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CRV Crew Training Manual

Royal New Zealand Coastguard Inc

PO Box 33559 Takapuna

North Shore City 0740

Acknowledgements

Coastguard New Zealand would like to thank the following people and organisations for their

contributions and suggestions during the compilation of this manual. CNZ also wishes to

acknowledge the following publications in the research and development of this manual.

Angus Stirling Glen Scott

Baz Kirk Graham Cowling

Brooke Archbold Jill Heaslip

Bruce McLeod Jim Lilley

Campbell Hope John Kothe

Charles Rycroft Linda Clews

Chris Reid Phil Pollero

Chris Musgrave Richard Ansley

Dean Lawrence Tim Whelan

Don Scott Trevor Mitchell

Dr Chris Sames - Hyperbaric Medical officer RNZN

Greg Brownson - Auckland Rescue Helicopter Trust

Herbie Barnes - Auckland Rescue Helicopter Trust

Tom Mansell - Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI)

International Aeronautical & Maritime Search & Rescue Manual Vol II - IMO

CIMS – Team work in Emergency Management - New Zealand Fire Service Commission

National SAR Manual - Australian National Search and Rescue Council

SAR Seamanship Reference Manual - Canadian Coastguard (CCG)

CCG Auxiliary Search and Rescue Crew Manual - Canadian Coastguard

Inshore Rescue Boat Training Manual - Royal National Lifeboat Institution

ILB - B&D Class Course Notes - Royal National Lifeboat Institution

Essentials of Sea Survival (2003) – Golden & Tipton

CRV Crew Training Manual January 2010

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................... II Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... II

List of Abbreviations ..........................................................................................................................V New Zealand Coastguard........................................................................................................... 1

Coastguards Training Structure ........................................................................................................ 2 Training Schedule ............................................................................................................................. 3 Training Log Book ............................................................................................................................. 4 Training Resources ........................................................................................................................... 4

1 NZ SAR SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................... 6 Overview............................................................................................................................................ 6 What is SAR? .................................................................................................................................... 7 New Zealand’s SAR Responsibilities ................................................................................................ 7 NZ SAR Structure.............................................................................................................................. 7 The Role of Coastguard in Marine SAR............................................................................................ 9 Categories of SAR Incidents ........................................................................................................... 10 Precautionary Operations................................................................................................................ 11 Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS) ....................................................................... 12 Incident Controller ........................................................................................................................... 13 Incident Management Team (IMT).................................................................................................. 14 IMT - Titles Roles & Responsibilities............................................................................................... 15 On Scene Resources - Titles Roles & Responsibilities .................................................................. 17 CIMS – Example Scenarios ............................................................................................................ 19

2 PERSONAL SAFETY ............................................................................................................. 22 Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 22 Physical Considerations .................................................................................................................. 23 Personal Clothing and Equipment................................................................................................... 27 Personal Flotation Devices (PFD’s) ................................................................................................ 28 Personal Equipment ........................................................................................................................ 31 Sea Survival .................................................................................................................................... 33 Safety on Board............................................................................................................................... 37

3 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................................... 40 Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 40 General Notes ................................................................................................................................. 41 Safety .............................................................................................................................................. 42 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)......................................................................................... 43 Safe Ship Management (SSM)........................................................................................................ 43 Accidents and Investigations........................................................................................................... 45 Knowledge and Training.................................................................................................................. 46 Preservation of Life Not Property .................................................................................................... 46 The Privacy Act ............................................................................................................................... 48 Radio Regulations ........................................................................................................................... 48

4 SAR COMMUNICATIONS ...................................................................................................... 50 Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 51 Radio Communications ................................................................................................................... 51 Sensitive Information....................................................................................................................... 55 Logging Radio Traffic ...................................................................................................................... 55 Microphone Technique.................................................................................................................... 56 Radio Black Spots ........................................................................................................................... 56 Distress Signals............................................................................................................................... 57 Communications with Aircraft.......................................................................................................... 59 Identifying the Vessel ...................................................................................................................... 60 Other Communication ..................................................................................................................... 60 Internal Communication .................................................................................................................. 61 Verbal Communication .................................................................................................................... 63 Challenge and Response ................................................................................................................ 64

5 TOWING TECHNIQUES ......................................................................................................... 66 Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 67 Regulations & Policy ....................................................................................................................... 67 Towing Configurations & Line Handling .......................................................................................... 70


Towlines .......................................................................................................................................... 72 Towing Hazards .............................................................................................................................. 80 Towing Hazards cont....................................................................................................................... 83 Sea & Swell ..................................................................................................................................... 85 Towing Speed ................................................................................................................................. 86 Summary of Standard Towing Practice........................................................................................... 87 Preparation for Towing .................................................................................................................... 88 Approach and Passing the Tow Line .............................................................................................. 89 Towing off a Vessel Aground .......................................................................................................... 92 Tidal Times & Heights ..................................................................................................................... 95 Vessel at Anchor ............................................................................................................................. 98 Towing Alongside or Barging .......................................................................................................... 99

6 VICTIM RECOVERY ............................................................................................................. 106 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 107 SAP – Stop Assess Plan ............................................................................................................... 108 SAP Flow Chart. ............................................................................................................................ 111 Recovery of Person in Water (PIW) .............................................................................................. 112 Recovery Techniques.................................................................................................................... 115 Hypothermic Casualties ................................................................................................................ 117 Recovery from the Shore or Grounded Vessels ........................................................................... 118 Recovery from Marine Structures ................................................................................................. 122 Recovery from a Drifting Vessel.................................................................................................... 123 Recovery from Vessels on Fire (Or Gas / Chemical Situations) .................................................. 125 Recovery from a Vessel Underway............................................................................................... 126 Recovery from Liferaft ................................................................................................................... 129 Recovery from Lifeboats ............................................................................................................... 130 Rescue Flow Chart........................................................................................................................ 131 Medical Care ................................................................................................................................. 132 Patient Handling & Transport ........................................................................................................ 134 Diver Care ..................................................................................................................................... 136 Multiple Casualties ........................................................................................................................ 137 Corpse Retrieval............................................................................................................................ 140 Crew Welfare................................................................................................................................. 141

7 MAN OVERBOARD PROCEDURES ................................................................................... 142 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 142 Primary Actions ............................................................................................................................. 143 Secondary Actions ........................................................................................................................ 144 Post Rescue .................................................................................................................................. 147

8 OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................... 148 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 148 Search Preparation ....................................................................................................................... 149 Search Considerations .................................................................................................................. 149 Observer Positions & Procedures ................................................................................................. 153 Reporting Targets.......................................................................................................................... 160 Crew Management in a Search..................................................................................................... 162

9 SEARCH TECHNIQUES....................................................................................................... 164 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 165 Developing the Search Plan.......................................................................................................... 165 Search Terminology ...................................................................................................................... 167 Search Patterns............................................................................................................................. 172 Use of GPS.................................................................................................................................... 176 Use of Floating Datum................................................................................................................... 179 Establishing Sweep Width............................................................................................................. 181 Time / Speed / Distance ................................................................................................................ 183 Search Pattern Templates............................................................................................................. 186

10 WORKING WITH AIRCRAFT ............................................................................................. 190 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 190 Aircraft Regulations & Policies ...................................................................................................... 191 Aircraft Personnel.......................................................................................................................... 192 Aircraft Communications ............................................................................................................... 193 Coastguard Air Patrol .................................................................................................................... 194 Operational Procedures ................................................................................................................ 194 Helicopter Operations.................................................................................................................... 196


Aircraft Ditching ............................................................................................................................. 204 11 EMERGENCY REPAIRS (Damage Control) ..................................................................... 206

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 207 Maintenance – Prevention is better than Cure.............................................................................. 207 Repair Equipment on Board.......................................................................................................... 209 Basic Engine Repairs .................................................................................................................... 210 Steering Systems .......................................................................................................................... 213 Damage Control ............................................................................................................................ 217 Beaching........................................................................................................................................ 227 Dismasting..................................................................................................................................... 231 Swamped / Capsized Vessels....................................................................................................... 232 Rope Work – Knots & Methods for Damage Control .................................................................... 237

12 BOAT HANDLING & HEAVY WEATHER.......................................................................... 242 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 243 Small Vessel Design ..................................................................................................................... 244 Basic Hull Forms (planing) ............................................................................................................ 246 Propulsion Systems....................................................................................................................... 247 Jet Drive ........................................................................................................................................ 252 Pivot Points.................................................................................................................................... 254 Stability .......................................................................................................................................... 257 Weather Forecasts ........................................................................................................................ 261 Waves............................................................................................................................................ 263 Tide / Current................................................................................................................................. 265 Bars ............................................................................................................................................... 266 Preparation for Heavy Weather..................................................................................................... 268 CRV Handling in Heavy Weather.................................................................................................. 269

13 ON SCENE COMMAND...................................................................................................... 276 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 276 On-Scene Command -Duties and Responsibilities....................................................................... 277 On Scene Management ................................................................................................................ 277 Multi Vessel Searches................................................................................................................... 279 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 288

Practical Masters Course & CoC Assessment .................................................................... 290 Practical Masters Course .............................................................................................................. 290 CoC Assessment Process............................................................................................................. 291 Guidelines for CoC Assessment ................................................................................................... 292


List of Abbreviations

ABC Airway, Breathing, Circulation AOP Area Of Probability AVS Angle of Vanishing Stability BSD Beam Sighting Distance C Coverage CAA Civil Aviation Authority CAP Coastguard Air Patrol CBES Coastguard Boating Education Service CIMS Coordinated Incident Management System CNZ Coastguard New Zealand COG Course Over the Ground CRV Coastguard Rescue Vessel D Datum DES Diver Emergency Service DO Duty Officer EBL Electronic Bearing Line ELB Emergency Locator Beacon EPIRB Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon ETA Estimated Time of Arrival GPS Global Positioning System HELP Heat Escape Lessening Posture IFC In Flight Coordinator IFO In Flight Observer IMT Incident Management Team IP Initial Position LKP Last Known Position MNZ Maritime New Zealand MOB Man Over Board MSC Marine SAR Controller OSC On Scene Command PFD Personal Floatation Device PIW Person In Water PLB Personal Locator Beacon POB Person(s) On Board POD Probability Of Detection RCCNZ Rescue Coordination Centre New Zealand RAM Restricted in Ability to Manoeuvre S track Spacing SAP Stop Assess Plan SAR Search And Rescue SAROP Search And Rescue Operation SART Search And Rescue Transponder SOG Speed Over the Ground SOLAS Safety Of Life At Sea SOP Standard Operating Procedure SP Splash Point SRR Search & Rescue Region SSM Safe Ship Management SSMM Safe Ship Management Manual TR Trip Report UHF Ultra High Frequency VHF Very High Frequency VRM Variable Range Marker W sweep Width

CRV Crew Training Manual 1 January 2010

New Zealand Coastguard

New Zealand marine search and rescue dates back to records held in the late 19th century;

in October 1861, the first report of a lifeboat being used, appeared in the Lyttleton Times.

The first permanent rescue service was established at Sumner in 1898, and the Sumner

Lifeboat Institute still exists today as a member of Coastguard. In 1976, the New Zealand

Coastguard Federation was established; when a group of sea rescue organisations formed a

national body to give a unified voice and assist with funding initiatives. In 1990 Royal

Patronage was granted to the New Zealand Coastguard and Prince Charles willingly

accepted the role of Patron.

Today, the Coastguard provides New Zealand’s primary marine search and rescue service.

Coastguard operates from a network of four regions and 69 affiliated units. Coastguard’s

currently comprises of more than 2,500 professional volunteers, and 18,000 supporter

members. There are at present 72 dedicated rescue vessels in Coastguard’s fleet,

supported by 10 Air Patrol units located through-out New Zealand.

Coastguard’s commitment to you We will put your personal safety above all else

To treat you with respect

To recognise the time, energy and sacrifices you make for our organisation

Provide the training you need to excel in your chosen Coastguard pathway

To provide you with leadership and support

Keep you informed on the direction of our organisation

Your commitment to Coastguard Your time and energy

To share our passion for saving lives at sea

Always work with dedication, professionalism and respect

Ensure that your actions enhance Coastguards reputation

To attend required training for your chosen Coastguard pathway

We train to be the very best at what we do, so we are ready for any situation or

circumstance.


Coastguards Training Structure

Units As the direct contact with Coastguard Volunteers the Unit has a primary responsibility for the

safety and the competency of Coastguard personnel.

• Appoint Unit Training Officer and ensure responsibilities are clearly understood. • Manage attendance at training. • Deliver “Unit provided” training as required. • Act immediately if Masters or crew are for any reason deemed no longer competent.

Regions

• Management of training in conjunction with Unit training Officers, and Co-ordination of training between Units and CBES SAR Tutors /Instructors.

• Management of SAR volunteer database and qualifications. • Advise CNZ of successful completion and certification requirements for Senior and

Operational Crew. • Promote training programmes.

Coastguard Boating Education Service (CBES)

• Develop training courses and resources to meet agreed specified learning outcomes. • Manage development of resources for both Tutors Instructors and Students. • Training, accreditation and moderation of CBES SAR Tutors Instructors & Assessors. • Certificate issue and entry in National Database for CBES courses.

Coastguard New Zealand (CNZ)

• Provide funding to Regions for agreed training. • Provision of certificates once validated by Regions. • Maintain national database of individual records. • Develop common resources for training promotion.


Training Schedule

This manual is a compilation of the SAR modules that form part of Coastguard’s marine SAR

training schedule. There are 13 modules in total that are complimented by other Coastguard

Boating Education Service (CBES) courses (which are more general seamanship than SAR

specific) such as VHF Radio, Boatmaster, Radar, GPS and maintenance of Inboard &

Outboard Motors.

The table below shows the training schedule from Trainee to Master of a Coastguard Rescue

Vessel (CRV)

* If Boatmaster course is completed, then Day Skipper is no longer required for award of

Operational Certificate.


Coastguard recognises certain non CBES qualifications as equivalent as or higher than the

Coastguard Training Requirements. Unless there has already been a precedent set,

qualifications may require a syllabus (in English) to be provided.

Part of the process of qualifying as a Coastguard Rescue Vessel Master (as detailed in the

Training Schedule on previous page) is to complete two practical modules – the Practical

Masters Course, and the actual Certificate of Competence (CoC) assessment for a Master.

Further details on this process are to be found on pages 310 - 314 at the end of this manual.

Training Log Book

Every crew member is issued with a copy of the CRV Crew Training Syllabus and Log Book.

The log book details the requirements and guidelines of each part of the training schedule. It

is a personal record of any training completed and ‘sea time’ onboard the CRV.

Training Resources

In addition to this manual and the training resources provided on any of the regular CBES

courses, the Coastguard New Zealand website contains a section titled SARTR (Search and

Rescue Training Resources). Click on Our Volunteers – Units Intranet Login - SARTR

SARTR contains material on the training schedule, its process and administration, as well as

training aids such as example training exercises, and practice assessment papers for all the

SAR training modules.


