critical reverse engineering: the case of twitter and talkopen

8/21/2019 Critical Reverse Engineering: The Case of Twitter and TalkOpen

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8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" 0 of 29

The definitive version of this paper will appear in the edited collection Compromised Data, Greg Elmer

and Ganaele Langlois editors!

Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the Compromised ata s#mposi$m

%http&''www!infoscapela(!ca'news'oct)28)29)collo*$i$m)compromised)data)new)paradigms)social)

media)theor#)and)methods+ and at the 20,- C$lt$ral .t$dies /ssociation conference!

Critical Reverse Engineering: The Case

of Twitter and TalkOpen.ocial media present the critical media scholar with a *$andar#! irst of all a growing n$m(er

of scholars are fa$lting sites s$ch as Twitter for their erosion of privac# their desire to t$rn ever#

tho$ght into moneti1a(le *$antifia(le evidence of individ$al cons$mer desires their red$ction of

h$man interaction to ,-0 character ch$ns their promise of openness while vicio$sl# protecting their

algorithms and datasets with laws$its and their s$scepti(ilit# to %if not downright compliance with+

government s$rveillance programs! 3n the other hand it is diffic$lt even for the most hardened social

media critic to den# the pleas$res of $sing these s#stems of maing friends and connections and of

(athing in a stream of new ideas as it flows across the screen! 4or can the critic den# social media5s

$tilit# in political c$lt$ral and social organi1ing their centralit# in the erosion of mass media

gateeepers or their part in the larger epistemological shift that is happening d$e to (ig data!

The critic5s relationship to social media is th$s compromised in man# senses! or some the

sites compromise critical in*$ir# 6$st as a vir$s compromises (odil# integrit#& critics (ecome infected

with la$dator# love for viral videos memes trends and the *$antified self ignoring the wa#s in which

s$ch practices reif# eisting power relations! or others s$ch sites are compromised f$ll stop& the#
http://www.infoscapelab.ca/news/oct-28-29-colloquium-compromised-data-new-paradigms-social-media-theory-and-methodshttp://www.infoscapelab.ca/news/oct-28-29-colloquium-compromised-data-new-paradigms-social-media-theory-and-methodshttp://www.infoscapelab.ca/news/oct-28-29-colloquium-compromised-data-new-paradigms-social-media-theory-and-methodshttp://www.infoscapelab.ca/news/oct-28-29-colloquium-compromised-data-new-paradigms-social-media-theory-and-methods


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8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" , of 29

cannot (e tr$sted! or them the d$al)headed s$rveillance s#stem comprised of states and transnational

corporations is simpl# too dominant in corporate social media and the onl# clear co$rse is to get o$t!

Revel or get o$t& it appears that these are o$r options and these options are largel# reflected in the

academic literat$re on social media!

owever there is another compromise to mae with social media& ($ild #o$r own! e often

forget that we5re woring with a networ of $niversal machines! /s the old sa#ing goes another world

is possi(le!

To this end : propose a methodolog# of 5reverse engineering5 to criti*$e contemporar# social

media software as well as esta(lish criteria for alternatives to that software! rawing on the reverse

engineering literat$re as it is fo$nd in fields s$ch as engineering law and economics and inspired (#

critical science and technolog# st$dies and software st$dies : will arg$e that this approach is val$a(le

(eca$se of fo$r orientations& the pragmatic the genealogical the legal and the normative! These

orientations can g$ide the critic thro$gh the false choices of technophilia or technopho(ia $ncritical

love or endless criti*$e with no wa# o$t! To ill$strate reverse engineering as a critical method : will

$se the eamples of Twitter and Tal3pen %a short)lived alternative to Twitter+ specificall# the wa#s in

which Tal3pen reverse engineered Twitter5s interfaces architect$res and imagined $sers! ;ltimatel#

: arg$e that instead of simpl# giving in or getting o$t critical social media scholars have a chance to

tae their theories and p$t them to the test (# constr$cting %or at least $sing+ new social media s#stems

that challenge the power of centrali1ed corporate social media!

Reverse Engineering and the Humanities

There are a variet# of definitions for reverse engineering across the literat$re :5m woring with

here %engineering law and economics+! rawing on them : wo$ld arg$e for this (asic

concept$ali1ation&Reverse engineering is a method of producing knowledge by dissociating human-


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made artifacts. This knowledge is then used to produce new artifacts that improve upon the old and yet

also bear a relation to the old.

:n other words d$ring reverse engineering a h$man confronts an o(6ect! The o(6ect (ears

information& how it was assem(led the material $sed in its prod$ction the choices made to reali1e it!

This information gest$res towards < ($t can never completel# reveal < a process of 5forward

engineering5 that implemented the o(6ect! The reverse engineer (rings tacit nowledge %these da#s

often prod$ced in him'her (# wa# of training and st$d#+ to (ear on that o(6ect in order to open it $p

tae it apart pro(e it test it stress it (rea it peer inside and learn how it wors! :n other words the

reverse engineer $ses man# techni*$es to read information the o(6ect (ears! The o(6ect th$s mediates a

relationship (etween the prod$cer who $sed tacit nowledge to prod$ce the o(6ect and the reverse

engineer who $ses tacit nowledge to tae it apart! .$ch movements across the engineering processes

are also oscillations (etween the concrete and the a(stract o(6ects and theories& the o(6ect m$tates

going from conception to concrete instantiation to conception again!

/fter reading this o(6ect)tet the reverse engineer creates new nowledge and information

which can (e $sed to 5forward engineer5 a new o(6ect! The process of reverse engineering helps create

new tacit nowledge in the reverse engineer and ver# often the process (egets new information in the

form of doc$mentation and man$als! hen this nowledge and information are $sed to ($ild a new

o(6ect that new o(6ect (ears (oth the traces of the original o(6ect of in*$ir# and the traces of the

reverse engineer)c$m)forward engineer5s desires and intentions! The new o(6ect might wor in concert

with the old= it might (e meant to replace it= or it might (e something that offers new affordances that

on the s$rface (ear little relation to the old o(6ect! owever it is alwa#s internall# lined to the old!

Reverse engineering is of co$rse an essential process in an# engineering field! >edagogicall#

it is one of the e# wa#s that engineers learn their craft! Economicall# it provides a tool for firms to


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8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" ? of 29

either compete with other firms maintain their stocs of artifacts %:ngle ,99-+ or generate

moneti1a(le information a(o$t their artifacts %especiall# in the form of patents+! Legall# as : will

eplore (elow it provides a limit on laws that grant protection to trade secrets and th$s for engineers

reverse engineering is a sort of promise& go ahead a ($ild something ($t now that others will tae it

apart!

