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CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY

Introduction

Kellner and Share (2005) define the term ‘literacy’ as more than merely gaining the

‘intellectual tools to participate in one’s culture and society’; they see literacy as a set of

competences in ‘practices in contexts that are governed by rules and conventions’ (p. 369).

Being literate is therefore about being able to understand and question the underlying

social, cultural and political forces that shape society. In today’s world, the media, in all

shapes and forms, is an influential source of information, and as a result, a powerful channel

through which ideologies can either be preserved or challenged. Critical media literacy is an

educational movement which aim is to expose the fabricated nature of media messages and

their hidden agenda, be it economic or ideological, with a view to transform power

relationships and society as a whole. For the purpose of this assignment, I selected the

Discover Ireland website as a result of my amusement at their new television advert in

which a group of friends make plans for a holiday break. They finally agree on a series of

outdoor activities such as hill walking, pony trekking, cycling, outdoor dining and fireworks.

The amusing aspect of this advert is that every shot taken by the camera includes a great

blue sky and the soundtrack keeps blaring that it ‘all works out’. What a better example

than the Irish weather can one choose to illustrate the first two concepts built upon by

Kellner and Share (2005) that all media messages are carefully ‘wrapped up packages’ and

that they do not represent reality but only a version, or interpretation, of reality. Most

websites I have searched during the selection process seem to have a new feature in

common: slides. The front page is no longer static but contains a series of pictures, either

displayed automatically one after the other, or not, as is the case on discoverireland.ie. In

order to present a more complete overview of the front page, three printouts were

necessary, each showing a different slide, aimed, of course, at a different audience. This is

an excellent front page from a marketing perspective; colourful, happy, varied and above all,

a great slogan. In other words, it includes everything that is required for a critical media

literacy exercise through the application of Kellner and Share’s Five Core Concepts,

developed to provide students with tools to expose the media’s subjectivity and covert

agendas. Critical media literacy is a political movement without a doubt. It does not

advocate status quo but a radical remodelling of our democratic systems through the raising

of people’s understanding and awareness of gender, race and social inequalities constructed

by our Western societies, built on the conservative reproduction of elites.

Media literacy and critical media literacy

The teaching of media literacy can take different forms, which are not all critical by

nature, as explained by Kellner and Share (2007). They list four current approaches to media

literacy in the US used by various organisations and educators. The first approach is labelled

‘protectionist’ as it regards media as an all-powerful and manipulative structure destroying

peoples’ souls and against which they need to be protected in order to avoid the

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‘destruction of family values’ and the rise of materialism, while the second approach, the

media arts education, looks at the aesthetic value of the media and aims at teaching the

technical skills to ‘merely reproduce hegemonic representations’, without analysing the

hidden ideologies or their implications (pp. 60-61). The third approach, the media literacy

movement, aims at supplying people with the skills to communicate and navigate the media

confidently to participate in society. However, it does not encourage people to challenge

media content in a critical way. Looking at media ‘messages’ critically originates from the

field of cultural studies. In the first half of the 20th century, social researchers based in

Frankfurt used ‘critical social theory to analyse the ways popular culture and the new tools

of communication technology [encouraged] ideology and social control’ (Garcia, Seglem and

Share 2013, p. 110). The techniques to critically analyse media content offered many

different lenses by the end of the century, such as semiotics, multiculturalism and feminism,

while also refining theories on the power relationship between the media and the audience

as well as identifying the ‘dynamic forces that often reproduce dominant ideologies’ (ibid p.

111).

Kellner and Share argue that critical media literacy also involves exposing the social,

political and cultural objectives of the media and the ruling elites, with a view to bring about

‘democratic social change’ for a fairer world (Kellner and Share 2007, p. 62). It is not enough

to understand what the media is doing or how it is doing it, we need to apply this

knowledge in order to change the social and political order; to uncover the real intentions

and expose them for what they are: the mere reproduction of elites based on inequalities

and discrimination (Kellner and Share 2005, p. 370). In order to deconstruct the media

message, Kellner and Share recommend teachers the use of five core concepts developed

by the Center for Media Literacy and which I will be using as a guide in my analysis of the

Discover Ireland webpage.

First and Second Core Concepts: All media messages are ‘constructed’, using ‘a creative

language with its own rules’.