1 NZ SAR SYSTEM

Overview............................................................................................................................................ 6 What is SAR? .................................................................................................................................... 7 New Zealand’s SAR Responsibilities ................................................................................................ 7

New Zealand Search and Rescue Region.............................................................................. 7 NZ SAR Structure.............................................................................................................................. 7 The Role of Coastguard in Marine SAR............................................................................................ 9 Categories of SAR Incidents ........................................................................................................... 10

Category 1.................................................................................................................................. 10 Category 2.................................................................................................................................. 10

Kayaker on route from Haast to Bluff reported overdue. ...................................................... 11 Passenger vessel (100 POB) sinking in Bay of Islands........................................................ 11

Precautionary Operations................................................................................................................ 11 Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS) ....................................................................... 12 Incident Controller ........................................................................................................................... 13 Incident Management Team (IMT).................................................................................................. 14

Operational Management...................................................................................................... 14 Planning / Intelligence........................................................................................................... 14 Logistics & Admin.................................................................................................................. 14

IMT - Titles Roles & Responsibilities............................................................................................... 15 Operations Manager ............................................................................................................. 15 Marine SAR Controller (MSC)............................................................................................... 15 Duty Officer (DO) .................................................................................................................. 16 Radio Operator (RO)............................................................................................................. 16 Marine SAR Advisor.............................................................................................................. 16

On Scene Resources - Titles Roles & Responsibilities .................................................................. 17 Coastguard Rescue Vessels...................................................................................................... 17

Coastguard Rescue Vessel (CRV) Skipper .......................................................................... 17 On Scene Command (OSC) ................................................................................................. 17

Coastguard Air Patrol (CAP) ...................................................................................................... 18 Aircraft Pilot ........................................................................................................................... 18 In Flight Coordinator (IFC) .................................................................................................... 18 In Flight Observer (IFO) ........................................................................................................ 18

CIMS – Example Scenarios ............................................................................................................ 19

Overview

The aim of this training module is to provide Coastguard personnel with a general overview

of marine Search and Rescue (SAR) in New Zealand. This includes the key organisations

involved and the role that Coastguard has to play.

The module also covers the various titles, roles, and responsibilities of different Coastguard

personnel involved in SAR incidents.


What is SAR?

From a national perspective, SAR incorporates operations involving missing or injured

persons on both land and at sea. Marine SAR involves people in distress on the water,

either at sea, in harbours, rivers or lakes.

Coastguard’s involvement in SAR includes activities on all these waterways. To do this

Coastguard utilises a variety of assets ranging from Coastguard Rescue Vessels (CRV’s),

Coastguard Air Patrol (CAP) aircraft, and land-based Coastguard assets such as radio

networks and operation rooms.

New Zealand’s SAR Responsibilities

The International Convention for the Safety of Life at

Sea (SOLAS) requires that signatory governments

provide for the rescue of persons in distress at sea

within their Search and Rescue Region (SRR). The

government of New Zealand is a signatory to this

convention.

New Zealand Search and Rescue Region New Zealand’s SRR is a huge area stretching from just

south of the equator to the South Pole, and from about

halfway between New Zealand and Australia to about

halfway between New Zealand and South America.

NZ SAR Structure

In New Zealand, there are over 11,000 people directly involved in Search and Rescue (land

& marine) nationwide, and another 1,500 working in support of them. People from all over the

country and from all walks of life are involved in NZ SAR.

Unpaid professional volunteers make up approx 90% of the personnel in the NZ SAR sector,

which is one of the highest rates of volunteer involvement in the world.


The different organisations / agencies involved all sit within a recognised national structure.

The diagram below shows the various agencies involved in that structure.

The term SAROP stands for Search and Rescue Operation, and there are different

categories of SAROPs depending on whether MNZ or NZ Police is coordinating the

operation.


The Role of Coastguard in Marine SAR

In New Zealand, there are two Coordinating Authorities that have been directed by the

government to hold accountability, and responsibility for marine Search and Rescue

Operations (SAROPs). These Coordinating Authorities are;

• New Zealand Police.

• MNZ (Maritime New Zealand).

Note: MNZ administers SAR through the Rescue Coordination Centre New Zealand

(RCCNZ).

In general, the Police are only involved in ‘close to shore’ SAR incidents (including rivers &

lakes), whilst the RCCNZ is involved in both ‘close to shore’ and ‘off shore’ SAR incidents.

Apart from the Police launches presently situated in Auckland and Wellington, there are no

other dedicated Coordinating Authority vessels available for permanent marine SAR duties.

Consequently, both the NZ Police and the RCCNZ deploy other physical resources to meet

the requirements of the SOLAS convention.

The NZ Defence Force (Air force and Navy) often provide the key physical resources for ‘off

shore’ SAR incidents, with Coastguard units across the country fulfilling the role of providing

the physical resources for ‘close to shore’ marine SAR incidents.

Depending on specific local and / or regional operating procedures, Coastguard units can be

tasked by;

• Their Regional Office.

• The Police.

• RCCNZ.

•

Coastguard Units can also ‘self-task’ in a SAROP from within their Unit, ensuring that the

appropriate authority is informed. In other words if a Coastguard Unit / Skipper are the first

to be informed of a distress situation, they don’t have to wait to be tasked by a Coordinating

Authority.


Categories of SAR Incidents

Category 1 Operations carried out under the authority of the NZ Police. Support and advice for these

incidents can be provided by the RCCNZ or any other organisation, including Coastguard.

Category 2 Operations carried out under the authority of the RCCNZ. Support and advice for these

incidents can be provided by the NZ Police or any other organisation, including Coastguard.

RCCNZ is staffed 24 / 7 and is located in the same building as ‘Maritime Radio’ — the

Maritime Operations Centre at Avalon, Wellington.

‘Category 2’ includes specific incidents such as;

• All searches associated with missing or distressed aircraft.

• All searches where there has been distress beacon activation. Either EPIRB (Emergency

Position Indicating Radio Beacon), ELB (Emergency Locator Beacon), ELT (Emergency

Locator Transmitter) or PLB (Personal Locator Beacon).

• SAR operations which require the use of national civil and / or military resources, or

resources from another country (such as foreign shipping).

• Any operation where responsibility is transferred by mutual agreement from the Police to

the Rescue Coordination Centre.

Note any flare sightings must be reported to RCCNZ, even if they are efficiently dealt

with using local resources as a Category 1. This is because a flare may be sighted

and reported to RCCNZ as well – this procedure is to eliminate the chance of two

separate SAROPs being initiated for the same incident.

Note the category of an operation can be changed depending on the circumstances

and by the mutual consent of both controlling authorities.


The use of different categories in SAROPs is to clarify responsibility, and financial provision

(i.e. who pays the bill!). Size, scale, type, or complexity does not necessarily determine

classification. Incidents in each category can be very large or quite small. The ultimate

decision on the category of incident is determined by which controlling authority is best able

to deal with the incident.

Example

Kayaker on route from Haast to Bluff reported overdue. This incident may initially first come to the attention of the police, and hence be a Category 1

SAROP. The areas remoteness and lack of local resources would mean that the police

would alert RCCNZ. RCCNZ would be in a better position to request commercial, naval or

other similar vessels and aircraft to assist in the search. Hence by mutual agreement this

incident may become a Category 2 SAROP.

Passenger vessel (100 POB) sinking in Bay of Islands This area has a large number of private, tourist, and game fishing vessels that could respond

to the incident. If RCCNZ cannot bring any particular required resources to assist, then the

incident would be run as a Category 1 SAROP.

During any SAR incident RCCNZ & Police will discuss who the best authourity to

coordinate the operation is.

Precautionary Operations

Many Coastguard operations are precautionary, and as such they are not categorised, and

so do not fit into the system described above.

These operations provide ‘Good Samaritan Assistance’. An example would be going to the

assistance of a vessel that is not in any distress (imminent danger), such as a vessel broken

down and anchored in fair weather.

Precautionary operations are not distress situations, and the Coordinating Authorities,

do not need to be involved.

These situations however can and do sometimes deteriorate and turn into SAR

operation, and the coordinating authorities should be informed immediately if there is

cause for concern.


Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS)

In New Zealand, all agencies involved in SAR (including Coastguard) have agreed to work

under an operational model known as CIMS (Coordinated Incident Management System).

The purpose of CIMS is to ensure a coordinated response using a common framework, and

common terminology when a number of different agencies are involved.

The Coordinating Authority in an incident (In Marine SAR this will be either the Police or

RCCNZ) will provide the overall coordination, and control of other agencies involved.

Each agency remains in command of its own assets, and determines what assets are

available and what tasks they can undertake in response to the incident.

In CIMS the terms ‘Control’ and ‘Command’ to describe a persons role has particular

meaning.

‘Control’ works horizontally across different agencies, while ‘Command’ works

vertically and is within an individual agency.

Control e.g. RCCNZ Works across agencies

St Johns Ambulance Coastguard Air Patrol Rescue Helicopter Command works within

agencies


The flow chart below illustrates the general structure of a SAROP using the CIMS system.

Incident Controller

In the CIMS model the overall control of the incident is managed by a member of the

Coordinating Authority (either NZ Police or RCCNZ). This Incident Controller is responsible

for the overall direction of the operation, and could be classed as the strategic management.

Their responsibilities include;

• Establishing command & control.

• Controlling personnel & equipment.

• Maintaining accountability & public safety.

• Establishing & maintaining communications with outside organisations.

To assist the Incident Controller there is a group referred to as the Incident Management

Team.

On Scene Resources (Operational)

On Scene Resources (Operational)

Incident Controller Overall Control of Incident

(Strategic)

Incident Management Team Operational Management

Planning / Intelligence

Logistics & Admin

(Tactical)


Incident Management Team (IMT)

The Incident Management Team forms the tactical management of the operation. As

Coastguard crew it is the IMT that you are most likely to be in direct contact with. They are

responsible for;

Operational Management

• Directing and coordinating all operations assigned to them.

• Assisting Incident Controller in developing a plan of action.

• Requesting if required additional resources through the Incident Controller.

• Keeping the Incident Controller informed of the situation.

Planning / Intelligence Gathering, evaluating, and disseminating information about the incident and status of

resources, and contributing to the development of the plan of action.

Logistics & Admin Providing the facilities, materials, services, and resources (including personnel) to support

the operation.

The number of people involved, and the distribution of individual responsibilities

within the Incident Management Team will vary depending on the size and complexity

of the incident, and the personnel available.

In large and complex operations there may be more than one Incident Management

Team working under the Incident Controller.


IMT - Titles Roles & Responsibilities

Operations Manager Whatever the make up of the IMT there must be one person clearly identified as taking the

role of Operations Manager. It is the Operations Manager who has the responsibility for the

management of the IMT and reporting to the Incident Controller.

Marine SAR Controller (MSC) One title that should be understood is that of the Marine SAR Controller (MSC). A MSC is a

person specifically trained in Marine SAROP incident management and in particular the

search planning aspect of incident management. MSCs are normally either Coastguard or

NZ Police personnel (RCCNZ have their own version of a MSC who would fulfil an identical

role). Duties of a MSC may include (but are not limited to):

• Being available for rapid response on a 24-hour basis, rostered as appropriate, to

respond to the requirements of the controlling authority or duty personnel at the

Coastguard unit.

• Determining and coordinating all SAR personnel and resources pertinent to the

requirements of the incident, and ensuring that all personnel operate within recognised

safety limits.

• Providing relevant details to the on scene resources, including defined target, area of

probability, search methodology, weather and conditions, communication networks and

other logistics.

• Coordination and communication with the relevant controlling authority.

• Ensuring that comprehensive record-keeping, post-incident reporting and debriefing is

carried out.

Dependent on the size of the incident and personnel available, the MSC may take on all or

parts of the responsibilities of the IMT. One area of responsibility that would always be taken

by a trained MSC is that of Planning / Intelligence because of their specific training in

developing search plans. Thus the IMT may be made up of several people each with varying

roles and responsibilities.


Duty Officer (DO) Some Coastguard Units / Regions have permanently manned operations centres, with a

designated Duty Officer. The Duty Officer is often the first person to be made aware of a

developing incident. Their duties may include (but not limited to):

• Being available, on a roster basis, to take charge of routine operations of the Coastguard

communications facility, and to initiate an appropriate response to any incident.

• Informing the duty Marine SAR Controller, other members of the IMT, and relevant

agencies of an incident that may require a SAR response.

• Logging all incident-related communications and actions.

• Ensuring all communication procedures are correctly followed.

The burden of interpreting the severity of the incident, and hence what response is required,

often lies with the Duty Officer. They must consider all factors and must decide by referring

to established procedures / protocols if the incident is sufficiently serious to warrant a SAR

response. Basic rule – When in doubt, treat it as a SAR Incident

Radio Operator (RO) In some areas of the country (with a permanently manned operations centre) there may be

Radio Operators on duty in addition to a Duty Officer. If not, an incident requiring the

establishment of an IMT will often involve designated Radio Operators to facilitate

communications with the on scene resources.

Marine SAR Advisor The role of the Marine SAR Adviser is to provide expert advice to assist any party involved in

a SAR incident. The Marine SAR Advisor may not have any training in SAR but will be

able to assist due to their particular knowledge and experience.

Their advice could include details of local conditions, and specific local resources that may

be available. It may be for example, that the Marine SAR Advisor has specific personal or

technical knowledge regarding the target of a search - a local fisherman in the case of a

missing fishing vessel. The Marine SAR advisor may be on site with the rest of the IMT, in

contact by phone, or at / near the scene of the incident.


On Scene Resources - Titles Roles & Responsibilities

Coastguard Rescue Vessels

Coastguard Rescue Vessel (CRV) Skipper The CRV Skipper’s role is to perform the tasks assigned to them by the IMT, and keep the

IMT fully informed of any developments on scene. Every Skipper is ultimately responsible for

their vessel, their own actions, and that of the crew. Therefore CRV Skippers should assess

their vessel, their own abilities and their crew’s strengths and weaknesses before accepting

any assigned task. They must ensure that the IMT or On-Scene Command is fully informed

of any deficiencies or limitations.

The CRV Skipper has the absolute right, responsibility, and authority to decline any

assigned task if it is considered that it involves an unacceptable level of risk.

On Scene Command (OSC) Where more than one SAR response is involved, the appointment of On-Scene Command

may be made by IMT. The On-Scene Command is normally the Skipper of the vessel on

the scene with the most experience in SAR operations. The choice of On Scene Command

may also be influenced by which vessel is most suitable for the role. This may change as

more experienced personnel or other vessels become involved. OSC duties include but are

not limited to: (See Module On Scene Command)

• Assuming delegated command and control of their allocated resources.

• Establishing effective communications between SAR resources and IMT.

• Implementing required tasks as directed and coordinating resources as required (i

Logging all incident-related communications and actions and participating in any debriefing.


Coastguard Air Patrol (CAP)

Aircraft Pilot Just as a CRV Skipper is responsible for their vessel,

a pilot has similar overall responsibility for their

aircraft and its crew. Safety on board an aircraft is

subject to stringent regulations, and a pilot must

operate within these at all times.

In Flight Coordinator (IFC) The responsibility for the on-board planning and execution of SAR operations and

communications with the IMT, OSC and other SAR agencies remains with the IFC. They are

also responsible for the welfare of the observers on board.

In Flight Observer (IFO) The In Flight Observer carries out an observation and search role. An observer’s

responsibility also involves advising the pilot of any relevant hazards in the air.


CIMS – Example Scenarios

To illustrate CIMS in action the following flowchart represents an example SAROP.

The scenario represented is of a Category 1 SAROP - a search for an overdue vessel with

Coastguard Rescue Vessels, Coastguard Air Patrol, local Surf Lifesaving, and private

vessels involved in the operation.

The IMT have at their disposal;

• Members of the local Surf Lifesaving who are conducting a shore line search.

• Two CRV’s and two private vessels who are conducting an area search further offshore.

• One CAP aircraft that is being coordinated by the IMT to fly a search pattern in

conjunction with the CRV’s and private vessels.