Given the 5new materialist5 t$rn in the h$manities mared (# theories s$ch as /ctor)4etwor

Theor# %/4T+ 3(6ect)3riented 3ntolog# %333+ and assem(lage theor# and given the t$rn to the

digital and to comp$tation in the h$manities %i!e! the digital h$manities+ : wo$ld arg$e that reverse

engineering is not onl# val$a(le to fields lie engineering or ($siness= it also provides a wealth of

methodological theoretical and practical paths the critical h$manist can tae! There are man# wa#s to

criticall# delve into technoscience! @r$no Lato$r famo$sl# tells $s to 5follow the actors5 %Lato$r ,987+!

This is of co$rse a call for ethnograph# for the direct o(servation of the actors who do the associative

wor to constr$ct technoscience s#stems and disco$rses! @$t as .$san Leigh .tar s$ggests we can also

conceive of an ethnograph# of o(6ects %.tar ,999+! The technical o(6ects we confront contain within

them traces of the associations that (ro$ght them into (eing! The# are to $se a term from Aohn Law

5p$nct$ali1ations5 standing in for the networs of materials politics and disco$rses that constantl#

str$ct$re them %Law ,992+! Those o(6ects that appear sta(le (ecome infrastr$ct$ral or even fade into

the (acgro$nd can (e fr$itf$ll# and criticall# reverse engineered to trace their inner heterogeneit#! :n

this sense to ret$rn to Lato$r5s aphorism we can 5follow the actors5 (# t$rning to the artifacts the#

prod$ced and looing for traces of their activities ideals and politics within them!

To ($ild on this : net t$rn to the fo$r orientations fo$nd in the reverse engineering literat$re&

the pragmatic the genealogical the legal and the normative connecting these orientations to a possi(le


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8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" - of 29

critical methodolog#!

The Pragmatic rientation

Reverse engineers are pragmatic& the# consider the technolog# the# have at hand not an ideal

technological assem(lage! The# do not simpl# throw awa# older or poorl# designed technolog# ($t

modif# shape and alter it! The# accept the positive side of a technolog# while woring against the (ad!

/s Batherine :ngle p$ts it when a #o$5re a reverse engineer confronted with a technical o(6ect

ever# time #o$ have a (etter idea #o$ will consider all the positive design aspects (efore

condemning an entire prod$ct! /nd for ever# time #o$ have had a (itter eperience with a real

lemon #o$ will also roar! The roaring will die down when #o$ reali1e that #o$ have the power

and sill to change this $gl# d$cling of a design into a gracef$l swan %:ngle ,99- p! 2+!

:n other words for the reverse engineer technical and design shortcomings are not ec$ses to throw

awa# an o(6ect ($t to mae a (etter one!

or eample in terms of software most software $sed in firms is (o$ght not ($ilt! oreover

most of the costs of software $se center on maintenance! hen a firm has software that does not meet

the firm5s needs or re*$irements it does not 6$st mae new software! Der# often it modifies the old!

This practical approach of co$rse entails reverse engineering!

/ great deal of this process entails the discover# of 5facts5 discerned thro$gh thic close

detailed empirical anal#sis of technical o(6ects! ow does the technolog# wor hat is it comprised

of ho ($ilt it hat might their intentions have (een hat can we do with it owever this is not

to sa# that reverse engineering is a simple positivism a search for one right wa# to constr$ct a

technolog#! Rather reverse engineering holds that there are man# wa#s to solve a pro(lem! ;nlie

positivistic science which in the ideal sees the one right verifia(le answer to a *$estion engineering

is a field of heterogeneit#! There are man# m$ltiplicities involved& m$ltiple pro(lems m$ltiple $sers


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8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" F of 29

m$ltiple implementations m$ltiple patterns and m$ltiple prod$cts of m$ltiple reverse engineering

approaches! /s software engineers @ater and ehlich p$t it when one reverse engineers software

code 5different a(stract concepts map to the same code within one application5 %@ater and ehlich

,997 p! ,0F+! :n other words code is not onl# heterogeneo$s in how it operates across vario$s settings

and times as /drian acen1ie %200+ arg$es= it is also heterogeneo$s in terms of the a(stract

theoretical ideas we might have a(o$t its f$nctions as well as in its theories of the $ser's$(6ect! :n their

prescription for reverse engineering @ater and ehlich %,997+ arg$e for the prod$ction of an a(stract

specification from a concrete s#stem ($t the# recogni1e that s$ch a(stractions never map directl# (ac

onto the original designer5s intentions! There are too man# perm$tations oscillations algorithms

optimi1ations paths thro$gh lines of code s$(6ective design decisions $se cases s$(6ective

re*$irements and ar(itrar# technical choices involved at ever# stage of the engineering process to ever

hope for a complete description of an software s#stem! ;nlie positivistic science however reverse

engineers (# and large recogni1e this accept this and simpl# go for what wors %(# whatever standard

of 6$dgment the#5ve decided $pon+!,

Reverse engineering provides this pragmatic approach to the techno)scape we confront& loo to

the technolog# #o$ have in front of #o$! Learn it! or with it! Tiner! /lter it! .hape it! :magine

possi(ilities ($t don5t hold to some ideal (est wa#! Th$s reverse engineering avoids overl# idealist

approaches to socio)technical pro(lems! :t helps $s avoid morali1ing disco$rses a(o$t technologies as

in 5we need a wholl# new form of technolog# to solve pro(lems H I and J5 as if the latest version of

the technolog# will magicall# erase histor# ha(it and error! .$ch hope for novel 5revol$tionar#5

technologies is rendered naKve (# the reverse engineering perspective! : will eplore this f$rther (elow!

, To (e s$re this pragmatism onl# goes so far! :n that same @ater and ehlich essa# the# share a lamentation& if onl#

forward engineers wo$ld doc$ment ever# decision in a machine)reada(le consistent fashion we wo$ld never need

reverse engineering Given (oth the eistence of proprietar# software and the m$ltiplicities of interpretation of designsand code < 6$st to name two pro(lems < their sol$tion seems *$ite far)fetched to sa# the least %@ater and ehlich

,997 p! ,0+!