As Chris Worsnop (1989) puts it, nothing, in a media message, ‘is there by accident’

(p. 54). Everything from the choice of colours to the choice of fonts, graphics and layout

techniques has been carefully thought through, as well as how the ‘product’ is being

represented. Yet, the objective of these well wrapped-up packages is to be as ‘non-

problematic and transparent’ as possible (Kellner and Share 2005, p. 374). Audiences need

to be convinced that media messages are natural, that they depict reality as opposed to an

elaborate representation of it. These two core concepts rely on the science of signs, i.e.

semiotics, to explain how ‘meanings are socially produced’ and how the objective and

subjective layers of a message are being merged to produce this natural aspect and make

‘the historical and social construction invisible’ (Kellner and Share 2005, p. 374).

As explained above, the front page of discoverireland.ie has some static and some

mobile elements to it. The brand name is at the top of the page with the inescapable social

media icons, which can also be seen at the bottom of the page. The main drop down menus

appear just underneath the title and allow us to go directly into the website. However, the

six slides take central stage and are key to the dissemination of the media message. The

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three slides I have selected are of particular interest for the purpose of this assignment.

Each photograph targets a different audience; couples, families and groups of friends.

However, the structure of the slogan is the same for the three pictures as they all start with:

‘# this is’. The message is clear; Discover Ireland is going to tell people what is romantic,

what is family, and what is friendship. They are our guides, they will define those terms for

us and provide us with examples of what these terms mean; dinners, castles and forest

walks are romantic, beaches, ponies and sandcastles are THE family activities, and white

water rafting the optimum male bonding challenge! These are, of course, representations of

reality where everyone is having fun, where the food and the company are divine, where

the children are well behaved and, above all, where the sun always shines. However,

Worsnop (1989) warns us that ‘no picture can tell the whole truth’ and that the media are

‘engines that construct reality for their consumers’ (p. 33). They show us a perfect version of

reality, which is rarely achieved. The format of the slogan is also interesting. Messages on a

specific topic are now all preceded by the hashtag, sign of a trendy phrase, which one hopes

will turn into the summer catchphrase. They have toned down the patronising and

authoritative ‘this is’ through the use of small letters and italics. In addition, the colour

white ensures it stays in the background while the front stage is taken by the main word of

the message, in capital letters. The colour coding is a message in itself too; pink for

romantic, yellow for family and red for male friendship. The choice of colours is not an

accident either as colours have different psychological meanings. According to colour

psychology, pink is the colour of romance, love and friendship, best represented by the

couple on the picture, while yellow is the colour of ‘sunshine, […] joy, happiness [and]

energy’, which is everything portrayed by this photo of a family on the beach. Finally, red is

the colour of ‘fire and blood […] associated with energy […], danger, strength, power, […] it

also increases respiration rates and raises blood pressure’, similar to a white water rafting

experience (Parker 2013, accessed 28 May 2014). Nothing is there by accident, everything is

created, constructed and designed to facilitate the dissemination of the media message,

Fourth Core Concept: Content and message – embedded values and ideology

Kellner and Share (2005) argue that media representations ‘help construct our

images and understanding of the world’ (p. 370). Most information is disseminated via

media channels, e.g. TV, radio, newspapers or blogs. As a result, our perception of the world

is being constructed through what we see, hear or read in the media; the manner in which

social groups and cultures are being portrayed by them, is how they will be perceived by us.

The danger in this process of acquiring knowledge lies in the ‘inclusion of some groups and

the exclusion of others’, and in the fact that ‘representations benefit dominant and

positively represented groups and disadvantage marginalised and subordinate ones’ (Ibid. p.

370). The Discover Ireland webpage is a great example of this as the three photographs

seem to portray only one particular racial and social group: the white Irish middle-class. The

‘romantic’ couple in a restaurant setting appears to be in their forties or fifties; the woman’s

hairstyle and colour, her jewellery, her outfit and above all, her posture is very elegant and

composed, while the man seems content and confident. This couple shows us how middle-

class people behave in a public place; well-mannered and refined. The nuclear family on the

beach is very similar to the couple in many ways; mummy, daddy and their two children, the