Incident Controller (Police)

Incident Management Team – (Police & Coastguard)

• Operations Manager (trained MSC) fulfilling the role

of Operations Manager and Planning / Intelligence

• Experienced Radio Operator/Duty Officer

responsible for Logistics, Admin and assisting the

Operations Manager

• Two Radio Operators

• One additional team member available to assist

where required

On Scene Vessels consisting of; One CRV as On Scene Command

Second CRV

Two Private Vessels

Surf Life Saving One SLS representative

coordinating with IMT

One IRB with 2 crew

One PWC (Jet Ski)

CAP Aircraft Pilot

IFC

Two Observers

Marine SAR Advisor Local Harbour Master

(Expert knowledge of

local tides / currents)


Taking the SAROP illustrated on the previous page as an example; - An EPIRB is activated,

and is identified as belonging to the overdue vessel. The overall responsibility for the

operation changes, and it now becomes a Category 2 SAROP under RCCNZ. To avoid

disruption the original IMT is retained.

The IMT is joined by the Marine SAR Advisor and another member, who although not a

trained MSC, is trained and experienced in CIMS Management. They take over the role of

Operations Manager allowing the MSC to concentrate on search planning.

The shoreline search conducted by Surf Life Saving is concluded, and with the operation

moving further offshore they are stood down. A rescue helicopter is tasked to assist in the

aerial search.

With the CIMS system the response to an incident can be increased or decreased in

scale without any change to the basic structure.

Incident Controller (RCCNZ) Supported by other Incident management personnel at RCCNZ

Incident Management Team (Police & Coastguard)

• Operations Manager responsible for overall management of the IMT

• MSC responsible for Planning / Intelligence

• Duty Officer responsible for Logistics Admin and assisting the MSC & Operations

Manager

• Two Radio Operators

• One additional team member available to assist where required

• Marine SAR advisor

On Scene Vessels One CRV as On Scene

Command

Second CRV

Two Private Vessels

Rescue Helicopter Pilot in command

Second pilot

Winch operator

Rescue diver

CAP Aircraft Pilot in command

IFC

Two Observers


It is important that all Coastguard Unit members have a general overview of marine Search

and Rescue (SAR) in New Zealand, and be aware of the various titles, roles and

responsibilities of different personnel involved in SAR incidents.

What is even more important is that Coastguard Units have a good working relationship with

the other agencies and other Coastguard Units that they are likely to work alongside.

Units should take every opportunity to foster inter agency communication, and where

possible integrated training.


2 PERSONAL SAFETY

Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 22 Physical Considerations .................................................................................................................. 23

Before SAR Operations.............................................................................................................. 23 During SAR Operations.............................................................................................................. 23 Effects of Heat............................................................................................................................ 24 Effects of Cold ............................................................................................................................ 24 Recognition of Hypothermia....................................................................................................... 25

Mild Hypothermia (approx 33 - 35°C) ................................................................................... 25 Moderate Hypothermia (approx 30 - 33°C)........................................................................... 25 Severe Hypothermia (approx 25 - 30°C)............................................................................... 25

Motion Sickness ......................................................................................................................... 26 Personal Clothing and Equipment................................................................................................... 27

Clothing ...................................................................................................................................... 27 Personal Flotation Devices (PFD’s) ................................................................................................ 28

Lifejackets .................................................................................................................................. 28 Fixed Flotation....................................................................................................................... 28 Gas Inflatable ........................................................................................................................ 28

Other Flotation Devices.............................................................................................................. 30 Buoyancy Vests .................................................................................................................... 30 Fixed Floatation Suits............................................................................................................ 30

Personal Equipment ........................................................................................................................ 31 Personal Grab Bag..................................................................................................................... 31 Vessels Grab Bag ...................................................................................................................... 32

Sea Survival .................................................................................................................................... 33 Cold Water Immersion – the 4 stages........................................................................................ 33

Stage 1 Cold Water Shock (first 3 – 5 mins)......................................................................... 34 Stage 2 Swimming Failure (5 – 30 mins) .............................................................................. 34 Stage 3 Hypothermia (30mins plus)...................................................................................... 34 Stage 4 Post / Circum Rescue Collapse............................................................................... 35

Basic rules of Sea Survival ........................................................................................................ 35 HELP (Heat Escape Lessing Posture).................................................................................. 36 Huddle................................................................................................................................... 36

Safety on Board............................................................................................................................... 37 Common Types & Areas of Risk ................................................................................................ 37 Safety is Paramount................................................................................................................... 38

Overview

All SAR personnel are individually responsible for personal safety — for their own,

and for that of their team members.

‘Safety first’ must be the adopted culture to minimise the risk of personal injury.

Coastguard’s regular contact with the public and its public education courses mean that it is

vital that SAR personnel maintain, and be seen to maintain a high standard of safety. This

will ensure that this safety image is seen as the norm, and will ultimately enhance general

public safety standards.


Physical Considerations

Before SAR Operations Personal safety starts well before you get anywhere near a CRV, CAP or Operations room.

Alcohol, bad health, use of some medications, and lack of sleep, will all impair judgment.

Anything affecting the physical or mental abilities of a person on land will only be increased

in the harsher marine environment.

A crew member has a responsibility to remain in a physical and mental state appropriate for

the period of duty.

Any personal physical conditions that may affect your health or performance must be

declared at the start of duty, to the person in command.

Some forms of medication contain ingredients that suppress normal reactions, and display

symptoms similar to the effects of alcohol. Many are of a sedative nature and cause

tiredness.

During SAR Operations Prolonged exposure to cold and the stresses of poor weather conditions will cause a decline

in crew capabilities. The nature of a SAR incident should not be underestimated, and may

adversely affect the emotional state of those involved.

Without being aware of it, crew member’s awareness, judgement, and reaction times will

deteriorate during long cold duties. Exposure to rough conditions, minimal physical

movement, increased wind-chill, fatigue, hunger, and seasickness can all strongly influence

the ability of an otherwise healthy and competent crew.

All of these effects are generally increased at night.


Effects of Heat Prolonged work in a hot environment can lead to dehydration, heat exhaustion and even

heatstroke. This can be prevented by regular intake of water and wearing appropriate

clothing.

New Zealand has one of the highest rates of skin cancer per person in the world. The

potentially damaging effects of the sun are increased if skin is also exposed to the wind,

which dries the skin’s natural oils. Waterproof sun block should be applied liberally to

exposed skin even in overcast conditions. The reflection of sunlight from the water increases

the risk of sunburn at sea.

Effects of Cold Mental and physical capabilities are adversely affected by the cold. Even if your body

temperature remains normal, efficiency may drop as cold affects the extremities.

Wind-chill factor is a measurement of the effect of wind on exposed parts of the body. The

table below gives the air temperature adjusted for wind speed.

As can be seen from the table above, increased wind speed can have a marked effect on

temperature. Overnight temperatures below freezing are not uncommon in New Zealand, so

you must be equipped with suitable clothing.


Exposure to cold will lead to a loss of sensation in your hands, and the inability to carry out

otherwise simple tasks. Concentration and vision are also affected by cold. Night vision

takes longer to acquire in cold temperatures. Mental responses sharpen in the early stages

of cold exposure but decline with the onset of hypothermia.

Hypothermia is when your body core temperature begins to fall below its normal 36.5° –

37.5° C.

Being wet will dramatically increase the risk of hypothermia – water will conduct heat away

from the skin approx 25 times faster than air.

Recognition of Hypothermia The physical and mental deterioration associated with hypothermia can be slow and not

always easy to recognise. Progressive symptoms include:

Mild Hypothermia (approx 33 - 35°C)

• Quietness.

• Shivering.

• Numbness.

• Clumsiness.

• Physical weakness.

• Irritableness (Denial of any problem).

Moderate Hypothermia (approx 30 - 33°C)

• Slurred speech.

• Shivering stops (at approx 32 °).

• Muscle stiffness.

• Disturbed vision.

Severe Hypothermia (approx 25 - 30°C)

• Collapse.

• Dilated pupils.

• Unconsciousness.


Shivering commences early, but the sudden cessation of shivering is an important sign of

moderate to severe hypothermia, and the victim is unlikely to accept the fact that anything is

wrong at this stage. Correct treatment should be commenced at the first sign. Death can

result if correct treatment is not initiated promptly. Treatment for hypothermia is essentially

not allowing the patient to get any colder, and to re warm them slowly. (Refer approved First

Aid course)

Motion Sickness This is a disorder that afflicts people to varying degrees. It can be experienced afloat or

flying, and it occurs because of excessive stimulation of a pair of minute organs located

within the inner ears. Changes in body position are normally recorded in this area and

transmitted to the brain.

It is a highly unpleasant affliction, and motion sickness can have severe physical and

emotional effects on the sufferer, who quickly becomes a liability to both themselves and

others.

Motion sickness can be minimised by;

• Riding on the centre line and towards the stern of a vessel (the area of least motion).

• Being in a place where there is a flow of fresh air.

• Keeping occupied.

• Being able to see the horizon.

A number of drugs and other preventative measures can be effective in preventing motion

sickness when taken before the experience, although drowsiness may be a side effect of

some medication.

To combat motion sickness and its effects, try to:

• Commence duty in good physical and mental condition.

• Wear suitable personal clothing.

• Consume drinks and snacks regularly.

• Take regular short breaks from ‘watch’ and exercise the body.


Personal Clothing and Equipment

Every crew member must be appropriately equipped for their designated role whilst on duty.

Some items are mandatory and others recommended.

Clothing All clothing traps a thin layer of air, which is a good insulator. Several layers of thin clothing

are more effective than one thick layer, as each layer of clothing traps a separate layer of air.

This also allows you to add or remove some layers if required. When clothing becomes wet

these layers of insulating air are replaced by water which conducts heat away from the body.

In high wind-chill conditions, more clothing is required to maintain body temperature, but

excessive clothing can have an adverse effect. Being too warm can lead to drowsiness and

seasickness. Bulky clothing can also be very physically restrictive.

The type of clothing material is a personal preference, but some points should be

considered.

• Wool versus polypropylene — both give equivalent warmth, but polypropylene is lighter

and more easily dried. It is however more flammable than wool.

• Heavy cotton or denim should be avoided as it becomes very restrictive when wet, and

offers little heat retention.

• A large percentage of body heat is lost from the neck and head (approx 30% from the

head alone) so a warm scarf and hat are essential items.

• Footwear is a necessity on a CRV. Bare feet expose a crew member to all manner of

injuries when working on a vessel. A pair of good quality sea boots is ideal; otherwise a

pair of boat shoes or trainers will protect your feet. Jandals should never be worn on a

CRV.

• A wind / waterproof outer layer is essential to prevent heat loss from the wind and or

spray / rain.


Personal Flotation Devices (PFD’s)

‘PFD’ is a generic term to describe various types of buoyancy garments ranging from a

lifejacket to a wetsuit. A life jacket is designed to keep an unconscious wearer floating in an

upright (face up) position with their head supported and clear of the water. Any other type of

PFD that is not specifically designed to do just that, is a buoyancy aid not a lifejacket.

Lifejackets There are two main types of marine lifejacket, fixed flotation & inflatable.

Fixed Flotation These have permanent solid flotation, are simple, robust and require little

maintenance. They are, however bulky and generally unsuitable as a working

lifejacket.

Gas Inflatable Although not as robust (as there is the risk of puncture), and requiring a little

more care and maintenance, this type of lifejacket is compact and does not

restrict a wearer’s movement. All inflatable lifejackets can be inflated orally,

but there are three quite different methods of gas inflation.

• Manual gas-inflatable lifejackets — a toggle needs to be pulled to puncture

a Co2 cylinder and hence inflate the lifejacket.

• Automatic inflatable lifejackets — In addition to being able to inflate manually by the

toggle, an auto inflate lifejacket will deploy in contact with the water. A water soluble pill

or collar dissolves allowing the lifejacket to inflate automatically. This type of lifejacket

can be prone to accidental inflation by spray, or if stored in damp conditions.

• Hydrostatic inflatable — Can be inflated using the pull toggle, but unlike the auto inflate it

will deploy automatically only at a given depth due to water pressure. This type will not

accidentally inflate due to waves / spray or being stored wet.

When wearing inflatable lifejackets care must be taken to guard against accidental

activation, but If the pull-toggle is stowed inside the jacket it must be easily

accessible.


Every lifejacket should have retro-reflective tape and a whistle attached.

Lifejackets may be fitted with a light (either strobe or fixed).

Additional fittings may include webbing straps for lifting and crotch or

thigh straps. When tightened they pull the inflated lifejacket down, thus

pulling the wearer up. This can raise the wearers face another 50 – 70

mm from the water. This may not sound like much – but it makes a lot of

difference when you’re in the water.

Some lifejackets are fitted with spray hoods which will protect the wearer

from spray inhalation in rough weather. The natural tendency is for

persons in the water wearing a life jacket to end up facing the wind and

waves.

Never wear anything over the top of an inflatable lifejacket. When the jacket inflates

inside a layer of clothing it will compress the chest and restrict breathing.

• As with other emergency equipment you must be thoroughly familiar with your lifejacket –

how to inflate (orally and manually), deflate and operate any equipment on the jacket

such as strobe lights, crotch straps etc.

Being thoroughly familiar with emergency equipment means being able to operate the

equipment with your eyes shut. Trying to read the instructions on how to activate the

light on your lifejacket once you are in the water, in the dark, in driving rain and 3m

seas is unlikely to be successful.


Inflatable lifejackets should be regularly inspected to check that;

• Co2 cylinder is not corroded or pitted (opposite).

• Co2 cylinder is firmly screwed in (if loose by 1 or 2 threads the firing pin may

not be able to puncture the cylinder).

• The indicator tag on the firing mechanism (usually red or green) is still in

place (opposite below).

• The webbing is in good condition.

• That lights if fitted are working.

• The lifejacket still retains air and has no punctures or leaks – the jacket

should be checked periodically by fully inflating, and being left for a few

hours( its preferable to inflate using a pump if possible to avoid the build up

of moisture within the bladder).

All CRV lifejackets are also subject to periodic inspection / maintenance by approved service

agents. These inspections are part of the Units Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and

Safe Ship Management. (See Module Legal Considerations)

Other Flotation Devices Buoyancy Vests A buoyancy vest is a device that will help a conscious person to float. The

buoyancy provided is much less than that of a lifejacket, and will not turn an

unconscious person face up in the water. They are suitable for water sports

such a waterskiing.

Fixed Floatation Suits These are suits either one or two piece suits that have floatation throughout.

They not only provide floatation but have a high degree of insulation.

Floatation suits are not generally designed to be lifejackets, and should not

be seen as a replacement for one. The suits do not concentrate the

floatation in one area to help turn a person face up. As a consequence a

person can float just as easily face down.


The added floatation in the suit also means that it takes a far larger lifejacket to turn the

wearer face up. The typical buoyancy of most ‘offshore’ inflatable lifejackets is 150 Newton’s

(15kg of buoyancy). Many floatation suits need lifejackets of 250 – 275 Newton’s to turn a

person face up in the water.

The area you operate in, vessel type, prevailing weather and sea conditions, will dictate the

type of PFD you wear. This will be detailed in the Unit SOPs.

As a minimum requirement, it is mandatory for all Skippers and crew, when underway

in a CRV, to wear approved PFDs at all times.

Personal Equipment

Personal Grab Bag A ready access bag should be kept by all CRV crew at home, in the car, or at the Unit base /

boat shed. This bag should contain personal items and its contents could include:

• Change of dry clothes.

• Wet weather gear.

• Hat, gloves & scarf.

• Towel.

• Knife.

• Water bottle.

• Sun glasses.

• Sun block.

• Snack food.

• Waterproof torch.

A multi tool knife is useful, but a robust blade in a sheath is more suitable for emergency use.


Vessels Grab Bag Emergency / survival items may be stowed in a ‘grab bag’ on board. A grab bag is designed

to float, and can include emergency equipment that would be taken in the event of having to

abandon the vessel. Certain equipment may be added to a grab bag as part of the vessels

abandon ship procedures. Given that Coastguard generally operate close to shore, the

primary equipment to be carried in any grab bag will be signalling equipment.