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8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" of 29

The !enealogical rientation

Reverse engineers also consider the historical development of a technolog#! irst of all as its

name implies reverse engineering is forward engineering in reverse! The hegemonic engineering

process involves starting with an a(stract architect$re decomposing it into components and then

implementing each component in whatever material it will (e made o$t of incl$ding code! This taes

time and moreover involves man# s$(6ective decisions he$ristics accidents coincidences and acts of

la(or! This process is one that can (e comprehended temporall# < even historicall# < and one wa# to do

this is to start with the artifact and reverse the process!

/s @ater and ehlich state 5hidden in this creative constr$ction of the program from the

specification are a set of o(vio$s as well as non)o(vio$s design decisions a(o$t how to encode certain

parts of the specification in an efficient wa# $sing availa(le implementation mechanisms to achieve

performance criteria %the wh# of the design decisions+5 %@ater and ehlich ,997 p! ,0F+!The artifact

in other words contains within it traces of the design decisions made to (ring it a(o$t! or reverse

engineers the designer5s intentions conceptions of the $ser and sills can (e traced in and thro$gh the

artifact! To do this reverse engineers tae an eisting technolog# and trace its genealog# (acwards

looing at a whole host of artifacts and practices to $ncover how the technolog# was developed&

doc$mentation %L$ts# ,99F+ white papers press releases organi1ations %their str$ct$res histories

and strategies+ %/ien et al! ,99-+ theories of the $ser previo$s versions data(ases %aina$t et al!

,99+ van*$ished competitors handwritten specifications %Leite and Cer*$eira ,99F+ older

technologies and techni*$es and of co$rse lines of code! This is downright 4iet1schean in its

insistence $pon act$al doc$ments and $tterances and a search for historical a priori to the c$rrent

o(6ect! The goal is to wor (acwards towards something approimating %($t liel# never eactl#

reflecting+ the intentions of the designer which re*$ires a historical'genealogical sensi(ilit#!


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hen this happens the artifact5s heritage is traced! @eca$se reverse engineering reverses the

hegemonic engineering approach %(egin with an a(stract architect$re= implement it in a concrete

artifact+ an intermediate res$lt of reverse engineering is the $ncovering of 5tho$ght (efore tho$ght5 of

the a(stractions that shape f$t$re actions! This is to sa# that reverse engineering reconstr$cts the

a(stract ideas the original designers mayhave held in the constr$ction of the artifact! :n a noopolitical

sense what this means is reverse engineering is a process of $ncovering the tho$ghts that incite

ind$ce or constrain f$t$re actions %o$ca$lt 200? p! ,?8+ (# wa# of what o$ca$lt calls the 5(od#)

o(6ect artic$lation5 the prod$ctive linage (etween an artifact and a (od# %o$ca$lt ,979 p! ,F2+! :n

La11arato5s %200+ theor# of noopower 5tho$ght (efore tho$ght5 is a process (# which one mind %sa#

the mind of a designer+ ma# infl$ence the tho$ghts of another %sa# the mind of an end $ser+! Reverse

engineering traces this (acwards from the o(6ect spec$lating as to the conto$rs of power desired (#

the original designer! This is in this admittedl# grandiose sense a genealog# of software artifacts as

instr$ments capa(le of shaping o$r tho$ghts!

This is $sef$l not onl# (eca$se it traces the conto$rs of power ($t also (eca$se reverse

engineering provides an antidote to technological h#pe which consistentl# holds that new things are

radical (reas with the past! :n contrast to h#pe and the o(session with the new reverse engineering

$nderstands technolog# to have a histor# that is contingent a histor# steeped in power relations

discerni(le in part thro$gh genealogical in*$ir#! /nd (eca$se histor# and power are the prod$cts of

social str$ggle an# technolog# is open to changing and reshaping!

The "egal rientation

e live in what Lawrence Lessig %200- p! iv+ has aptl# called a 5permission c$lt$re!5 That is

when we are confronted with man# of the technologies and tets in o$r lives we are hesitant to do

more with them than simpl# cons$me them on the prod$cer5s terms %Gillespie 2007+! e fear laws$its


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or criminal prosec$tion if we remi tets *$ote ideas cop# and distri($te items or p$t a technolog# to

$ses other than those intended (# their creators! :n the case of software the length# Terms of .ervice

and End);ser License agreements we clic thro$gh are f$ll of prohi(itions stip$lations and thinl#)

veiled legal threats! Th$s despite having a (ewildering arra# of flei(le networed software s#stems at

o$r command we hesitate to pro(e alter or $se software in wa#s that the original prod$cers did not

intend!

ere we can t$rn to the legal aspects of reverse engineering! Reverse engineering has a tradition

of legal protections in contets s$ch as the ;nited .tates and the E$ropean ;nion %.am$elson and

.cotchmer 2002+! :n traditional man$fact$ring ;!.! co$rts have held that the sale of an o(6ect is ain

to its p$(lication and th$s the legal owner of an# o(6ect is free to tae it apart st$d# it and even

prod$ce a cop# of it for sale! This sit$ation is a (it more comple with software (eca$se software is

sim$ltaneo$sl# ideational %in the sense that it is a materiali1ation in code of the idea of its creator+ and

f$nctional %acen1ie 200+! :n terms of the ideational side software is protected (# cop#right= :

cannot cop# lines of code from a cop#righted program into a new program! @$t in terms of the

f$nctional side $nless it has (een protected (# a patent we are free to replicate the f$nctionalit# of

eisting software! /nd in order to do that we are in fact allowed to open $p pro(e test and

disassem(le software < even to mae copies of it in the process! 2

:n this sense the traditional legal protections afforded to reverse engineering is similar to the

fair $se eception in cop#right law in man# co$ntries! The fair $se eception allows people to *$ote

cop# remi and reprint tets for the p$rposes of ed$cation criti*$e and transformation! espite their

power and desire the originators of intellect$al propert# %:>+ simpl# do not have a(sol$te control over

the $ses of that :>! The fair $se limitation sees to that! Liewise reverse engineering is a wa# to prevent

2 Two important cases that have esta(lished this in the ;nited .tates contet are #ega $nterprises "td. v. %ccolade, &nc!

,992 and #ony Computer $ntertainment v. Connecti' Corp ! 2000!


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firms from monopoli1ing a technolog# %.am$elson 2002= .am$elson and .cotchmer 2002+! /n#

$npatented technolog# can (e taen apart and replicated (# others= witho$t this eception a simple

trade secret wo$ld (e ain to a limitless monopol#! Co$rts have seen (oth fair $se and reverse

engineering as means to enco$rage new ideas and to limit the power of firms that originate ideas!

oreover lie fair $se reverse engineering is an eception that onl# wors when people $se it!