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new family size in middle-class Ireland. Trendy and cool clothing, with matching colours and

patterns, fashionable and tasteful. The children seem happy and well-behaved, putting a

smile on their parents’ faces, who are enjoying this family moment. The closeness between

the adults and the children is evident; they all enjoy each other’s company. The men in the

raft are also enjoying the moment; they are all wearing what looks like good quality

equipment and clothing. The age range is quite wide which could indicate that they are from

the same family perhaps; fathers, sons, uncles, grandfathers. What do these three

photographs have in common? Everyone is white, healthy looking (nobody is particularly

overweight) and respectable. Indeed, Western middle class values are exemplified; family,

respectability, modest luxury and grounded attitude; in other words, well educated people

with a ‘good’ life ethic. The question is why did Discover Ireland choose to embrace and

portray those values? The first reason is that they have targeted their audience: ‘educated’

people on a good income and who will be able to afford a holiday and enjoy the good things

in life as defined by these values, such as food, spending time with their children and

friends. Discover Ireland has clearly made the choice to target the white middle class, inside

and outside Ireland, and ignore the growing ethnic minorities as these people do not

obviously represent the ‘true’ Ireland or at least the Ireland Discover Ireland wants to

portray. Looking at the latest preliminary figures from Failte Ireland regarding the numbers

and nationalities of overseas holidaymakers, it is interesting to notice that in 2013, almost a

third were from the UK, 40% from mainland Europe, 23% from North America, leaving only

7% from outside the Western world (Failte Ireland 2014, p. 2). As a result, Failte Ireland is

probably playing the ‘white card’ so that American and European tourists can identify with

Irish people and feel safe in this ‘all white’, ‘all respectable’ environment. It is a safe

assumption that Discover Ireland is not necessarily trying to dissuade ethnic minorities from

purchasing the “product” but rather it has made the conscious decision to target its core

market rather than risk diminishing it by reaching for growth within ethnic minority groups.

Third Core Concept: Audience decoding – media messages are interpreted differently by

different people

I have chosen to explore the fourth concept before the third as I believe that the

analysis of the embedded values is a good introduction to the decoding concept. Kellner and

Share (2005) explain that people’s perception of a media message will differ depending on

their own cultural and social background and that critical media literacy will enable them to

‘negotiate’ different meanings and understand the ‘politics of representation’ (p. 376).

Indeed, people will judge the Discover Ireland website differently based on their social

values and references, their age, gender, cultural or ethnic background. Prior to decoding

this webpage, I responded quite well to it as my husband and I are probably part of the

prime target group. Being from a middle-class background, married with young children I

can relate to these holiday suggestions; I enjoy good food in a nice restaurant with my

husband and the beach with my children. As a family, we love visiting castles and building

sandcastles; we have the financial means to go on holidays and organise activities which will

please everyone. But would this website attract a British Pakistani family, a French Arab

household or a young African-American couple? Would they identify with the lifestyle and

the activities on offer? Perhaps, but less likely than a retired white American couple with

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Irish ties, or a middle-class German family of five. This is also true for a part of the Irish

population who may feel that this webpage does not represent them or their lifestyle.

Fifth Core Concept: Motivation – profit and/or power

All media messages have a purpose and this concept encourages students ‘to

consider the question of why the message was sent and where it came from’ (Kellner and

Share 2005, p. 376). Beyond the ideological agenda is one of financial profit or of political

influence. Discover Ireland is part of Failte Ireland, the National Tourism Development

Authority whose aim is to ‘guide and promote tourism as a significant driver of the Irish

economy’ (discoverireland.ie, 2014, accessed 29 May 2014). In other words, it encourages

domestic and foreign tourists to spend money in Ireland. As an indication of its revenue

generation power, hence its importance to the country, the Tourism sector contributed

€5,386 million to the Irish economy in 2012 (Failte Ireland 2014, p. 3).

‘Nothing is there by accident’. Everything in the construction and encoding of a

media message is a conscious choice made by professionals, from the font of the slogan to

the clothes worn by the actors and the smile or grin on their face. Discover Ireland is a good

example of a perfectly wrapped-up media package, with its ‘natural’ representation of

reality, its embedded values to appeal to its target audience, and its vested interest in the

economy of the country.

Should critical media literacy be taught from a political or apolitical perspective?

Out of the four approaches to media literacy outlined above, the term ‘critical’ is

only being used by Kellner and Share (2007) to define the fourth approach, which is clearly

political in the authors’ minds as they clearly state that:

[…] critical media literacy brings an understanding of ideology, power and domination that

challenges relativist and apolitical notions of most media education in order to guide

teachers and students in their explorations of how power and information are always linked

(p. 62).