Its contents could include but not be limited to;

• Hand held VHF Radio.

• Hand held GPS.

• EPIRB.

• Distress flares.

• Waterproof Torch.

• Cylume (chemical light) sticks.

• Length of line or lanyards (to secure crew to each other).

The contents of the grab bag should also be secured in some way. It would be unfortunate

to open the grab bag in the water, and then have your emergency equipment float away in

the dark.

The storage and accessibility of emergency items on board is very important. There are no

hard-and-fast rules regarding location or distribution of emergency / survival gear on a

vessel.

All Coastguard crews should regularly practice emergency and abandon ship

procedures. As with all emergency drills / training (fire, man overboard etc) they

should be documented in the CRV log. (See Module Legal Considerations)

Remember - for or your own safety, and that of other crew members, know where all

emergency equipment is stored and how to use it. CRV crew should know how to find

and operate emergency equipment such as flares and EPIRB with their eyes shut.


Sea Survival

Cold Water Immersion – the 4 stages

To understand the reasoning behind sea survival techniques, and the risks involved in a

survival situation you must appreciate the 4 stages of cold water immersion.

‘Cold water’ for the purposes of this section is water below approx 25°C. The colder the

water is, the more rapid and severe the reaction to immersion. The risks inherent in the first

stage of cold water immersion are present in water below 20 - 25°C, and particularly

significant in water of 15°C or less.

As can be seen on the example sea temperature charts (above) for the New Zealand

coast, 15°C or less is not uncommon, and inland waterways & lakes can often be

considerably colder.

The times in the table opposite are

approximations, and actual times will

depend on many factors including a

persons clothing, physical fitness,

body mass etc


Stage 1 Cold Water Shock (first 3 – 5 mins) On initial immersion in water below approx 20 – 25 °C the body’s reaction is to make a large

involuntary gasp, followed by an increase in heart beat and breathing by up to 4 times the

normal rate. The colder the water is, the more severe the reaction.

• The initial gasp and rise in breathing rate greatly increases the risk of water inhalation,

and makes holding your breath underwater for more than just a few seconds almost

impossible.

• The huge increase in breathing rate (hyperventilation) can cause dizziness or fainting.

• The huge increase in heart rate and blood pressure can result in cardiac arrest. This can

occur with even young healthy persons, and is a significant risk in older or unfit persons,

and those with existing cardiac problems.

Unless a person regularly swims in ‘cold’ water and has effectively trained the body to

suppress cold water shock, this reaction will occur regardless of a persons size, shape, or

body mass. To counteract cold water shock you must try to remain calm and control your

breathing – it will pass.

Stage 2 Swimming Failure (5 – 30 mins) The effect of short term immersion in cold water is the cooling of the body’s surface &

extremities, this cooling of the muscles and nerves leads to;

• Loss of coordination.

• Loss of physical strength.

This combination can lead to drowning even in very strong swimmers, and simple physical

tasks such as operating flares or a hand held radio will become increasingly difficult.

Stage 3 Hypothermia (30mins plus) Hypothermia (the lowering of the body’s core temperature) only starts to occur after around

30mins or more. As the core temperature falls, so does the heart rate and blood pressure.

In this stage death can occur due the continuing effects of stage 2, and to;

• Loss of consciousness (and subsequent drowning).

• Cardiac arrest (due to loss of blood pressure).

In water of 15°C death will occur in 50% of lightly clothed persons in 6 hrs or less.


The first 2 stages of cold water immersion account for over 50% of immersion deaths.

Post (after) or Circum (around / during) Rescue Collapse accounts for up to a further

20% of immersion deaths.

Stage 4 Post / Circum Rescue Collapse While immersed, water pressure helps to reduce blood flow to the extremities. When the

casualty is taken from the water this pressure is removed, and blood from the core flows to

the skin surface and extremities. This leads to a loss of blood pressure and can result in loss

of consciousness / cardiac arrest. If this is coupled with the effect of gravity draining blood

from the body’s core to the legs, as in a prolonged vertical lift, the risk is even greater. (See

Module Victim Recovery)

Any physical exertion will also increase the risk of loss of consciousness / cardiac arrest as

blood circulation in the core is diverted to the exterior muscles.

Basic rules of Sea Survival If you do end up in the water there are a few basic but essential rules to follow.

Primarily - Conserve heat and energy

If you have the opportunity (or there is a very good reason not to) – enter the water with your

lifejacket already inflated. Try to stay calm and control your breathing. Do not attempt to

swim. Only swim for the shore if it is within very easy reach. If you do have to swim use

your legs only as you will tire and loose body heat quicker if the upper body and arms are

used.

Any exertion will result in loss of body heat as energy is being expended in activity rather

than maintaining warmth. Movement also displaces water that has been trapped between

layers of clothing (and has been heated slightly by the body) and replaces it with cooler water

from the surrounding sea.

If you can get out of (or partially out of) the water onto a floating object for example, then do

so. Remember water will conduct heat from the body approx 25 times faster than air.

You will live a lot longer if you can keep still!


HELP (Heat Escape Lessing Posture)

• Keep head out of the water.

• Arms crossed in front of chest.

• Lower legs crossed.

• Knees together and raised as high as possible.

If there is a group in the water it is vital to stay together – the larger the target you make the

easier it is to be found. A group will help maintain morale and can provide shared warmth

(minimal effect – but it all helps). A method of securing everyone together (such as lanyards

with spring clips) should be employed.

Huddle

• Arms hugging each other.

• Maximum body contact.

• Legs intertwined.

If you have to swim in a group, a recommended

method is to form a ‘crocodile’ – a chain swimming

on your back, using legs only if possible.

Remember the basic rules for sea survival;

• Keep calm.

• Keep out of the water.

• Keep together.

• Keep still.

H.E.L.P.


Safety on Board

Safety on board is not only the responsibility of the Skipper but of each and every crew

member. Safety must be planned and maintained — it does not just happen. Every member

of a Coastguard unit has a collective and individual responsibility to;

‘Take all practical steps to identify, minimise, isolate or eliminate the inherent hazards

in any SAR operation’. (See Module Legal Considerations)

Common Types & Areas of Risk • The most common type if injuries sustained in Coastguard crews are impact injuries,

incurred by falling over or being thrown against parts of the vessel. CRV’s often operate

at high speed and in rough conditions.

• It is essential that crew try to maintain as secure a position as they can (preferably with

three points of contact at all times) when underway.

• Because of the motion, uneven and often wet surfaces on a boat, thought must be given

to body stance when performing even a basic task. Kneeling down rather than trying to

remain standing may often minimise the risk of injury.

Any significant changes in course or speed should be communicated to all crew prior

to the event. The helmsman should ensure that any alterations of course and speed

should be done as smoothly and gradually as is practical.


All objects / equipment on the CRV should be secure. In rough conditions any unsecured

object can turn into a missile.

• Another common cause of injury is during ‘rope work’ – using lines when towing or

coming alongside. Comprehensive practical training and good communication on board

the CRV are essential to avoid injury.

• Recovering objects or persons from the water can risk falling overboard. Tethers or

safety harnesses can provide extra support, and security to CRV crew engaged in the

task.

• Crush injuries can occur when vessels come alongside, particularly at sea. ‘Knee-jerk’

reactions often cause crew members to attempt to fend off other vessels, underestimating

the forces involved. If required to board another vessel at sea, extreme care must be

taken.

• Working around any moving machinery or engine parts is dangerous in all conditions,

particularly with loose clothing. All moving mechanical parts should be avoided.

• Fuel, especially petrol, gives off vapour, particularly when agitated. Care must be taken

to remove this vapour, for example by venting engine spaces, before starting engines.

• Batteries while being charged (and for a short time after charging) give off hydrogen gas

which is extremely flammable. Care must be taken to prevent any source of ignition

around charging batteries.

Safety is Paramount The role of Coastguard SAR personnel is preservation of life. This must be our own lives

first. If we are injured or incapacitated then we have greatly reduced the effectiveness of the

rest of the team and possibly jeopardised the operation itself.

Ongoing hazard identification and risk assessment must be made whenever

participating in a SAROP or in regular training, to ensure the safety of vessel and

crew.


3 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 40 General Notes ................................................................................................................................. 41 Safety .............................................................................................................................................. 42 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)......................................................................................... 43 Safe Ship Management (SSM)........................................................................................................ 43

SSM - Unit, Skipper & Crew responsibilities .............................................................................. 44 Unit Responsibilities.............................................................................................................. 44 Skippers Responsibilities ...................................................................................................... 44 Crew Responsibilities............................................................................................................ 44

Accidents and Investigations........................................................................................................... 45 Accidents............................................................................................................................... 45 Incidents................................................................................................................................ 45 Serious Harm Injuries (legally defined as Mishaps).............................................................. 45

Knowledge and Training.................................................................................................................. 46 Equipment .................................................................................................................................. 46

Preservation of Life Not Property .................................................................................................... 46 Protection of Property ................................................................................................................ 47

Liabilities When Rescuing Property ...................................................................................... 47 Repairs ....................................................................................................................................... 47 Salvage ...................................................................................................................................... 47

The Privacy Act ............................................................................................................................... 48 Radio Regulations ........................................................................................................................... 48

Overview

Maritime search and rescue operations are conducted in New Zealand in compliance with

two international conventions to which New Zealand is party.

• The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).

• The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue.

The Maritime Transport Act (1994) is now the definitive legislation in relation to maritime

safety in New Zealand.

Coastguard’s involvement in SAR requires all its personnel to have a good insight into their

own responsibilities. In today’s environment, safety awareness and personal accountability

have much greater significance than in the past. This module is intended to help Coastguard

SAR personnel learn about their legal responsibilities and to provide an overview of the

legalities affecting marine SAR in New Zealand.

“Ignorance of the law excuses no man” (John Selden 1584-1654. Table Talk)


With responsibility comes liability. Many people are unsure how far this extends. The best

way to overcome any confusion is to provide adequate training and ensure that Coastguard

personnel act within accepted practices and guidelines.

CNZ has arranged insurance cover for penalties and legal defence for charges under a

variety of Acts.

General Notes

Coastguard personnel are not exempt from any responsibilities under the laws of New

Zealand. We are all private citizens with no ‘special powers’.

Speeding on the way to respond to a call out will get you a ticket. Boarding another person’s

vessel without their permission could be interpreted as trespass. Physically handling that

person against their will could get you charged with assault.

The higher the qualification, the higher the level of responsibility. A Skipper is at all times

responsible for the vessel, and those on board. The Skipper therefore has greater

responsibility than a crew member. There is also a greater ‘expectation of skill’ when people

have been formally trained. Hence for example there is a higher standard of seamanship

expected of Coastguard personnel compared to an ordinary (untrained) member of the

boating public.

It is important to remember that barring acts of gross negligence, it is extremely

unlikely that Coastguard personnel would ever be held liable or criminally charged as

a result of their actions.

There is no law that says mistakes cannot be made during SAR operations, but Coastguard

personnel must act within their Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), and what they have

been trained to do. For example coming alongside a disabled vessel;

The CRV Skipper assesses the other vessels motion and drift, informs the other vessel’s

Skipper of his intentions, and approaches in a sensible and controlled manner. When

coming alongside however, a slight miscalculation of speed and angle of approach results in

damage to the vessels stanchions. This may not be negligent, merely a slight error in what

otherwise was an operation carried out within accepted safe and sensible practices.


If the CRV Skipper had charged in without assessing the situation, had not informed the

other vessels Skipper of his intentions, and the CRV had approached at speed from up wind

subsequently damaging the vessel, the CRV Skipper could quite rightly be held negligent.

Safety

The most important legal consideration for every member of a marine SAR agency is safety

awareness. The Maritime Transport Act 1994 states (in Part 3, Section 18) that “Every

person … who operates any ship; or is responsible for any maritime product; or is otherwise

engaged in any maritime activity … shall comply with the relevant provisions of the Act and

any relevant rules.”

For Coastguard members, the ‘relevant provisions and rules’ of this Act relate mainly to

safety. These points could be considered the H&SE (Health & Safety in Employment)

requirements on water. Maritime New Zealand (MNZ) is responsible for the administration of

the H&SE Act 1992 when it comes to marine safety (for example an accident that occurs on

the CRV). The Department of Labour is responsible for safety issues on land (for example

an accident at the Units headquarters or boathouse).

All Coastguard personnel have an individual and collective responsibility to:

• Take all practical steps to identify, minimise, isolate or eliminate any inherent hazards.

• Be fully involved in the development of procedures (SOPs / SSM – see below) for

the purposes of identifying, minimising, isolating or eliminating these hazards.

• Ensure that SAR personnel and other members of the public are not exposed to undue

risk.

• Take all practicable steps to ensure that no action (or inaction) causes harm to anyone on

board the vessel.

• Provide relevant safety information to crew and passengers (a legal requirement).

• Provide a safety briefing including identified hazards / defects and their status at the start

of each duty.


Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

Every Coastguard Unit, vessel & aircraft will have written SOPs that cover their normal and

emergency operations. These SOPs may detail such things as launch, recovery, and

refuelling procedures, maintenance checks, equipment carried, and emergency procedures

in situations such as abandon ship, fire, collision etc.

Safe Ship Management (SSM)

Safe Ship Management is a system to ensure that the owners and operators of all

commercial vessels (Coastguard CRV’s included) operate in a safe and structured manner.

Every Unit will be a member of a Safe Ship Management Company; these companies are

effectively franchised by MNZ to oversee the operation of commercial vessels.

On board every CRV there must be an official log to record details of the vessels operation,

(including emergency drills / training carried out) and a Safe Ship Management Manual. This

manual contains information on, but is not limited to;

• Vessel details

• Vessel equipment

• Vessel SOPs

Every crew member of a CRV should be fully aware of the contents of the SSM Manual

as a reference and training aid regarding the operation of the CRV.

The SSM Manual is effectively a contract between the owners & operators of a vessel and

MNZ, as to how the vessel will be run. It is not written in stone – it should reflect the

actual equipment and procedures used. If equipment or procedures change then the

SSM Manual should also reflect those changes.

The SSM manual is a valuable reference and training aid that helps to maintain a safe and

consistent approach to the CRVs operation.


SSM - Unit, Skipper & Crew responsibilities

The responsibilities within SSM can be summarised as such;

Unit Responsibilities

• Provide resources & support for the skipper in matters related to safe operation of vessel.

• Ensure Skipper & crew are complying with SSM Manual, & that its effectiveness is

evaluated & reviewed.

• Maintain a register of every accident, incident or mishap (see end of this section).

• Ensure vessel logbook is maintained.

• Maintain vessel in fit for purpose condition.

• Ensure that all personnel involved with the SSM manual have adequate understanding of

relevant mandatory rules & regulations.

• Ensure that Skipper & crew hold appropriate qualifications & have the required skill to

perform their duties safely.

Skippers Responsibilities

• Responsible for the safe operation of the vessel and well being of all crew & passengers.

• Verify all crew have adequate training to carry out their duties safely.

• Ensure all systems contained in the SSM Manual are implemented, and shall seek to

improve these systems.

• Ensure that vessel logbook is maintained.

• Ensure that all accidents & incidents are reported to their Unit, MNZ and their SSM

Company as soon as possible.

• Comply with relevant Maritime Rules and local navigation safety bylaws.

Crew Responsibilities

• Participate in training provided by Unit & Skipper.

• Participate in the SSM of the vessel.

• Participate in the process for identifying hazards.

• Ensure that no action or inaction causes harm to any other person.