Esta(lished firms have consistentl# lo((ied legislators to (an the $se of reverse engineering

%.am$elson and .cotchmer 2002+0! The igital illenni$m Cop#right /ct is one s$ch tro$(ling

eample! The onl# wa# to maintain the reverse engineering eception is to eep $sing it %and in some

cases eep fighting for it in the co$rts+ 6$st as fair $se activists have done! To (e s$re software firms

s$ch as icrosoft /pple 3racle Google and ace(oo have (ecome incredi(l# economicall# and

politicall# powerf$l which means the# have high)octane law#ers who will $se intellect$al propert#

laws to prevent critical access to their s#stems! 3ne s$ch techni*$e is the $se of Terms of .ervice

which eplicitl# prohi(it reverse engineering! owever the enforcea(ilit# of s$ch license terms is in

*$estion& co$rts tend to loo asance at firms that $se them to prohi(it reverse engineering for the

p$rposes of ($ilding interopera(le s#stem or competing s#stems! /dditionall# %and : find this ver#

intrig$ing+ there are eplicit eceptions in the C/ for reverse engineering of an# digitall#

protected software that invades one5s privac#!?

inall# in a rhetorical sense (eca$se reverse engineering has more acceptance in co$rts than

terms s$ch as 5hacing5 or 5cop#ing5 the term co$ld provide rhetorical power to the critic! : reali1e

5hacing5 is a fashiona(le term= : also now f$ll well that 5hacing5 does not mean malicio$s intr$sion

into networs to steal data! owever this negative connotation is $nfort$natel# pop$lar! @# adopting

? .ee .am$elson and .cotchmer %2002+! :magine if especiall# after the pop$lar revelations a(o$t government

s$rveillance and the coll$sion of ma6or social media firms with the state in the s$mmer of 20,? one co$ld $se thiseception in the C/ to reverse engineer social media s#stems lie Google or ace(oo The# are in man#

estimations *$intessential privac#)invading software s#stems!


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8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" ,0 of 29

5reverse engineering5 a technolog# critic can fend off some of the negative associations of terms lie

5hacing5 while drawing on the legal heritage : disc$ss a(ove!

The (ormative rientation

inall# reverse engineers do not simpl# st$d# eisting technologies= the# do their wor in order

to ($ild new s#stems! Th$s the# have a normative position al(eit often a ver# immediate and

rationali1ed one& $s$all# the# want to create a competing version of a prod$ct in order to sell it create

software that can interoperate with an eisting platform or service or gain the nowledge needed to

maintain a s#stem themselves rather than rel# on the original prod$cer for maintenance! /s interested

as the# are in discerning the empirical properties of a technolog# %as : eplored a(ove in m# disc$ssion

of the pragmatic orientation+ reverse engineers also see to change technological s#stems to meet their

needs!

e can tae this f$rther and s$ggest a criticalform of reverse engineering dedicated to

political'economic and media 6$stice! hereas critical engagements of social media often stop at

criti*$e the reverse engineering approach $rges $s to eep going! :t calls for s$pporting and even

(ecoming activists and technologists who are seeing to create software alternatives! Reverse

engineering allows $s to trace the path (etween alternatives and their less e*$ita(le predecessors to see

how the new alternatives tae positive aspects of the old while avoiding the negative! /gain as : arg$e

a(ove in the disc$ssion of the pragmatic orientation reverse engineering isn5t a(o$t ideali1ed

technologies ($t rather taing the technolog# we have decomposing it discerning a(stractions from it

and $sing this nowledge to mae something (etter!

This maps onto ar5s o(servation in the )*th+rumairethat 5en MsicN mae their own histor#

($t the# do not mae it as the# please= the# do not mae it $nder self)selected circ$mstances ($t $nder

circ$mstances eisting alread# given and transmitted from the past! The tradition of all dead


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8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" ,, of 29

generations weighs lie a nightmare on the (rains of the living5 %ar 2008 p! ,F+! /s /ndrew

een(erg %,98+ writes a philosoph# of prais can (e fo$nd in the overdetermination (etween the

concrete circ$mstances of the present and the a(stract historicall#)developed concept$ali1ations $sed

to (oth comprehend it and shape it! Rather than start with an ideal and (emoaning a world that doesn5t

live $p to it critical theor# sees o$t contradictions within the o(6ects it enco$nters! These fiss$res

provide $s with tangi(le wa#s forward new possi(ilities that are not simpl# a(stract timeless ethical

ideals! rawing on this we can imagine a critical reverse engineering& start with the concrete

technological s#stem derive a(stractions from it and $se those a(stractions to plot and create a (etter

s#stem!

/gain this is a (it grandiose in relation to the act$al eisting reverse engineering literat$re ($t

: propose that critical h$manistic in*$ir# can learn a lot from reverse engineering! :n the net section :

will eplore this f$rther with the case of Tal3pen a short)lived Twitter alternative!

Reverse Engineering Twitter: The Case of TalkOpen

@$ilding off of Lessig5s point that we live in a c$lt$re of permission : wo$ld arg$e that in the

case of social media we live in a c$lt$re that denies $s permission to p$sh past the interface to see how

s$ch social media s#stems are str$ct$red! Iet as Ganaele Langlois %20,?+ rightl# arg$es social media

software provides $s with infrastr$ct$res to live o$r lives= their str$ct$res have a ma6or infl$ence on o$r

online interactions! Therefore despite the aniet# we might feel when we p$sh past the interface we

m$st reverse engineer social media s#stems in order to see how we are prod$cing o$rselves within

them!

3ne s$ch effort along these lines was a site called Tal3pen! Tal3pen doesn5t eist an#more

($t it is lie a (lac hole! Io$ cannot see it ($t #o$ now it eists (eca$se of the gravitational p$ll of


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lins Tweets-ace(oo posts %3pE.R 20,2+ >aste(in chat d$mps %OTal3pen!info P /non

Comm$nicationsQ 20,2 OTRG ) th?6?Ft?r P talopen!infoQ 20,2+ :mg$r screenshots %Aacal/non

n!d! n!d!+ :nternet /rchive caches %OTal 3pen ) elcome to The Tal 3pen Comm$nit#Q 20,2+ and

a (rief mention in an information sec$rit# (log %.chwart1 20,2+ it left (ehind! These e( traces tell $s

that there was once something more to talopen!info than what we see now& 5This we(site is for sale5F

rom ro$ghl# ?, arch 20,2 $ntil earl# A$ne of that #ear Tal3pen!info was a micro(logging

site specificall# ($ilt to (e an alternative to Twitter! :n that span of two months Tal3pen had a(o$t

2F0 people sign $p! /lmost all of the mem(ers had $sernames lie 5arnet5 5Cpher5 5o#o5 and

5/nonooer5 and their posts were a(o$t topics lie /non#mo$s the 3cc$p# movement information

sec$rit# and hacing! /ltho$gh the $ser (ase was small it was *$ite active with new posts happening

ever# ho$r!

