

••

Understanding of finance and marketing within TV Understanding of finance and marketing within TV institutionsinstitutions

••

Understanding of Understanding of intertextualityintertextuality

and postmodernist and postmodernist forms of TVforms of TV

10. Audience study10. Audience study

Audience studies have shifted from influence or Audience studies have shifted from influence or effects theories, toeffects theories, to

••

How particular audiences understand TVHow particular audiences understand TV••

What they do with itWhat they do with it

••

How they construct meanings about the worldHow they construct meanings about the world

Broadcasting audience research involves:Broadcasting audience research involves:••

How many of what kind of audience are How many of what kind of audience are watching at a given time (TV ratings)watching at a given time (TV ratings)

••

What attracts audiences to certain kinds of What attracts audiences to certain kinds of programmesprogrammes

••

What do audiences object to in programmesWhat do audiences object to in programmes••

How do audiences differ in region or gender in How do audiences differ in region or gender in terms of what they preferterms of what they prefer

••

Are factual programmes regarded as being Are factual programmes regarded as being objective and impartialobjective and impartial

11. Gender studies11. Gender studies

Largely feminist criticism, but also masculinity Largely feminist criticism, but also masculinity studies now!studies now!

12. Cultural studies12. Cultural studies

TV is a form of culture, an expression of culture and a TV is a form of culture, an expression of culture and a medium through which culture is mediated to its medium through which culture is mediated to its audiences. Look at any drama!audiences. Look at any drama!

But they also carry and transform cultural activities such But they also carry and transform cultural activities such as sport, which are not originated by TV itself. Thus as sport, which are not originated by TV itself. Thus TV both generates and mediates cultural experience.TV both generates and mediates cultural experience.

Cultural studies not in itself a critical method so much as a Cultural studies not in itself a critical method so much as a critical perspective, with particular areas of interest and critical perspective, with particular areas of interest and particular concepts used to make sense of those areas. particular concepts used to make sense of those areas.

Cultural studies is interested in:Cultural studies is interested in:

••

Differences and similarities between social Differences and similarities between social groups, and what defines those differencesgroups, and what defines those differences

••

Identities of social groups and how these Identities of social groups and how these empower or empower or disempowerdisempower

themthem

••

How language is used to construct How language is used to construct representation and meaningrepresentation and meaning

••

Cultural production Cultural production ––

popular cultural material popular cultural material which appeals to large audienceswhich appeals to large audiences

••

Consumption and commodities (as described in Consumption and commodities (as described in Marxist terms). Marxist terms). ––

the argument that TV the argument that TV

contributes to a cultural process in which goods contributes to a cultural process in which goods are invested with a value beyond their basic are invested with a value beyond their basic financial worthfinancial worth

••

Regulation Regulation ––

because this shapes production and because this shapes production and consumption (consumption (ieie

the forces which regulate, the forces which regulate,

constrain and control TV)constrain and control TV)••

Social practices which are around and behind Social practices which are around and behind the process of consumption, like fashion and the process of consumption, like fashion and music.music.

The study of popular culture linked with concepts The study of popular culture linked with concepts of ideology and hegemony of ideology and hegemony ––

if ideology about a if ideology about a

dominant view of world held by powerful dominant view of world held by powerful groups, hegemony is more about how that groups, hegemony is more about how that dominance is maintained.dominance is maintained.