Media literacy can focus on different aspects of media messages and a political stance does

not necessarily need to be adopted by educators in order to raise their students’

understanding and awareness of the fabrication of information. It is also true that an

apolitical media literacy approach would limit this understanding and awareness of the

power of media institutions and their role in supporting current political systems

throughout the world. However, Kellner and Share (2007) aspire to more than just

awareness; they wish for CML to be used as a powerful political tool ‘to challenge

oppression and democracy’ (p. 62), they see media education as a means to revolutionise

society. It is probably fair to say that at present, the media apparatus is already used as a

tool, but to maintain existing power structures, which according to Kellner and Share (2007)

are based on ‘deeply embedded ideological notions of white supremacy, capitalist

patriarchy, classism, homophobia and other oppressive myths’ (p. 62). They recognise the

immense potential of the media to control and shape people’s minds and actions and want

to use this power to revolutionary ends. It is a battle between conservatives and

revolutionaries, the right against the left, the elites against the masses, and media literacy is

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a weapon. Critical media literacy was born from an opposition movement when Western

academics and experts started to doubt and question social order. Following in the

footsteps of Dewey (1916) and Freire (1970), which they quote extensively, Kellner and

Share (2007) want to start a movement which will challenge current structures and develop

critical autonomy and critical solidarity, and move ‘away from an uncritical dependency on

media’ (p. 65). As Michel Foucault (1978) argued, we cannot escape discourse; one set of

beliefs will be replaced by another set of beliefs as we can never free ourselves from

ideology. Although I do agree with Kellner and Share in their views and, if given the

opportunity, I would also adopt a political stance to teaching media literacy, I am slightly

concerned about the potential subjectivity of CML. I understand that the aim of CML is to

‘free’ people’s minds and teach them to reflect critically, with a view to limit the power and

influence of corporate interests, and that it is the education system’s duty to counter

balance this power. However, it would need to be made clear to students that every

ideology is subjective. When we started the PhD course, we were told to be aware of our

own ontology and epistemology, as these would determine the origin and direction of our

research. Indeed, it does. Whatever approach is taken, it reflects our beliefs and values,

whether conservative or radical. Educators who will teach CML will also have an agenda,

and this agenda will probably vary with every teacher and their own value system. The

potential for manipulation exists whatever the area and the focus of study.

The key role of the media in our understanding of the world, around and beyond us,

is not to be underestimated. Whether it is through television, books, newspapers or the

internet, information is controlled and packaged for a variety of reasons which are often

concealed from the audience. My analysis of the Discover Ireland website shows how a

media message is always a meticulously designed product in which everything has its place,

from the colour coding to the lighting used in the photographs. The endorsement of certain

values over others is a means to an economic end, in this case. Media and advertising

professionals came to the conclusion that a campaign portraying Ireland as a white and

middle-class country, consciously ignoring the less ‘desirable’ social groups in Irish society,

would appeal to their main target audience of white middle-class Americans and Europeans.

I found this exercise very beneficial to my own understanding of media constructions and

their subjective reproduction of reality in order to sell their commodities. Are these experts

always aware of their role in the replication of social inequalities and discriminations? Is

anything justified for a sale? The implications of such practices can be extremely

damageable to certain groups, which may not feel represented by mainstream media and as

a result feel they have no place in society. Kellner and Share’s intentions in urging for the

development of critical media literacy are commendable and it is the role of educators to

raise awareness of such control over people’s minds. My only concern lies in the methods

being used to do so and the possible controlling power of the political agenda of CML, which

could potentially be used to create new ideologies as dictatorial as the ones they aim to

replace.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fāilte Ireland (2014), ‘Tourism Facts 2013 Preliminary’, [online], available:

http://www.failteireland.ie/FailteIreland/media/WebsiteStructure/Documents/3_Research_

Insights/3_General_SurveysReports/Preliminary-tourism-facts-2013_1.pdf?ext=.pdf,

[accessed: 31 May 2014].

Garcia, A., Seglem, R., Share, J. (2013) ‘Transforming Teaching and Learning through Critical

Media Literacy Pedagogy’, LEARNing Landscapes, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 109-124.

Kellner, D., Share, J. (2007) ‘Critical media literacy is not an option’, Learning Inquiry, Vol. 1,

pp. 59-69.

Kellner, D., Share, J. (2005) ‘Toward Critical Media Literacy: Core concepts, debates,

organizations, and policy’, Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, Vol. 26,

No. 3, pp. 369-386.

Parker, R. (2014) The Meaning of Colours, [online], available:

https://resources.oncourse.iu.edu/access/content/user/rreagan/Filemanager_Public_Files/

meaningofcolors.htm, [accessed: 31 May 2014].

Worsnop, C. (1989) ‘Media Literacy through Critical Thinking’, [online], available:

http://depts.washington.edu/nwmedia/sections/nw_center/curriculum_docs/stud_combin

e.pdf, [accessed: 26 May 2014].

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