Two months on the :nternet / $ser (ase of 2F0 4ew posts (# the ho$r /dmittedl# these are

not impressive n$m(ers! /nd moreover (eca$se the site did not have a large $ser (ase there are onl# a

few screenshots of it and no acco$nts of its $se (e#ond what : offer here! owever the case of

Tal3pen provides a window into the methodolog# of reverse engineering :5m descri(ing in this paper

and moreover : thin there is val$e in preserving the memor# of a failed technolog# in order to avoid

reif#ing s$ccessf$l ones as the onl# or (est possi(le ones! oreover (# criticall# interrogating a

pro6ect that reverse engineered Twitter we also learn more a(o$t Twitter itself! Th$s : hope #o$ will

ind$lge me as : wor with s$ch 5small data!5

/s Tal3pen fo$nder HCpherH noted in an interview with me 5Twitter alternative is the foc$s

of the site!5hat does it mean to (e a 5Twitter alternative5 : will eplore this thro$gh the fo$r

- or a collection of tweets a(o$t Tal3pen contact the a$thor!

F This is as of 22 /pril 20,-! >revio$sl# talopen!info was comprised of a screen that said 5This acco$nt has (een

s$spended!5 This interview was cond$cted via Tal3pen! :nitiall# : intended to provide a lin to this conversation ($t now of co$rse

that lin is lost! /ll *$otes from HCpherH incl$ded in this essa# come from that interview!


14/28

8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" ,? of 29

orientations :5ve descri(ed a(ove!

Pragmatic

Tal3pen was a pragmatic response to the pro(lems of social media pro(lems : will eplore

(elow! Rather than crafting a wholl# new online comm$nication s#stem it drew on something *$ite

familiar& the conventions of Twitter! e wo$ld recogni1e the site as a 5micro)(logging5 site which

contains man# conventions&

a character limit on posts

an interface that emphasi1es the new %Gehl 20,,+

/ client)server architect$re

individ$al)oriented acco$nt str$ct$res %i!e! the fields re*$ired for sign$p are (iased towards an

individ$al not a gro$p or other social entit#+

the follower)followed relationship

str$ct$red profile la#o$ts %#o$r profile image is F0F0 piels= #o$r $sername is limited to a

certain n$m(er of characters etc!+

navigational la#o$t with lins s$ch as ome em(ers .ign 3$t and .ettings

and the $se of hashtags and signs in tagging and messaging!

These conventions co$ld appear to (e 5int$itive5 ($t if we act lie Aohn Law5s %2002+ 5naKve reader5 as

this reader appears in the (oo%ircraft #tories we can start to see how this heterogeneo$s assem(lage

of o(6ects and processes m$st (e constantl# organi1ed in order to cohere! 4one of it is int$itive= for

$sers to wor with it there needs to (e a large amo$nt of pedagogical training that happens via the

interface! Th$s for an# wo$ld)(e social media alternative there is a pro(lem& do we create an


15/28

8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" ,- of 29

assem(lage of elements so new that $sers won5t now how to $se it 3r do we simpl# draw on the

conventions forged (# previo$s ones even if those conventions represent the ver# pro(lems we5re

seeing to overcome with a new s#stem Tal3pen opted for the latter! Th$s even tho$gh Tal3pen

was a Twitter alternative it did not a(andon the old form! /s HCpherH eplained to me 5im afraid that

Mthe Twitter elementsN ma# (e taen awa# if we fiddle with it too m$ch so to spea!!! 6$st have to (e

caref$l what we do'remove'add!5

oreover Tal3pen was lined to Twitter from the o$tset allowing Tal3pen $sers to post to

(oth Tal3pen and Twitter sim$ltaneo$sl# via R.. and the Twitter />:! Th$s altho$gh Tal3pen was

a 5Twitter alternative5 HCpherH made man# pragmatic decisions to maintain a lin to Twitter! This

allowed $sers to move to Tal3pen witho$t feeling as if the# were a(andoning Twitter altogether!

:ndeed man# of the posts Tal3pen $sers made appeared in (oth services!

!enealogical

Tal3pen was artic$lated into a larger historical moment < its potential place in the 3cc$p#

movement and in the networ politics of the hacer gro$p /non#mo$s! /s s$ch Tal3pen might have

(een animated (# the Twitter that was& the Twitter that was large eno$gh to have a critical mass of $sers

involved in /non#mo$s or 3cc$p# #et small eno$gh to have not attracted the attentions of states! :n

other words Tal3pen might have (een redolent of Twitter (efore it was 5friended5 (# the state to $se

an idea of Aac @ratich5s %20,, p! 29+! oreover this was a Twitter far removed from an :nitial >$(lic

3ffering %:>3+ of stoc! :f there is an# moment in the histor# of a social media site that reveals the site

for what it tr$l# is < a s#stem to gather data on $sers and sell it for profit < the :>3 has to (e it!

:n other words Tal3pen might have (een intended to (e the pre)2 Aan$ar# 20,2 Twitter the

Twitter of S6an2F and Seg#pt the Twitter that in man# pop$lar acco$nts fomented revol$tions& the pre)

all .treet org# Twitter! :n a famo$s (log post @i1 .tone %20,,+ wrote 5The Tweets $st low5 in


16/28

8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" ,F of 29

which he stated .ome Tweets ma# facilitate positive change in a repressed co$ntr# some mae $s

la$gh some mae $s thin some downright anger a vast ma6orit# of $sers! e dont alwa#s agree with

the things people choose to tweet ($t we eep the information flowing irrespective of an# view we

ma# have a(o$t the content!

rapped in the lang$age of free speech .tone5s post was seen as a promise to never censor epression

in Twitter!

owever one #ear later on 2 Aan$ar# 20,2 Twitter anno$nced their intention to (loc certain

Tweets and Twitter acco$nts (# co$ntr# %OTweets still m$st flowQ 20,2+! :t t$rned o$t that in order to

grow into international marets the 5Tweets $st low5 in certain contets onl#! /longside this

anno$ncement there was a growing perception among $sers < right or wrong < that topics lie

iileas 3cc$p# all .treet or /non#mo$s were (eing algorithmicall# ecl$ded from Twitter5s

Trending Topics list %Aohnstone 20,0a 20,0(+! :n other words this was a concern that certain Tweets

might not flow as well as others! ;sers protesting these changes $sed the hashtag Stwittercensorship

starting in late Aan$ar# 20,2!