Accidents and Investigations

The Skipper of a CRV involved in an Accident, Incident or Serious Harm event must report

the event to MNZ as soon as possible. MNZ will decide whether the event warrants a

subsequent investigation. The exact definitions of an Accident Incident or Serious Harm

Injury are quite comprehensive, but they can be summarised as;

Accidents Include events such as groundings, collisions, machinery failures and steering loss, or any

event involving damage to a vessel that may affect its strength or seaworthiness.

Incidents Include near misses such as a near collision or a near grounding or any event arising from

the vessels operation that did or could have affected safety. Incidents could include such

things as a small fire on board, a tow line parting / cleat pulling out, or loss of systems or

navigational equipment due to an electrical fault.

Serious Harm Injuries (legally defined as Mishaps) Include, but are not limited to;

• Death.

• Amputation.

• Fractures.

• Burns.

• Loss of consciousness.

• Any harm that requires hospitalization for a period of 48 hours or more.

Minor injuries such as cuts, sprains, and bruises do not need to be reported, but should be

recorded in an accident register in accordance with the SSM system.

The legal requirement to report relevant events to MNZ

applies to all vessels. When you assist a private vessel

that has been involved in a reportable event you may

choose to advise the Skipper of their obligation to report

the accident, but it is their responsibility to do so.


Knowledge and Training

As a crew member, you must be honest about your abilities. If you don’t feel capable of

performing a task, then say so before attempting it. Ensure that you receive adequate

training. If you are unsure about any part of the Unit or vessel operation, then ask.

The safety of all crew members is mutually dependent upon their respective levels of

competence. If you are unhappy with the performance of another crew member, do

something about it. Diplomatically suggest asking for more training, or discuss the problem

with your Skipper, Unit Training Officer, or Safety Officer.

Equipment Keep equipment in operational order - do not use equipment you know is faulty. Take part in

equipment maintenance programmes. Do not agree to operate equipment unless you

are sure you know how to use it — ask to be trained first.

Preservation of Life Not Property

• The Skipper of a vessel has a duty to assist persons in danger and to respond to distress

calls.

• A Skipper can decide not to render assistance if doing so would place their vessel and

the persons on board in danger.

• The Skipper of a vessel does not have to render assistance once informed that one or

more other vessels are able to render all necessary assistance.

In a rescue situation the Skipper and crew are required to make best endeavours to fulfil the

rescue attempt ‘in line with training and experience’.

There are situations in which a person who initially indicates distress is unwilling to leave the

vessel when assistance is offered. Generally the persuasive powers of the rescue personnel

will prevail. Otherwise the appropriate action is to advise the Incident Management Team,

and then stand by to monitor the situation. The assistance of Police may be required to

remedy the situation.


Protection of Property Coastguard personnel are not obliged to recover property if the safety of life is not involved.

Protection of property is most likely to become an issue when you tow a vessel. Neither

Maritime NZ, nor the Police will accept any liability for towage unless it is an actual official

Search and Rescue Operation (SAROP).

Liabilities When Rescuing Property There is often a potential risk of damaging a vessel when endeavouring to assist, and

Coastguard can be liable for damage caused by your actions in such circumstances.

Fortunately, in most cases victims realise that the benefits of your actions far outweigh any

damage to property.

Creating a ‘Navigational Hazard’ is another possible

consequence. For example, if a towed vessel were to sink

in a narrow channel, Coastguard could be held liable for

the removal of the obstruction.

Repairs By attempting repairs, Coastguard personnel can reduce the incidence and risks involved

with towing a vessel. However they could find themselves liable for any ill conceived repairs

or loss of warranty.

• Coastguard personnel should refrain from any but the most basic and obvious repairs.

• Repairs should only be attempted within the crew members experience / competence.

• Any repairs attempted must be with the full knowledge and permission of the vessels

Skipper / owner.

Salvage Coastguard does not charge money or make salvage

claims for the recovery or repair of damaged / abandoned

vessels and their contents or cargo. Regardless of

circumstances a vessel (including its contents and cargo) that has been abandoned remains the property of its owner(s).


The Privacy Act

It is an offence to release any information about people that may identify them to others

without their prior consent. It is also an offence to release any information about a deceased

person without the prior consent of the next of kin.

It is important to remember that what you say on a VHF radio can, and will be heard by

people monitoring the channel. However, the onus is on the listener to obey the provisions

of the Privacy Act. The act treats a radio conversation as a private phone conversation

(even though it is a public broadcast).

It is accepted practice in Coastguard that if any ‘sensitive’ information is communicated

during an operation, that it be done using secure means i.e. by cell phone or UHF radio. (See

Module SAR Communications)

The Privacy Act will have a bearing on your actions if a member of the media asks you for

information about an incident. All media enquiries should be directed to the Unit Media

Officer, Incident Management Team, or other Coastguard personnel allocated to liaise with

the media. You must know your Unit’s (or Region’s) media policy, and keep to the

guidelines.

Radio Regulations

Under the Shipping (Radio) Regulations 1989 and 1994 every person operating a radio

(excepting emergency situations) on a ship licensed in New Zealand must hold an Operator’s

Qualification for that radio. Therefore, all CRV crew should obtain a Marine VHF Operator’s

Qualification at the earliest opportunity.


4 SAR COMMUNICATIONS

Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 51 Radio Communications ................................................................................................................... 51

Basic Radio Procedures............................................................................................................. 51 Dual Watch............................................................................................................................ 52 Scan ...................................................................................................................................... 52 Hold....................................................................................................................................... 52 Skip ....................................................................................................................................... 52

Specialised Communication Equipment .................................................................................... 52 Procedure Words (Pro Words)................................................................................................... 52 Numbers & Positions.................................................................................................................. 54

Numbers................................................................................................................................ 54 Compass Bearings / Courses ............................................................................................... 54 Position by Distance & Bearing............................................................................................. 54 Latitude and Longitude.......................................................................................................... 55

Sensitive Information....................................................................................................................... 55 Logging Radio Traffic ...................................................................................................................... 55 Microphone Technique.................................................................................................................... 56 Radio Black Spots ........................................................................................................................... 56 Distress Signals............................................................................................................................... 57

International Distress Signals..................................................................................................... 57 Audible .................................................................................................................................. 57 Visual..................................................................................................................................... 57

Alternative Distress Signals ....................................................................................................... 58 Communications with Aircraft.......................................................................................................... 59

‘Follow Me’ ............................................................................................................................ 59 ‘Vessel’s Assistance No Longer Required’ ........................................................................... 59 ‘Instructions Understood’....................................................................................................... 59

Identifying the Vessel ...................................................................................................................... 60 By night ................................................................................................................................. 60 By day (for aircraft)................................................................................................................ 60

Other Communication ..................................................................................................................... 60 Internal Communication .................................................................................................................. 61

Closed-loop Communication ...................................................................................................... 62 Verbal Communication .................................................................................................................... 63

Briefings ................................................................................................................................ 63 Make the Time ...................................................................................................................... 63 A Briefing must be Interactive ............................................................................................... 63 Answer All Questions ............................................................................................................ 63

Challenge and Response ................................................................................................................ 64 Extract from accident report .................................................................................................. 64

Steps in a Challenge .................................................................................................................. 65 Taking Advantage of Challenges ............................................................................................... 65


Overview

Most SAROPs will require a large amount of communications on VHF / UHF radio. The

ability to communicate clearly relies upon both the correct use of equipment and the ability of

the radio operator to think and speak in a clear manner.

Basic ‘ship to ship’ or ‘ship to shore’ communication can be relatively straight forward. When

working on a major incident, however, there may well be numerous vessels, aircraft and

other agencies communicating on one or more channels. This requires a good ‘radio ear’

and adherence to proper radio procedure and language to ensure an uninterrupted flow of

clear communication.

This module also looks at visual and audible signals that are pertinent to SAROPS and

communications within the CRV crew itself.

Radio Communications

Every operator of a marine radio must hold the appropriate licence for that radio. The

subject of radio operations & procedures is covered in detail in the CBES VHF (Very High

Frequency) & MROC (Maritime Restricted Operators Certificate) radio courses. This text is

intended as a recap on the more pertinent information and procedures for SAR

communications.

Basic Radio Procedures • Conduct a ‘Radio Check’ for each radio on board, every time the CRV is ‘on the water’.

As part of a radio check the CRV should log a Trip Report (TR) every time it is in use. A

TR should include;

• Vessel name & call sign.

• Destination / intended area of operation.

• Number of Persons On Board (POB) and their names / crew identification numbers.

• Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) at destination or time training should be concluded.

• Maintain a listening watch on channel 16 and local area Coastguard channels.

• Know your local channels — calling and working.

• Know and practice the use of the various functions available on your radio sets.


For Example

Dual Watch Enables the set to scan between the chosen working channel and channel 16. Whilst using

this feature any transmission received on channel 16 will override traffic on a working

channel.

Scan This causes the radio to stop on a programmed channel when a transmission occurs.

Hold Stops the scanning function on a transmitting channel.

Skip Allows the operator to select only channels they wish to monitor.

Specialised Communication Equipment Use of UHF or Satellite Communications equipment, requires specialist training.

Procedure Words (Pro Words) It is important that they are used in the appropriate context. Some of the more common ones

are:

• “This is …………on channel 82”. When making initial contact, identify yourself and the

channel you are on. In SAROPS there may be several channels in use.

• “Over” This is the end of my transmission. I will listen for your reply.

• “Out” This is the end of my transmission. No reply is expected and I have no further

messages for you. These two keywords (over — out) have different (almost opposite)

meanings and are never used together.

• “Roger” or “Romeo”. I have received your message and it is understood.

• “Say again. I did not receive correctly/I don’t understand your message - Please repeat.

• “Correction”. I have made a mistake; the following version is correct.

• “I spell”. I will spell the word using the phonetic alphabet.


The syllables to be emphasised are in bold text

Letter Word Spoken as Letter Word Spoken as

A Alpha al-fah N November no-vem-ber

B Bravo brah-voh O Oscar oss-car

C Charlie char-lee P Papa pah-pah

D Delta dell-tah Q Quebec keh-beck

E Echo eck-oh R Romeo row-me-oh

F Foxtrot foks-trot S Sierra see-air-rah

G Golf golf T Tango tang-go

H Hotel hoh-tell U Uniform you-nee-form

I India in-dee-ah V Victor vik-tah

J Juliet jew-lee-ett W Whiskey wiss-key

K Kilo key-loh X X-ray ecks-ray

L Lima lee-mah Y Yankee yang-key

M Mike mike Z Zulu zoo-loo

• “Wait” or “Standby”. I will call you back soon (sometimes a time period is also given).

• “Affirmative”. Yes.

“Negative”. No (these expressions are less easily lost in noise than the single syllables of

‘yes’ and ‘right’, or ‘no’ and ‘wrong’)’.

• “Please confirm / repeat my last message”. Repeat my last message so I can confirm

you received it correctly.

Important information should be repeated by the receiving station to verify its

accuracy.

Without such procedures a SAROP can begin to suffer from misinformation. What was

originally reported as a missing vessel with possibly 3 POB can quickly become a vessel that

has 3 POB. A vessel described as having a blue boot topping can easily become a vessel

with blue topsides.

Radio communications can also be interrupted by radio ‘black spots’, interference from other

vessels, or simply someone’s hand slipping off the transmit button. Without confirmation of

the message neither party may be aware that vital information has not been received.


Numbers & Positions Numbers All numbers are spoken as single digits only. In addition 9 is “niner” and 0 is “zero”.

For example: 329 is spoken as “three–two–niner”.

If it becomes necessary to spell out figures the following pronunciations should be used.

Compass Bearings / Courses Bearings must always be stated as either ‘true’ or ‘magnetic’. A difference of around 20° or

more between true and magnetic (Variation) can make a huge difference to a plotted

position. Values less than 100 should always be preceded with zeros.

For example:

034°M is spoken as “Zero–three–four degrees magnetic”.

Position by Distance & Bearing The convention is that any positions given by distance and bearing are expressed as a

bearing from a charted object. Persons unfamiliar with this convention or untrained in

navigation are just as likely to give the bearing to a charted object.

If a position by distance and bearing is received from another vessel, confirm whether

the bearing is from the object or from the vessel.

The diagram opposite illustrates the difference between a yacht

in position 230°T from the North cardinal beacon (lower left),

and a position where the North Cardinal bears 230° T from the

yacht (upper right).

There have been instances of a search directed to the wrong side of an island simply

because of confusion over the direction of a bearing.

Numeral Spoken as Numeral Spoken as

0 ze-ro 5 fife

1 wun 6 six

2 too 7 sev-en

3 tree 8 ait

4 fower 9 nin-er


Latitude and Longitude Lat & Long should be given in degrees, minutes, and decimals of minutes. Where possible,

add a geographic reference to the lat / long to confirm the position.

When transmitting lat / longs, one decimal is sufficiently accurate and reduces the sheer

volume of numbers and therefore the risk of error (by the time you get to the third decimal

each increment is only approx 2 metres). For example:

36° 40.3’ S, 175° 10.7 E would be spoken as:

“Three six degrees, four zero, decimal three minutes south. One seven five degrees, one

zero, decimal seven minutes east.”

Sensitive Information

Avoid passing sensitive information over VHF channels (e.g. names of victims, status of

victim(s) if severely injured or deceased). If possible, these should be passed by secure

UHF radio (if available), or cell phone. Every radio operator is bound by the Privacy Act.

(See Module Legal Considerations)

Logging Radio Traffic

Crew need to have a trained ‘radio ear’, especially for weak or panicked / garbled

transmissions that can be part of a distress incident. Pen and paper should be kept near to

the radio, and all details from any distress call noted down.

It is usually impractical during a SAROP for every radio communication to be logged by the

CRV, but important information and time of receipt should be recorded.

For example;

• Positions.

• Vessel names.

• Vessel call signs.

• Description of target(s) in a search.

• Tasking instructions.

• Details of search pattern such as type of search, speed, search area etc.


Microphone Technique

Good microphone technique is crucial.

• Most hand microphones are designed to be held about 5 centimetres from the mouth of

the speaker. The person should use their normal speaking voice, as they would use to

speak to someone standing about 2 metres away.

• In bad conditions, it is necessary to speak more slowly than normal, particularly if the

listener has to make written notes (shouting just degrades clarity).

• Speaking across the face of the microphone, rather than directly into it, avoids

disturbances from the ‘explosive consonants’ in speech (for example, ‘p’ and ‘b’) and it

also minimises moisture condensation in the microphone.

• Holding the microphone too far from the face accentuates background noise in noisy

environments (e.g. boat engines).

• Unless requested by the other operator, repetition of words and phrases merely wastes

time.

• Clear and succinct communication is vital. Contact between two radio operators is purely

for the exchange of relevant information.

Radio Black Spots

There area areas around the coast where VHF communications are difficult if not impossible

due to high land blocking the radio signal. Coastguard crew must be aware of any such

black spots within their operational area, and the IMT / other resources informed if

communications are likely to be affected.


Distress Signals

All Coastguard Crew should be thoroughly familiar with the International Distress Signals and

alternative signals that might be used.

International Distress Signals Audible

• A radio message containing word MAYDAY.

• The continuous sounding of a horn, bell, whistle, or any other sound apparatus.

• Morse code SOS by any sound apparatus.

Not common but still a recognised distress signal;

• A gun or explosive signal fired at intervals of approx one minute.

Visual

• Red parachute flares.

• Red hand held flares.

• Orange smoke flares.

• Morse code SOS by any visual signalling equipment.

• Slowly & repeatedly raising & lowering outstretched arms to each side.

Not common but still a recognised distress signal;

• Code signal N.C. - pictured right (Signal flags and their Morse code are

listed on the back of the NZ Nautical Almanac).