This was the moment in which Tal3pen reverse engineered Twitter to recreate the older

Twitter the Twitter of 5The Tweets $st low!5 e can see this easil# when we compare Twitter5s

Terms of .ervice7to Tal3pen5s Terms of .ervice %T3.+ statement which in its entiret# read

@# entering this site #o$ tae f$ll responsi(ilit# for whatever #o$ sa# or do and acnowledge

that Tal3pen!info neither in whole or part is responsi(le for #o$r actions! ith that (eing said

Tal3pen will 43T sell #o$r information to third parties or give $p an#ones MsicN information

to law enforcement $nless it is in regards to m$rder or cp Mchild pornograph#N! Io$ have o$r

word! Tae it or leave it &+8

7 /vaila(le at https&''twitter!com'tos

8 This was Terms of .ervice .tatement as it appeared in a# 20,2! /s far as : am aware it was not altered d$ring the


17/28

8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" , of 29

ere Tal3pen5s promise is that the $sers < not the site < wo$ld (e 5responsi(le5 for their statements! :n

that sense altho$gh in ver# different words Tal3pen repeated @i1 .tone5s 20,, promise to eep the

statements flowing even if the site owners disagreed! Twitter $sers who defected to Tal3pen piced $p

on this and (egan to recr$it $sers to Tal3pen in earl# 20,2! The# did so (# artic$lating the Twitter

hashtag Stwittercensorship with others incl$ding S3pigrate and variations on Sanon#mo$s to

promote the site to an# $sers concerned that post)2 Aan$ar# 20,2 Twitter was losing its wa# as a site

of free epression!

:n this sense Tal3pen reverse engineered Twitter (# comparing its more recent version to

older iterations st$d#ing news reports and other para)doc$mentation on the service and $sing these

insights to ($ild a different #et redolent micro(logging service!

"egal

Tal3pen was ($ilt on .tat$s4et which is an open so$rce alternative to Twitter with roots

dating (ac to the late 2000s! .tat$s4et reverse engineered ideas s$ch as 5micro(logging5 to create a

Twitter alternative with the added f$nctionalit# of federation across m$ltiple servers via a social

networing protocol %now called 3stat$s+! ;sing an open protocol and open so$rce software wo$ld

allow for a more distri($ted networ architect$re than the centrali1ed Twitter s#stem! /s s$ch

.tat$s4et is part of a long line of software pro6ects that reverse engineer first)comers to epand

interopera(ilit# and provide new platforms for $sers!9

:n a sense a ma6or part of .tat$s4et5s reverse engineering of Twitter is to graft the ree and

3pen .o$rce .oftware %3..+ model onto eisting social media s#stems! This is tr$e of other social

media alternatives s$ch as G4; .ocial and to a lesser etent iaspora! @eing ($ilt on top of .tat$s4et

lifetime of the site! The emoticon was alwa#s incl$ded!

9 :mportant instances of reverse engineering of novel s#stems incl$de /ccolade5s reverse engineering of the .ega Genesisand Connecti5s reverse engineering of .on#5s >la#station s#stem %#ega $nterprises "td. v. %ccolade, &nc. ,992 #ony

Computer $ntertainment v. Connecti' Corp. 2000+!


18/28


meant Tal3pen co$ld rel# on the long and s$ccessf$l histor# of legal engineering that is the G4;

s$ite of licenses! /s Ga(riella Coleman %2009 p! -2-+ eplains s$ch licenses $se

cop#right law a M;nited .tatesN Constit$tional mandate to $ndermine the logic of cop#right

law! The MG4; General >$(lic LicenseN is ($ilt on cop#right ($t disa(les the restrictions of

cop#right to allow for modification distri($tion and access= it is also self)perpet$ating (eca$se

it re*$ires others to adopt the same license if the# modif# cop#lefted software!

@$t this $se of 3.. cop#left doesn5t eha$st the legal stor#! :n order for a software s#stem to

replicate the f$nctionalit# of another the histor# of protections of reverse engineering has to (e in

place! >art of 3.. prod$ction is what Coleman %2009 p! -2F+ calls a c$lt$re of 5legal eegesis5 and

5legal training5 that helps 3.. developers navigate the m$r# waters of intellect$al propert# law! .$ch

eegesis and training res$lts in the legal 6$6$ts$ of cop#left which is precisel# written to $se cop#right

against itself!

This has implications for reverse engineering! /ltho$gh the emphasis on 3.. since the earliest

da#s of Richard .tallman5s wor has (een on free speech a corollar# emphasis has (een on the right to

open $p and alter the software one $ses& in other words in the 3.. ethos one has the right to reverse

engineer software! oreover even if the igital illenni$m Cop#right /ct %C/+ is often presented

as merel# a cop#right law its restrictions on reverse engineering co$pled with the fact that 3..

activists $niversall# despise it means that 3.. developers m$st engage with reverse engineering as a

legal categor# of action to resist the C/!

Th$s (eing ($ilt on .tat$s4et meant that Twitter drew on these legal tactics to reverse engineer

Twitter! :t en6o#ed the protection of (eing a part of a larger pro6ect within a legal contet where reverse

engineering is protected and with a long legal histor# of cop#left licensing! These legal protections are

5($ilt in5 when we start social media alternatives $sing cop#lefted platforms lie .tat$s4et iaspora or


19/28


Cra(grass!

owever Tal3pen partiall# failed to ($ild on top of this legal histor#! hile well)engineered

legal doc$ments lie G4; licenses can protect a pro6ect the far more (l$nt Tal3pen license %*$oted

in its entiret# a(ove+ simpl# doesn5t pla# the legal lang$age game! @ad grammar $nclear a((reviations

%5cp5+ and a strange transition %5/ll that said5+ rendered Tal3pen5s Terms of .ervice to (e somewhat

comical! ere instead of reverse engineering social media terms of service in the same wa# that

cop#left reverse engineers cop#right the Tal3pen T3. appeared to (e a flat)o$t rep$diation of

legalese liel# < altho$gh : cannot (e certain < setting Tal3pen $p for dissociation if it were to come

into contact with the world of laws$its 4ational .ec$rit# Letters and prosec$tions!