• Square flag having above or below it a ball.

• Flames on the vessel (burning tar barrel, oil barrel etc).


Alternative Distress Signals There are other distress signals that may be used, but it is vital to remember that;

A person(s) in distress may use whatever means available to attract attention. During

a SAROP any unusual sound or visual signal should be investigated.

• White lights, fixed or strobe - may be attached to lifejackets, life rings or liferaft.

• White flares - for indicating position in collision avoidance, but may also be used to attract

attention.

• Dye marker in the water.

• SOLAS V flag (opposite top).

• Orange flag with a black square & circle (opposite middle).

• SART (Search and Rescue Transponder).

A SART is an emergency beacon that detects when it has been swept by

another vessel / aircrafts Radar. It responds by transmitting 12 separate

pulses, for as long as it continues to detect the other Radar (pictured

opposite).

What it looks like on the Radar screen;

• Appears on Radar as a series of 12 dots each 0.6NM apart. – fig 1

• Position of SART is the nearest dot / centre of nearest arc. – fig 2

• As range to SART decreases, dots grow into concentric arcs. – fig 3

• Arcs will eventually form complete circles at close range (typically around 1NM or less).

Fig 1 Fig 2 Fig 3


Communications with Aircraft

Most dedicated SAR aircraft have marine VHF radio capabilities, (see Module Working with

Aircraft) but occasionally a SAR operation may involve aircraft without marine VHF. There

are internationally recognised signals for visual communication with which you should be

familiar. These visual signals apply equally to fixed wing aircraft and helicopters.

‘Follow Me’

• Aircraft will circle vessel at least once.

• Then fly at low level across the vessel’s bow, rocking wings and / or opening and closing

the throttle or altering propeller pitch.

• Then head in the required direction.

‘Vessel’s Assistance No Longer Required’

• Aircraft will fly at low level across the vessels stern,

rocking wings and / or opening and closing the throttle

or altering propeller pitch.

‘Instructions Understood’

• By night - Flash the landing lights or navigation lights on and off twice.

• By day - Rocking the wings.

No signal is used to indicate instructions have not been understood.


Identifying the Vessel

Aircraft or other vessels may have difficulty visually identifying the CRV. To aid identification

the CRV can use the following methods;

By night

• Flash the vessels navigation lights on and off.

• Use strobes.

• Use torches / searchlight to sweep the water around the vessel.

By day (for aircraft) Steer the vessel in as large a circle as possible while maintaining

an unbroken wake (sometimes referred to as power circle). This

is an extremely effective method which allows to aircraft to identify

vessels from a considerable distance and height.

Other Communication

For most Coastguard operations communication with other vessels or persons in need of

assistance will be verbal or by VHF radio. There may be times where this is not possible.

The situation may be rectified by;

• Putting one of the CRV’s crew (equipped with a hand held VHF if necessary) on board

the other vessel.

• Passing a hand held VHF (in a suitable container) to the distressed vessel via a

messenger line. To avoid possible loss of communications it may be prudent to ‘lock’ the

hand held on the desired channel.

• Written instructions and especially diagrams transferred in the same way may also help

the situation. You may not share a common language with the distressed vessel. Even

where this is not the case some people’s entire nautical vocabulary may be limited to

bow, stern, port & starboard (sometimes even less than that). This can make explaining

and coordinating an operation difficult.

• Pre arranged hand, light or sound signals in place of, or complementary to VHF radio

should also be considered in the execution of an operation.


Internal Communication

The preceding text has looked at external communication, but one vital factor that is often

overlooked is the importance of internal communications. Good communication on board is

essential for the safe and efficient operation of a CRV.

The crew that works in silence – with little or no verbal communication may give the

impression of professional efficiency – they may indeed be an experienced, highly competent

crew who are used to working together.

This lack of verbal communication however, will sooner or later lead to someone assuming

incorrectly that a task is being attended to, or has been completed. Assumptions like these

will one day inevitably result in damage to vessel and / or crew.

A crew which is used to such a ‘silent’ culture on board the CRV may find itself in trouble in

complex or high pressure situations, or where their normal standard of communications is

inadequate, i.e. when it’s pitch black and blowing a gale.

The quality of communication on board is determined by several factors. First,

communication has to remain open and interactive.

• ‘Open’ means that the concerns, comments and opinions of crew members can be

expressed.

• ‘Interactive’ means that every member of the crew is participating in the communication

process.

The next step is to avoid misinterpretation. This is often referred to as using ‘closed-loop

communication’.


Closed-loop Communication In closed-loop communication the sender transmits the message, and the recipient

acknowledges by repeating all the important information. Then the sender confirms the

accuracy of what the recipient understood.

This may sound complex but is something which is commonly used, for example the

repetition of helm orders.

Example of closed loop communication

Skipper “Alter course to 275 degrees”

Helm “275 degrees”

Skipper “275”

This form of communication should not just be confined to helm orders, but should be

used every time important information is exchanged.

For example:

Helm “Turning to Port, hold on!’

Crew “Ok / holding on”

Helm “Turning!”

Skipper “Mike - ease out the towline to around 50m, and make fast”

Mike “Ease to 50m and make fast”

Skipper “Thanks Mike”

Using the closed loop system of communication can initially make people feel a little

self conscious. Never the less it is a habit that should be adopted and encouraged for

the safety of all on board.


Verbal Communication

Since verbal communication is so important within a SAR crew, messages must be clear and

direct.

The following guidelines on verbal communication apply equally to Skipper and crew:

• Say the person’s name and wait for a reply / acknowledgement before giving the

message.

• If possible make direct eye contact.

• Direct your speech to ensure that you’ve been heard.

• Acknowledge any requests / commands by repeating the key information (closed loop).

• If you don’t understand the information given to you, ask that the instruction be repeated

or explained.

• Do not shout - only shout when there is imminent danger and there is no better way of

alerting others.

Briefings Briefings, when properly conducted, will minimise the risk of confusion. When conducting a

briefing, be certain that everyone understands his or her tasks. To conduct efficient

briefings, the following rules should be remembered:

Make the Time For an efficient briefing, take enough time to avoid rushing any critical information. Every

minute invested in such briefings will save significant time that would have been lost due to

confusion.

A Briefing must be Interactive Under no circumstances should a briefing be purely a ‘one man show’. Contributions from

other crew members should be welcome. After a good briefing, every crew member should

know what their responsibilities are. Use closed loop communications when assigning tasks

to avoid misunderstandings.

Answer All Questions Allow everybody the opportunity to ask last minute questions before ending the briefing.


Challenge and Response

There is another facet to internal communications that is essential for the efficiency and

safety of the CRV. That is to ensure that the CRV has an on board culture that allows

‘challenges’. There are statistics to show that lack of challenge is involved in more than 30%

of marine incidents.

For example – the crew member who realises that leaving the buoyed channel will be taking

the vessel into shallow water with a risk of grounding, but doesn’t feel it’s their place to

question the helm order.

Extract from accident report At 0554 the Malaysian container vessel Bunga Teratai Satu dropped off the pilot at Yorkeys

Knob near Cairns. At 0630 the master handed over to the mate and left the bridge. At

around 0640 the duty able seaman (AB) started to clean the bridge.

The mate went out to the starboard bridge wing and made a call on his cell phone. At 0700

the AB finished cleaning and plotted the GPS position on the chart of his own accord.

The AB expected the mate to come into the wheelhouse to alter course, but he did not enter

until about 0715 whereupon he went to the chart, questioned the veracity of the 0700 GPS

position, and told the AB that his position was incorrect.

Shortly after that he asked the AB what the heading was – to which the AB replied “120º”.

The mate now ordered a change of course to 180º but the AB could see a sand cay on the

starboard bow and, instead of altering course, asked if the mate really wanted to steer 180º

saying “chief, can we go over shallow water?” The mate replied by saying: “turn 180º to

port”. This was quite confusing to the AB and as a consequence he did nothing.

A few seconds later the Bunga Teratai Satu charged with a speed of more than 20 knots up

the northern end of Sudbury Reef.

Not all challenges are good for teamwork. Challenging authority or decisions is

certainly not always helpful. On the other hand, challenging concepts or ideas can

minimise the risk of error and hence, the risk of getting into trouble.


Steps in a Challenge • A concept is stated and limits are set.

• The situation moves outside the limits that were set.

• A challenge is issued.

• A proper response to the challenge is given.

For example:

Skipper: "We’ll turn to port at the fourth red buoy"

Crewmember: "Port at the fourth buoy..."

Skipper: "That's right"

A little later:

Skipper: "Ok. Let's turn to port now"

Crewmember: "But ... don't we have another buoy to pass before we turn?"

Skipper: "Damm! You're right! We’ll turn after the next buoy"

• The concept was the need to turn to port and the limit was set at the fourth red buoy.

• The situation moved outside the limits when the Skipper asked to turn before the fourth

buoy.

• A challenge was issued and a proper response was given.

Taking Advantage of Challenges An effective Skipper or crew member should always endeavour to take advantage of

challenges.

• Challenges should be allowed and encouraged in a SAR crew.

• Challenges should be seen as a safety measure – no one is infallible, and a Skipper is

just as capable of mistakes or misjudgement as anyone else.

The answer given to a challenge is as important as the challenge itself. When you are

responding to a challenge, consider the following guidelines:

• Always check the validity of the challenge. If a crew member voices concern over

something, it must never be just dismissed out of hand.

• Be diplomatic when you respond to a challenge. Never laugh at someone who has

issued an invalid challenge. If you do, the person may no longer challenge. If a

challenge isn’t valid then it’s probably due to a break down in communication, or it’s

because of lack of knowledge / training on the part of the crew member.


5 TOWING TECHNIQUES

Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 67 Regulations & Policy ....................................................................................................................... 67

Maritime Regulations.................................................................................................................. 67 Lights..................................................................................................................................... 68 Lights..................................................................................................................................... 68 Shapes .................................................................................................................................. 68

Coastguard Policy ...................................................................................................................... 69 Towing Past the First Point of Safety.................................................................................... 69

Towing Configurations & Line Handling .......................................................................................... 70 Straight Tow ............................................................................................................................... 70 ‘Y’ or Bridle Tow ......................................................................................................................... 70

Fixed Bridle ........................................................................................................................... 70 Adjustable Bridle ................................................................................................................... 70

Line Handling ............................................................................................................................. 71 Towlines .......................................................................................................................................... 72

Materials & Construction ............................................................................................................ 72 Materials..................................................................................................................................... 72

Polyester ............................................................................................................................... 72 Polypropylene ....................................................................................................................... 72

Construction ............................................................................................................................... 73 3 Strand................................................................................................................................. 73 Plait ....................................................................................................................................... 73 Towline Ends......................................................................................................................... 73

Towline Loading ......................................................................................................................... 75 Chafe Gear............................................................................................................................ 76

Catenary Devices ....................................................................................................................... 76 Drogues...................................................................................................................................... 77 Messenger Lines........................................................................................................................ 78

Heaving Line ......................................................................................................................... 78 Throwing a Heaving Line ...................................................................................................... 78 Rescue Throw Bags.............................................................................................................. 78 Float Line .............................................................................................................................. 78 Line Throwing Device............................................................................................................ 79 Kicker Hook........................................................................................................................... 79

Towing Equipment Maintenance................................................................................................ 80 Towing Hazards .............................................................................................................................. 80

Accident report –tug Nautilus III ................................................................................................. 80 Analysis................................................................................................................................. 81 Findings................................................................................................................................. 82

Summary of Accident Report ..................................................................................................... 82 Towing Hazards cont....................................................................................................................... 83

Yawing........................................................................................................................................ 83 Burying the Bow ......................................................................................................................... 83 Stopping and Swamping ............................................................................................................ 84 Being Overtaken by the Tow...................................................................................................... 84 Sinking Tow................................................................................................................................ 84

Sea & Swell ..................................................................................................................................... 85 Towing Speed ................................................................................................................................. 86

Towing at planing speed ............................................................................................................ 86 Summary of Standard Towing Practice........................................................................................... 87 Preparation for Towing .................................................................................................................... 88

Visual Assessment - SAP – Stop Assess Plan (See Module Victim Recovery) ................... 88 Questions to Ask / Information to Obtain .............................................................................. 88 Before Commencing the Tow ............................................................................................... 88

Approach and Passing the Tow Line .............................................................................................. 89 Approach .................................................................................................................................... 89

Parallel Approach.................................................................................................................. 89 45°Approach ......................................................................................................................... 90 Crossing the Bow.................................................................................................................. 90


Crossing the Stern ................................................................................................................ 90 Twin Towing ............................................................................................................................... 91

Towing off a Vessel Aground .......................................................................................................... 92 Heeling a Vessel Aground.......................................................................................................... 94

Tidal Times & Heights ..................................................................................................................... 95 Sources of Tidal Information ...................................................................................................... 96

NZ Almanac Graph ............................................................................................................... 96 Generic Tidal Graph.............................................................................................................. 97

Vessel at Anchor ............................................................................................................................. 98 Towing Alongside or Barging .......................................................................................................... 99

Transferring Tow Astern to Tow Alongside.............................................................................. 100 Transfer While Under way................................................................................................... 100 At Anchor ............................................................................................................................ 102 On a Mooring ...................................................................................................................... 102

Berthing a Tow ......................................................................................................................... 103 Using an Anchor to Turn .......................................................................................................... 104 Slewing a Tow.......................................................................................................................... 105

Overview

Over 50% of all marine SAR incidents result in a tow being established.

Towing is potentially hazardous to both vessels and all crew involved. Large forces can be

involved with resultant high loads. One careless moment is all it takes for injury or damage

to be sustained.

Knowledge of safe towing procedures is therefore of key importance for all CRV crew and

Skippers. This module is designed to give an introduction to the fundamental issues,

including recommended towing techniques, safety precautions and equipment.

Regulations & Policy

Maritime Regulations The Maritime Rules provide the steering and sailing rules covered by Rule 22 ’Collision

Prevention’, plus standards for installation, performance and use of lights and sound signals

covered by Rule 22.24 ‘Towing and Pushing’.

The rules state that a power driven vessel engaged in towing or towing alongside (barging)

should exhibit;


Lights

• Two masthead lights in a vertical line.

• When the length of tow exceeds 200 metres (measured from the stern of the towing

vessel to the after end of the tow) 3 masthead lights in a vertical line must be carried.

• Side lights.

• Stern light.

• A towing light (yellow) in a vertical line above the stern light.

Port aspect tow <200m Port aspect tow �200m Stern aspect

The vessel being towed should exhibit;

Lights

• Side lights.

• Stern light.

Shapes

• When the length of tow

exceeds 200 metres, a black

diamond shape where it can

best be seen on both towing

and towed vessel (if practical).

Where from any sufficient cause it is impracticable for a vessel or object being towed

to exhibit the lights or shapes prescribed, all possible measures must be taken to

illuminate the tow or at least to indicate its presence.

If the towing operation is such that it severely restricts the towing vessel and its tow in their

ability to deviate from their course, in addition to the lights and shapes already described the

towing vessel may exhibit the lights and shapes for a vessel that is ‘Restricted in Ability to

Manoeuvre’ (RAM).


• Three all-round lights in a vertical line where they can best be seen the highest and

lowest being red and the middle one white.

• Three black shapes in a vertical line where they can best be seen the highest and lowest

being balls and the middle one a diamond.

If a CRV does not display the prescribed RAM lights and shapes, it remains a power

driven vessel. In a crossing situation it remains the give way vessel to a power driven

vessel crossing on its starboard side, vessel under sail, vessel engaged in fishing etc.

(Refer Maritime Rule 22 & CBES Boatmaster course)

A CRV may display code flag Delta “Keep clear of me; I am manoeuvring

with difficulty”, but this is purely to inform other vessels and does not

confer any special status on the CRV and its tow.

Coastguard Policy The primary (and legal) responsibility of Coastguard personnel during a SAR operation is the

preservation of life. Consequently the recovery of a disabled vessel rather than solely the

people aboard could be considered not ‘search and rescue’. In many instances however it is

a more practical and reasonable solution to take the disabled vessel in tow to effect a safe

rescue.

In determining whether or not to undertake a tow, the Skipper of the CRV must consider both

the existing and forecast weather, together with the possible danger to people on board the

disabled vessel. If there is any question regarding the best course of action, all relevant

information is passed to the Incident Management Team or Duty Officer who, in consultation

with the CRV Skipper, will decide whether to tow the disabled vessel and its crew, or to

transfer those people to the CRV.

Towing Past the First Point of Safety A tow operation to remove a vessel and crew from danger is only strictly a SAR operation

until reaching the nearest safe haven. To continue the tow beyond this point must be by

arrangement, within Unit SOPs, Regional policy, and agreed by the Skippers of both vessels.


Towing Configurations & Line Handling

The most common arrangements for towing fixtures on CRV’s are either a single fitting on

the centreline (for a straight tow), or cleats on either quarter (for a “y” or bridle tow).

Straight Tow With a single fitting on the centreline the fitting is often

positioned some way forward of the vessels transom, allowing

the stern to swing while towing. This will give greater control

and manoeuvrability than if the towline is attached directly to the

stern.

‘Y’ or Bridle Tow Fixed Bridle With a bridle tow the towline is usually made fast to the

vessels quarter cleats. The bridle may be a fixed length which

allows no adjustment of the towline – this is the least desirable

of all the towing configurations.

Adjustable Bridle An adjustable bridle which allows the towline length to vary is a more desirable towing

configuration, but it comes with the added complexity of dealing with blocks and extra line.

The bridle is made up either of a block permanently attached on the end of the main towline,

with the bridle line lead through the block. Or the main towline is lead through the block (or a

snatch block is used) to one of the quarter cleats, and the other line from the block which

forms the bridle is adjusted to ensure the tow line is centred.


With the first method the main towline is a set length and any adjustments to the towline

length are made with the bridle line. The disadvantage is that to lengthen the towline by 5m

you may end up paying out almost 10m of bridle line. The advantage is that the strain of the

tow will be equally divided between the two quarter cleats.

The second method reduces the amount of line needed on board the CRV for towline

adjustment, but the strain imposed by the tow will not be equally divided between the two

quarter cleats. The majority of the strain will be on the cleat taking the main towline.

Line Handling What ever method is used straight tow or bridle, care

must be exercised when attaching the towline to the

CRV so that the towlines lead is ‘fair ‘. This will reduce

the chance of the towline trapping itself on the cleat or

post.

Some fittings are specifically designed for towing. The picture below of a commercial tug

shows what is sometimes referred to as a “staple.” The idea being that no matter what angle

the towline takes it will not chafe or foul on any other part of the towline.

The same advantage can be gained from using

fittings such as the one illustrated found on some

CRV’s. The towline is lead through the centre of

the fitting and made fast on its forward side,

ensuring the towline cannot trap itself.

All CRV crew should be aware of the potential hazard of the towline parting and its

subsequent recoil. Great care must be taken to ensure the towline is stowed correctly

and is free to run at all times.

• Avoid putting yourself in a position where a parting line and subsequent recoil will put you

at risk.

• Do not handle lines under load close up to the fitting; always keep a safe distance

between it and your fingers.

• If gloves are to be worn, they should only be close fitting finger-less (sailing type) gloves

which will not become trapped by a line.


Towlines

Materials & Construction There are many different types of rope both in terms of the material and construction used.

Outside of the more specialised ropes available the most common materials used are;

• Polyester.

• Polypropylene.

• Nylon.

Materials Polyester and Polypropylene are the most common materials used for towlines. Nylon isn’t

generally used by Coastguard as a towline, not because of any issues of strength – in fact

Nylon is very strong, and often used in commercial towing. The problem is Nylons capacity

for stretch. While a towline needs to be able to stretch to absorb some of the dynamic

loading imposed on it, Nylon rope depending on its construction can stretch to an excessive

degree (60% + in some cases).

The greater the stretch the greater the recoil when a line parts. The danger is not just from

the towline, there is also the risk of a fitting such as a cleat being pulled out but remaining

attached to the recoiling line.

Of the two types of material Polyester is preferable mainly due to its resistance to UV and the

fact that it sinks. A line that sinks is far less likely to get caught around rudders or worse

propellers when manoeuvring, and a floating line will sink blow the water to allow a catenary

in the towline (See Catenary Devices). Another advantage of Polyester is its high melting

point. While it is preferable to make any adjustments to a towline when there is no strain on

the line this may not always be possible – as in the case of towing a vessel in heavy weather

with a following sea. The higher melting point of polyester means it is less likely to suffer

damage if surged around a cleat or post while still under load.

Polyester Polypropylene Stretches approx 25 to 35% of its length. Stretches approx 25 to 35% of its length.

Does not float. Lightweight and floats.

Good resistance to UV. Poor resistance to UV.

High melting point (friction). Low melting point (friction).


Construction The two common types of rope construction used are 3 strand or plait construction. The

braid construction more commonly see on yachts is generally not used. This type of

construction usually results in a rope with very little stretch and hence very little chance of

absorbing any dynamic or ‘snatch’ loads.

Of the two main types of rope construction in use – 3 Strand and Plait each has its own

advantages and disadvantages

Towline Ends Towlines should have an eye spliced in the end rather than a knot tied in it such as a

bowline. Any knot bend or hitch will always create a hard point and weaken the rope.

The bowline typically reduces the strength of a rope by approx 40%. A properly

constructed eye splice typically retains 90 - 100% of the original strength.

The problem often encountered is that the size / diameter of the towline is such that there

can be difficulty attaching it to the fittings on the towed vessel. Many fixtures and fittings on

small vessels are barely suitable for there own mooring purposes never mind accepting a

towline.

One solution to this problem can be borrowed from a common practice in commercial tug &

towing operations. Instead of the main towline being attached to the towed vessel, a shorter

length of smaller diameter, high strength line is bent onto the main towline, and it is this line

that is used to secure the tow.

3 Strand Plait Easy to splice. More complex to splice.

Prone to kink. Does not kink (it has no inherent lay).

Needs more space to stow. Needs far less space to stow.

3 Strand Plait Braid


Typically these lines are Spectra / Dyneema or Kevlar rope. The advantage is that these

more ‘exotic’ types of rope are typically far smaller in diameter and weight than the main

towline therefore much easier to handle and ultimately secure to the other vessel. Although

such lines have very little stretch, the stretch necessary to absorb any shock loading is still

present in the main towline.

A comparison taken from a leading rope manufacturer shows a Polyester

rope of 20mm having a breaking load of 6300kgs, while a Dyneema rope of

just 8mm has a breaking load of 6700kgs. The diagram opposite shows the

relative diameters of the two different types of rope.

These towline ends make securing the tow not just easier, but because of their reduced

diameter make fitting chafe gear (a protective covering to prevent damage to the tow line)

much more practical.

The towline ends are essentially sacrificial. While more expensive per meter than the main

tow line, replacing a short end of Dyneema rope is generally more acceptable than having to

shorten the main tow line due to chafe damage.

The towline ends can be of different

configurations to suit different vessels;

these would generally be one with a bridle

arrangement of two spliced eyes and one

with a single eye. The towline end is bent

to the main towline either by a suitable

rated shackle (with chafe gear such as

leather fitted on both eyes), or by forming a

cow hitch on the eye of the main towline.


Towline Loading One of the major concerns during a towing operation is how much load is being put on the

towline and the fittings used to secure it. There is a way of approximately calculating this –

and it will at least give an indication of when the tow line is getting close to or has reached its

safe working load.

Maximum safe working load is usually taken to be 50% of the rated strength of the rope. The

rated strength or break load being the load at which the line will probably part. Any rope

manufacturer or supplier should be able to give not just the rated strength of a rope, but also

its ‘elongation at break’ or ‘stretch at breaking’.

For example

Polyester 3 strand 20 mm Diameter - break load 6300kgs - elongation at break 30%. Using

the above example a cheap & easy ‘eyeball’ method of gauging loads on the towline can be

set up.

• If the elongation at break is 30%, then the elongation at the ropes max safe working load

(50%) will be approx 15%.

• A preset length is measured and marked on the towline – in the illustrated example 2m.

15% of 2m is 300mm so the when the rope is at its max safe working load those two

marks on the towline will no longer be 2m apart but 2.3m apart.

• To give a visual indication of what is going on, a light easily seen line is attached (usually

by stitching & whipping) to the towline at the marks. The light line should be attached

such that there is 2.3m of it between the marks.

• With no load on the towline the light line will

hang loose, as the load and hence stretch

increases, the light line will become tighter. At

max safe working load the light line will be

stretched tight.

The light line should be small enough that if it were to catch on any fittings during the towing

operation it will not snag but simply snap – this also ensures that a broken line will be a clear

indicator if the max safe working load is exceeded.

If that happens slow down and / or reduce any snatch loadings on the towline.


Chafe Gear Any towline in use can be subject to high loading and consequently

suffer damage from chafe on the towed vessels fairleads or stem

fitting. One of the most cost effective and robust types of chafe gear

is simple flexible plastic hosing. The hosing can be already on the

towline when it is passed and subsequently held in position with a

simple clove hitch or preferably a rolling hitch.

Or in the case of the crew of the towed vessel not being familiar with either of these two

hitches any form of lashing that keeps it in place.

If hosing or similar is not available, any suitable chafe gear should be considered – old

towels or clothing. It can take only a few minutes to seriously damage a line exposed to

chafe.

Catenary Devices A catenary is the curve or dip in a line

caused either by the lines own weight or by

weight attached to the line. If a towline is

stretched taught between two vessels any

shock loading is transmitted directly through

to both vessels.

Its shock loading that is the greatest cause of towlines parting or pulling out fittings.

Having a catenary in the line means that part of any dynamic loading is absorbed by having

to first lift and stretch out the towline - the longer the towline the more catenary. In large

commercial towing operations the length of the towline may be several hundred meters long.

The sheer length of the towline will ensure a

catenary. The space available on board

many CRV’s means that the length of

towline alone may not be enough to induce

the desired catenary, so additional weight

may need to be added to the towline.


This weight or catenary device may be a

permanent feature, such as a length(s) of chain in

the towline, or a weight that can be added to the

towline as required.

The greatest cause of shock loading to the towline and fixtures is when the vessels are out of

step with each other. This is when the towing vessel and the vessel being towed do not ride

up or down the waves at the same time. Being out of step can also cause further problems

detailed later in this text. (See Towing Hazards)

Drogues A drogue slows a vessel down and produces greater directional

stability. Drogues come in various designs and should be of a size

suitable for the vessel. There are adjustable drogues that can be used

for a range of different sized vessels. Deployed from the

towed vessel’s stern a drogue will help to prevent the

towed vessel surfing down the face of a wave or sheering

from side to side.

Drogues can be of particular use when a towline has been shortened

up in preparation to enter harbour, when running a bar, or when

towing in a following sea.

If a suitable patented drogue is not available, other equipment may

be used in its place but it needs to be robust enough to withstand

the forces involved. Warps streamed in a single line or in a bight,

with objects attached such as kedge anchors, water containers,

fenders (weighted down) have all been used as drogues.


Messenger Lines A messenger line is simply a length of light line attached to the towline that can be thrown,

propelled or floated to a vessel or person.

Heaving Line A heaving line is a light line with a ‘monkey’s fist’, sand pouch, or similar weight at the

throwing end.

The other end of the heaving line is secured to the towline. Securing

the heaving approx one meter from the towline eye will enable the

eye to be placed directly onto the bollard / post or cleat on the

disabled vessel without trapping the heaving line. It also can make it

easier to pull the towline under the pulpit or stanchions of the disabled

vessel.

Throwing a Heaving Line

• The weighted end plus several coils should be held in the throwing hand, with the

remaining coils held loosely in the other hand.

• To cast the heaving line a short distance an underhand movement can be used. To cast

it further an overhand straight arm throw (similar to a discus thrower) will be needed.

• Aim to cast the heaving line so that it settles over the deck of the vessel.

A heaving line can be cast a considerable distance and with reasonable accuracy, but

it does take practice!

Rescue Throw Bags A standard ‘throw bag’ can also be used as a messenger line. Throw

bags are not as ‘user friendly’ as a dedicated heaving line, because the

towline is attached to the throw bag right next to the crews ‘throwing

hand’ (which can make throwing it a little awkward). They are however

made from polypropylene, and can be used as a floating messenger line.

Float Line A floating line (polypropylene), used with a life ring, fender or lifejacket, may be floated from

upstream / upwind, so that the current or wind carries the line to the disabled vessel. This

can be slow and difficult to achieve so is usually only attempted in exceptional

circumstances.


Line Throwing Device A rocket line thrower or shoulder line-firing gun may be used to pass a

towline when conditions are such that your vessel cannot get close enough

to the disabled craft to use a heaving line. They are predominantly used

when forced to throw into strong wind. Similar to a heaving line aim high to

allow the line to land over the deck.

Never aim directly at the other vessel or its crew.

Kicker Hook One item of equipment that can be extremely useful in attaching a towline is a kicker hook. A

kicker hook is a device which can be used to fasten a towline to the ‘trailer eye’ (an eyebolt

on the waterline under the bow) of a trailer boat (a difficult and potentially dangerous

operation at sea).

Many trailer boats do not have deck fittings of sufficient size or strength to rely on for towing,

with the exception of the trailer eye, and towing from the trailer eye is the preferred method

as it helps to lift the bow of the towed vessel.

Any towline attached to the bow of a vessel will depress or pull down the bow (referred to as

a vessel trimmed by the head / bow). The smaller the vessel the more pronounced this

effect can be.

Any vessel trimmed by the head will be harder to control and will have a greater

tendency to yaw (swerve from side to side). Whenever possible trailer boats should

be towed from the “trailer eye” to prevent this happening.

A kicker hook can be purchased from some chandlery shops but it isn’t always an ‘off the

shelf’ item. Kicker hooks can be manufactured quite easily. It consists primarily of a suitable

sized hook or carabineer with a spring gate.

The tow line (or more usually a towline end of 4 - 5m made specifically for the job) is

attached to the eye of the hook. The hook is held in place on a pole / boat hook in such a

way that when the hook is snapped onto the trailer eye, the pole can be pulled away from the

kicker hook.


There are several different methods for attaching the kicker hook to the pole, but the simplest

consist of;

• A steel tube welded to the hook so that it slots over the end of the

pole. It should fit snugly but not so tight as to be difficult to

release.

• Another version uses a slot cut in an aluminium pole or boat hook

that fits the main body of the hook.

The kicker hook is held in place with the towline running between the

palm of the hand and the pole thus keeping a little tension on the

towline.

Towing Equipment Maintenance • All equipment used in towing should be checked regularly.

• Any damaged or worn equipment should be replaced at the first opportunity.

• Any rope used should be from a reputable manufacturer / supplier and have known

ratings for strength and stretch.

• Any hardware used such as shackles should be from a reputable manufacturer / supplier

and have known ratings for strength.

• Any hardware used should be inspected regularly for signs of corrosion or fractures.

Towing Hazards

Most accidents that do occur during towing operations can be traced back to insufficient

preparation, inappropriate set up, or inadequate monitoring of equipment and crew during the

tow.