(ormative

inall# wh# ($ild a Twitter alternative $nless one has a goal in mind The goal might (e 6$st to

mae another competitor in the ($siness of inciting digiti1ing and valori1ing $ser emotional la(or

%see for eample >interest+! 3r it might (e to ($ild a new la#er of a(straction on top of the 5platform5

that a site lie Twitter provides developers %see for eample Tops#+! @$t in the case of Tal3pen it

was more a(o$t STwitterCensorship and /non#mo$s networ politics! The hashtag S3pigrate has a

normative and pedagogical sense& mae the shift to Tal3pen! There #o$ can do all the same things

#o$ wo$ld in Twitter %(eca$se Tal3pen is pragmatic and ($ilt on that model+ ($t #o$ get new

freedoms!

:n this sense Tal3pen was another in a long list of pro6ects meant to (e alternatives to

mainstream social media& iaspora G4; .ocial reedom@o Lorea and Cra(grass to name a few!

/s : arg$e elsewhere %Gehl 20,- 20,?a+ the technologists and activists ($ilding these pro6ects

recogni1e man# of the pro(lems that social media critics have pointed o$t& $(i*$ito$s s$rveillance

%/ndre6evic 2007+= the mod$lation of affect emotion and comm$nication for the p$rposes of lining


20/28


interaction to cons$mption %Elmer 200-= Langlois 20,,+= the centrali1ation of the e( %Jittrain

2008+= the templated nat$re of the interfaces %/rola 20,0+= the eploitation of $ser creativit# for

massive profits %Terranova 2000+= the lac of democratic control over the social media s#stems %Gehl

20,?(+! To ($ild an alternative that does not have these pro(lems is indeed a worth# goal!

/nd #et as : eplore a(ove in the 5>ragmatic5 section Tal3pen does not simpl# reinvent 5social

media5 totall# disregarding the design conventions of previo$s s#stems= this wo$ld (e an impossi(le

goal and moreover it wo$ld ignore the progressive aspects of social media! Tal3pen was a

recognition that m$ch good can come o$t of even the most centrali1ed social media s#stem! /ltho$gh :

wo$ld never red$ce 3cc$p# all .treet or the /ra( .pring to 5Twitter Revol$tions5 or 5ace(oo

Revol$tions5 research has shown that social media pla#ed an important part in organi1ing movements

and shaping p$(lic perceptions a(o$t them %orris 20,?+! Reverse engineering5s normative move is to

tae that good maintain design conventions that people recogni1e and are comforta(le with and avoid

the pro(lems of centrali1ed social media! This is what Tal3pen attempted to do al(eit $ns$ccessf$ll#!

What went wrong with TalkOpen?

@$t of co$rse Tal3pen failed! hat went wrong

/s : arg$e elsewhere %Gehl 20,-+ one of the great animating ideas of the social media

alternative ($ilders is decentrali1ation and distri($tion! These networ architect$res are (ased on the

*$asi)m#thical fo$nding principle of the :nternet& red$ndanc# in networ paths! That is rather than

having all comm$nications flow thro$gh a central h$( the goal is to have them flow thro$gh m$ltiple

paths and nodes! This red$ces the lielihood that an# one node (ecomes a wea spot in the networ!

ainstream social media sites s$ch as Twitter ace(oo and Google are not distri($ted= the# are

highl# centrali1ed $sing a client)server architect$re! /s we have seen in recent revelations a(o$t

government instit$tions s$ch as the 4ational .ec$rit# /genc# %;!.!/+ the Government


21/28


Comm$nications ead*$arters %;!B!+ and the Comm$nications .ec$rit# Esta(lishment %Canada+ s$ch

centrali1ed data(ases of $ser comm$nications are tempting targets for state s$rveillance! /nd of co$rse

the sites themselves eploit their centralit# in the da#)to)da# comm$nications of (illions to collect data

on their $sers and sell them to the highest (idders! Th$s to ($ild an alternative to mainstream social

media one commonl# stated goal is to create distri($ted %or federated+ s#stems allowing $sers to host

their own node of a social media s#stem on their own comp$ters and lin these nodes across the

:nternet!

/nd #et this is eceedingl# diffic$lt wor! a6or software engineering pro(lems in the

constr$ction of ($ilding distri($ted social media sites incl$de a$thenticating $sers allowing $sers to

find each other across installations and encr#pting comm$nication to prevent 5man in the middle5

attacs! oreover (eca$se mainstream social media is 5eas# to $se5 %thro$gh man# #ears of training

$sers in their partic$lar interfaces+ alternatives wo$ld have to do all of the a(ove andmae the s#stem

as 5int$itive5 as the mainstream sites! This is a tall order for an# wo$ld)(e social media reverse engineer!

Th$s it is not a s$rprise that social media alternatives often end $p replicating the client)server

architect$re! Tal3pen did 6$st this th$s maing the site v$lnera(le to determined attacers! :ndeed

(eca$se Tal3pen was ($ilt for mem(ers of hacer gro$ps /non#mo$s and L$l1.ec it attracted the

attention of the 5patriotic hacer5 The Aester who claimed in :nternet Rela# chat to have taen down

Tal3pen!info on ?, a# 20,2 %OTRG ) th?6?Ft?r P talopen!infoQ 20,2+! : cannot sa# for certain if

this is tr$e ($t the timing is right! Tal3pen might have (een too centrali1ed to s$rvive a determined

attac (# The Aester!

.etting aside the *$estion of centrali1ation : also wonder if Tal3pen failed to (ecome enough

of a Twitter alternative! :n other words in its attempt to reverse engineer Twitter Tal3pen might have

ept too man# Twitter conventions! >erhaps it failed to acco$nt for the highl# individ$ali1ed personal


22/28

8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" 2, of 29

(randing and micro) or macro)cele(rit# feat$res of Twitter! The rise of Twitter in the pop$lar

imagination was mared (# the oddit# of /shton B$tcher (eing a highl# followed cele(rit#! @eca$se

Tal3pen reverse engineered Twitter and (eca$se Twitter5s core organi1ing principle is the relationship

(etween the individ$al follower and followed perhaps this organi1ing primitive is not compati(le with

the politics of Tal3pen5s $sers! To a degree < altho$gh certainl# not completel# < individ$al)to)

individ$al social media grates against the networed politics of /non#mo$s and 3cc$p#! e have of

co$rse seen 5cele(rities5 heralded (# the anons& A$lian /ssange Chelsea anning /aron .chwart1 and

now Eric .nowden! @$t the most compelling aspects of /non#mo$s and 3cc$p# are the politics of

networs and aggregations& weare the 99U! Epect us! The iconograph# of /non#mo$s incl$des anons

wearing G$# awes mass or s$its with no heads! This is not a cele(ration of individ$alit# ($t rather

a statement a(o$t interchangea(ilit# and hiding in plain site!

>erhaps then Tal3pen5s replication of the individ$ali1ing str$ct$re of Twitter was not the

sol$tion to the riddle of prod$cing a social media alternative that more f$ll# meets the organi1ing

principles and politics of /non#mo$s! >erhaps then other social media alternatives < that is other

wa#s of reverse engineering mainstream social media < can learn from the c$lt$re and architect$re of

Tal3pen to prod$ce something more via(le!

Conclusion: Critical Reverse Engineering as a Bridge Between Engineering and Humanities

:n s$m as : hope :5ve shown here the methodolog# of reverse engineering co$ld provide social

media critics with a (ridge (etween the criti*$e of contemporar# proprietar# social media and the

prod$ction of (etter media s#stems! Reverse engineering does more than either cele(rating Twitter

ace(oo or Google or ref$sing to tae part in them! :t also does more than simpl# critici1e social

media s#stems! :nstead it provides a method to (oth disentangle all of the threads that go into an#

specific social media s#stem and($ild criteria for the prod$ction of (etter s#stems! hile the


23/28


normative goals of traditional reverse engineering tend to (e instr$mental and $s$all# tied to ind$strial

ends critical reverse engineering can involve normative goals that tie into the goals of democrac# and

media 6$stice! oreover the methodolog# is onl# complete when the critic (ecomes a maer and

attempts to ($ild a new s#stem that is related to the old while striving to ameliorate the pro(lems of the

old! /ll of this is achieved thro$gh a mi of pragmatic genealogical legal and normative orientations

that all appear in the reverse engineering literat$re! This chapter of co$rse is not a description of a

s#stem : m#self ($ilt= rather it descri(es Tal3pen which : participated in ($t did not help constr$ct!

:ndeed : do not claim to have the technical a(ilit# to easil# constr$ct a social media alternative on m#

own! owever reverse engineering is not often a solitar# activit#! :t involves m$ltiple steps from

identif#ing an artifact to reverse engineer decomposing it into parts researching its histor# across

different disc$rsive domains %s$ch as pop$lar ($siness legal and academic+ creating new a(stractions

from the old s#stem and then implementing those a(stractions in a new s#stem! /s s$ch it is well)

s$ited to colla(oration! Critical reverse engineering th$s has the potential to (e a practice that (rings

together h$manists and engineers! or eample critical scholars of social media who have done the

wor of dissociating Twitter ace(oo >interest etc! might consider partnering with technologists

who are ($ilding nascent social media alternatives! This might mean helping with design (road site

goals incl$ding social and c$lt$ral elements or specific elements of $ser)to)$ser or $ser)software

interaction! hile none of these practices is eplicitl# tied to coding the# all can (e fo$nd in the (est

traditions of h$manities scholarship! Reverse engineering $nderstood in this wa# (ecomes a potential

5(o$ndar# o(6ect5 %@arle# et al! 20,2= T$rner 2008+ (etween engineers and h$manists allowing these

fields to (ridge disc$rsive and concept$al gaps to colla(orate!

@ased on the case of Tal3pen ela(orated here were : to wor with technologists creating a

social media alternative : wo$ld s$ggest several (road tentative goals for s$ccessf$l critical reverse


24/28

8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" 2? of 29

engineering of social media! /n# new social media s#stem wo$ld (ear traces of the old ($t wo$ld (e

($ilt for social 6$stice! :t might (e compati(le with the old %in the traditions of software reverse

engineering+ and #et add la#ers of f$nctionalit#! :t wo$ld prevent the pro(lems of contemporar# social

media %i!e! s$rveillance red$ction of interaction to cons$mer choices and the valori1ation of free

la(or+! :t co$ld incl$de an interface that draws on eisting design conventions ($t wo$ld also provide a

pedagog# for deeper $nderstanding of social media s#stems data privac# and val$e prod$ction! The

new s#stem co$ld epand the meaning of 5the social5 (# ($ilding on the older social metaphors %friend

follower etc!+! :t co$ld provide a level of a(straction a(ove the networ la#er < th$s hiding

implementations of decentrali1ation and encr#ption from end)$sers < while providing access to the

inner worings of the social media s#stem allowing $sers to not onl# inspect the code ($t also alter it

to improve the s#stem!

Tal3pen failed to do these things ($t its fail$re does not invalidate the potentials of reverse

engineering social media!


25/28

8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" 2- of 29

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Lawrence B.!

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/m(ig$it# and Clarit# at Bnowledge @o$ndaries! $man Comm$nication Research ?8 280roceedings of the o$rth oring Conference on Reverse

Engineering 3cto(er )8 ,997 /msterdam the 4etherlands! :EEE Comp$ter .ociet# >ress

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Cam(ridge ass!= London!

een(erg /! ,98! L$Wcs ar and the .o$rces of Critical Theor#! 3ford ;niversit# >ress 4ew

Ior!


26/28

8797 Gehl "Critical Reverse Engineering" 2F of 29

o$ca$lt ! ,979! iscipline and >$nish! Dintage 4ew Ior!

o$ca$lt ! 200?! The s$(6ect and power in& Ra(inow >! Rose 4!.! %Eds!+ The Essential o$ca$lt &

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Gillespie T! 2007! ired sh$t! :T >ress!

aina$t A!L! Engle(ert D! enrard A! ic A!! Roland ! ,99! ata(ase reverse engineering&

rom re*$irements to C/RE tools! Reverse engineering 94G :mage 98- X F, piels+!

Aacal/non n!d! ,.$$,!png %>4G :mage 9? X 2, piels+ ) .caled %9-U+!

Aohnstone /! 20,0a! h# :snt Siileas Trending on Twitter and .ho$ld e Care .t$dent

/ctivism!

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