The following are abridged extracts from the MNZ report on the sinking of the tug Nautilus in

Auckland harbour:

Accident report –tug Nautilus III On Friday 9 March 2001, at about 0725, the tug Nautilus III was towing the laden hopper

barge H7 in Auckland Harbour when the barge took a sheer to starboard. The tug skipper

manoeuvred the tug in an attempt to arrest the sheer but the tug was girted*, capsized, and

sank. *Girted – when a tug is heeled by the direction of pull on a towline and is in danger of

capsizing.


The weather at the time of the accident was an easterly wind of about 5 knots, rippled sea,

overcast with good visibility.

The towline they used was a 20 m length of 60 mm diameter multiplait rope with a soft eye

spliced in each end. One eye of the towline was looped over the H post on the tug, the other

eye over the starboard bollard on the bow of H7 (See picture below).

The skipper manoeuvred H7 off the wharf,

and once H7 was about 80m off and parallel

to the wharf the skipper increased to full

power. When the barge was about 100m

from the end of the wharf he turned the tow

to starboard to head down the harbour.

As the tow proceeded down the harbour the skipper noticed that H7 was yawing up to about

40 degrees either way so he reduced the engine power to just over half - estimated to be

about 4 knots through the water. H7 was still yawing but due to the reduction in speed the

period of the yaw cycle had increased.

Shortly after, H7 yawed to starboard about 60 degrees, the skipper of Nautilus III applied

power in an attempt to arrest the yaw. H7 continued yawing to starboard, and had begun to

overtake the tug which altered the direction of pull on the towline more towards the beam of

the tug, causing it to heel to starboard. Nautilus III was girted with the towline leading close to

abeam on the starboard side. The heel of the tug increased until the sill of the watertight

door to the accommodation, which was open and hooked back to the bulkhead, was

submerged and down flooding commenced

As the tug rolled onto its starboard side the towline went slack and floated clear of the H post

on the tug. The skipper swam clear, pulled himself along the towline and climbed onto the

barge. The Nautilus III sank quickly, coming to rest on the seabed on its starboard side.

Analysis The intent of Maritime Rule Part 40C, as described by the MSA, allowed the use of an axe as

a “positive means of quick release that could be relied on to function correctly under load and

for all directions of applied load and expected heel angles”. It is debatable whether a

deckhand wielding an axe to a towline under load from the deck of a tug over on its side

could be described as reliable; nevertheless, this has been accepted in the industry for a

long time.


When loaded with dredgings H7 usually trimmed by the head, and had a reputation as being

awkward to tow for this reason. Being down by the head would create a natural tendency for

the barge to yaw under tow. Lengthening the towline can reduce the yaw and its effect on

the progress of the tow, but the skipper was unable to do so because the towline was fixed at

each end. The barge was reportedly yawing 40 degrees either side of the intended track.

This was an indication of poor tow geometry.

Findings The sinking of the Nautilus III was caused primarily by lack of planning and communication

as well as non-compliance with safety precautions and basic towing techniques. This

accident is a prime example of how accidents can occur just as readily during a short

harbour tow as they can on an ocean towing operation, arguably more readily so.

The use of a fixed eye at each end of the towline and the inability to slack, release or sever it

in an emergency significantly reduced the options available to the crew when the emergency

developed, and did not comply with Rule Part 40C.

This incident illustrates what can happen even in sheltered waters in good conditions

and with a vessel specifically designed for towing.

Summary of Accident Report The factors that resulted in the sinking of Nautilus III;

• Towed vessel trimmed by the head (bow down) – increasing the chance of yawing.

• Towline not made fast on centreline of towed vessel - increasing the chance of yawing.

• Towline was far too short - increasing the chance of yawing.

• Towline was fixed length – unable to lengthen, and hence reduce the effect of yawing.

• Towline unable to be released quickly.


Towing Hazards cont

To appreciate the inherent dangers in towing an understanding of the forces acting upon

both the towed and towing vessels is essential.

Yawing Yawing is when the towed vessel swerves off course, and as was highlighted in the previous

accident report can endanger both the towed vessel and CRV.

To prevent or reduce a towed vessel yawing:

• Make sure the tow line is pulling the towed vessel from a point on its centreline.

• If towed vessel starts to yaw – decrease speed.

• If towed vessel starts to yaw - lengthen the towline.

• Ensure that both CRV and towed vessel are in step with each other.

• If possible trim the towed vessel down by the stern. Lower out boards for example on

smaller vessels, or move weight(s) to the stern.

• Whenever possible tow trailer boats from the towing eye.

• Deploy a drogue or similar from the stern of the towed vessel.

Burying the Bow The CRV can cause the towed vessel to bury its bow by getting the tow out of step with the

wave pattern, or by towing at too high a speed. This problem is common in steep waves and

can happen while travelling at any angle into or before the sea. In a head sea burying the

bow of the towed vessel can create huge loadings on the tow line and the risk of swamping

the towed vessel. In a following sea there is the danger of the towed vessel broaching.

Broaching is where a vessel looses control and turns beam on to the waves.

The chances of burying the bow are increased when the point of attachment to the towed

vessel is well above the waterline, as the pull and weight of the towline will tend to drag the

vessels bow down.

Tows being undertaken at above planing speeds induce this problem much more readily than

tows carried out at displacement speeds. Remember - If possible always attach the towline

to the towing eye of trailer boats to help lift the bow.


Stopping and Swamping The towed vessel can cause the CRV to both stop and then to be swamped by following

seas. This problem occurs when the towed vessel has got out of step with the sea state

when towing in a quartering or following sea. The towed vessel falls behind one wave while

the CRV is in front of the same, or another wave. If the towed vessel is induced to bury its

bow, its reserve buoyancy is enough to dramatically slow down or stop its progress through

the water. This in turn affects the CRV and which can be overrun by waves as its stern is

held down by the weight of its tow.

Being Overtaken by the Tow This occurs when the CRV and the towed vessel get out of step. The CRV either slows

down / stops, or the casualty accelerates down or across a wave (with the possibility of

broaching) and overtakes (with the possibility of being girted as in the previous accident

report) or collides with the CRV. The same thing can happen if the CRV slows down too

quickly, and does not allow for a natural rate of deceleration for the towed vessel. The

heavier the vessel, and higher the initial speed, the more momentum it will have.

All of the previously listed towing hazards are likely to occur if the CRV and casualty

are out of step with each other, and they will all increase the risk of the towline parting

or pulling out fittings. The general rule for towing astern in open water is to use as

long a tow line as possible, and always ensure the vessels are in step with each other.

Sinking Tow If time allows the vessel can be towed out of any shipping channels and possibly beached.

(See Module Emergency Repairs) In shallow water and if safety permits payout the towline

and buoy off its end so that it is visible on the surface. Note the sunken vessels position and

report the situation.

Any vessel that sinks becomes the responsibility of the Local / Regional Harbour Master or

MNZ depending on its location. Units must be aware of their local procedures & protocols as

regards to sunken vessels (See Module Legal Considerations).

If forced to cut the tow line; cut it on or as close to the fitting as possible to avoid

injury from the ropes recoil.


Sea & Swell

The table below describes open water swell. As can

be seen an average swell can be up to 200m in length.

In conditions such as these the CRV’s tow line alone

may not be of sufficient length.

It is accepted practice that only the CRV’s towline is used, because its age, condition, and

strength is known to the CRV’s crew. There may be times however where it is necessary to

use lines from the other vessel to lengthen the tow.

If no suitable lines are available, then using the other vessels anchor and rode may provide a

solution. The tow line is attached to the anchor or shackled to its chain nearby. The weight

of anchor and any chain provides a good catenary device.

If the other vessel has nylon rope as part of its anchor rode then great care must be taken to

ensure that no one is exposed to the risk of the line recoiling if it should break. Using nylon

rope as part of the tow line is not ideal – but it may be the only way to avoid the huge loading

imposed on both towline and fittings by towing out of step, and the occurrence of the towing

hazards listed previously.


Towing Speed

Displacement vessels should never be towed at or above their hull speed. (See Module

Boat Handling & Heavy Weather for definition of displacement vessel)

At such a speed, fuel consumption rises considerably, and enormous strain is put on the

towline and fittings as the towline tries to literally drag the vessel up and through its own bow

wave. Not only does the risk of pulling out a fitting or snapping the towline increase, there

have also been numerous instances of small vessels swamped and sunk while under tow

purely because it was towed at excessive speed.

The table opposite gives approx safe towing

speeds for different lengths of displacement vessel.

Often the easiest guide to a safe max speed is to

simply ask the Skipper of the towed vessel what

their ‘cruising speed’ is and base the speed of the

tow on that figure.

This table shows the approx max safe speed for

displacement vessels, but all towing operations

should be carried out at speeds suitable for the

conditions.

• Approx Max towing speed = Sq root of waterline

length in feet x 1.34.

• Safe towing speed = 90% of approx Max speed.

Towing at planing speed A sufficiently powered CRV is able to tow most disabled vessels at displacement speed, but

it requires significantly more power to be able to get a disabled planning vessel over the

"hump" and onto the plane. Once on the plane the drag of the disabled craft is greatly

reduced.

Any loss of support to the towed vessel while planing, e.g., wave effects, turning, change in

weight distribution or change in speed may well cause a rapid drop off the plane and a

potential hazard from the effects of rapid deceleration and / or yawing. Towing a vessel at

planing speed should only be attempted in relatively calm conditions.


Imagine you are on the helm of your CRV, on the plane at approx 20 kts. How

confident would you feel taking your hands off the wheel and throttle controls and

putting them in your pockets? That’s the position the towed vessel is in – and the

only thing controlling the vessel is the constant tension on the towline.

Summary of Standard Towing Practice

Standard practice that should be adopted when towing;

• Operate with an extended tow line in open water, generally the longer the better.

• Always try to keep the towed vessel and CRV ‘in step’.

• As necessary deploy a drogue from the towed vessel to reduce its potential to yaw.

• Trim the towed vessel down by the stern if possible.

• As necessary employ a catenary device in the tow line to minimise snatch loading.

• Tow at a safe speed – For a displacement vessel with consideration for its max hull

speed, and for all vessels at all times a speed suitable for the conditions.


Preparation for Towing

Visual Assessment - SAP – Stop Assess Plan (See Module Victim Recovery)

• Assess the vessel’s drift and motion before deciding on an approach.

• How is the vessel trimmed fore and aft and athwart ships?

• Are there any fittings on the vessel that could damage the CRV if you come alongside?

(You may end up ‘barging’ the vessel)

• Are there any ropes / lines in the water?

• What attachment points are there for the towline?

Questions to Ask / Information to Obtain

• How many people are on-board?

• Does anyone have injuries or need medical assistance?

• What is the nature of the problem?

• Has the vessel sustained any damage?

• Is the vessel taking on any water?

• Is everything on board stowed and secure?

• For a displacement vessel, work out its safe towing speed.

• Can the vessel monitor VHF channel.............?

• Does the vessel have working Navigation lights, searchlight or torch?

• Is the steering impaired in any way?

• What kind of securing points are available – are they strong enough?

• Are they able to receive and secure a towline? Always remember that the entire

operation may be easier if (with the owner’s permission) you put a crew member on board

the other vessel.

Before Commencing the Tow

• Ensure that you have agreement as to where you are towing the vessel.

• If appropriate request that everyone wears a lifejacket.

• Ensure that communication with the vessel have been established, i.e. VHF, hand signals

and / or light signals if the tow will be conducted at night.

• Have the vessel turn on its navigation lights (port, starboard & stern).

• Have the vessel secure the rudder amidships or instruct they steer for CRV’s stern.

• Hoist code flag Delta / turn on the CRV’s navigation and towing lights.


Approach and Passing the Tow Line

How you approach a disabled and drifting vessel will primarily depend on the prevailing

weather conditions and on the vessels motion.

A disabled vessel will normally drift more or less beam on to

the wind and waves. Depending on the hull configuration,

weight distribution and superstructure they may drift with the

bow slightly upwind or downwind. The leeward side of the

disabled vessel should always be considered as potentially

hazardous to the CRV.

The area extends not just directly downwind of the vessel but also in front of and to leeward

of its bow. As the vessel is pushed down wind by wave action it can also accelerate

forwards – this is especially prone to occur in vessels that are drifting in a bow down attitude

to the wind in the first place.

Approach Generally there are 4 different methods of approach depending on the sea conditions;

• Parallel Approach calm to slight seas.

• 45°Approach slight to moderate seas.

• Crossing the Bow moderate to rough seas.

• Crossing the Stern moderate to rough seas.

Parallel Approach As the name suggests the approach is made parallel to

vessel and hence generally beam on to the prevailing

wind and waves. The tow line is generally passed

across when the CRV is in line with the foredeck of the

other vessel.


45°Approach When conditions are such that a slow speed approach beam on to the waves would produce

an uncomfortable and possibly hazardous motion on the CRV – then angling its approach to

the wind & waves may be a better method.

The approach could me made from either the

windward or leeward side of the disabled vessel,

(although passing the towline via a messenger line

will obviously be easier from a windward position),

and then rounding up into the wind to hold station

near by the vessel until the tow line is attached. The

actual angle of approach need not be at exactly 45°,

merely the angle that will best suit the sea conditions.

Crossing the Bow In moderate or rough conditions then the safety of the

CRV and its crew may become the factor uppermost in

the Skippers mind when assessing which method of

approach to use. Approaching the disabled vessel into

the wind may be the only safe and sensible approach.

Once clear of the bow the CRV can be turned through the wind to crab across the vessels

windward side, and the towline passed to the foredeck when it is directly downwind.

Care should be taken not to cross the bow so close as to endanger the CRV.

Crossing the Stern The approach is made towards the stern, and the towline passed either to the vessels

windward quarter, and then taken by its crew to the bow, or once the CRV is clear of the

windward quarter by crabbing across the wind to pass the towline to the vessels bow.

This approach is the safest for the CRV in heavy weather

– but due consideration must be made for the crew of the

other vessel. Transferring the line to the bow of the

vessel on a cabin cruiser with narrows side decks or

negotiating the rigging and shrouds on a yacht may be

difficult or downright dangerous.


Twin Towing Usually only adopted when attempting to tow a significantly larger

or perhaps flooded vessel. The two vessels towing maintain a

parallel course with an angle between tow lines of approx 30° to

60°. More than 60° and too much of the pull is exerted sideways

not forward. Less than approx 30° and the towing vessels may

be too close to each other for safety. The actual distance

between the two towing vessels will be dependent on both the

angle and length of tow lines.

The first vessel pays out its towline to a suitable length, and commences to tow at slow

speed – just enough to swing the disabled vessel head to wind or slightly across the wind

and maintain station. The second vessel then approaches from either side to pass its tow

line.

Many vessels fairleads, cleats and bollards will not be large enough to take two tow ropes,

and the towlines may need to be lead from either bow. If that is the case then to avoid

crossing the towlines the other vessel must be informed as to which CRV’s towline is going

to be on which side of their bow.

Care must be exercised when first taking the

strain on the tow, as unequal load on the

towlines may induce the tow towed vessel to

yaw. Both vessels then proceed ahead at low

speed until they have let out a similar length of

towline. Once tension is on the towlines both

vessels accelerate slowly to a safe towing

speed.


Towing off a Vessel Aground Before attempting to tow off a grounded vessel, the skipper of the CRV must answer the

question - is it necessary? Coastguard’s primary role is saving lives not property.

For a vessel that has run aground on a falling tide, then often

by the time a CRV arrives on scene, towing the vessel off is

no longer possible. The best that can be done is to secure

its position with a kedge anchor(s) or shoring if necessary

and await the next flood tide.

For a vessel aground on an incoming tide, all that may be needed is again to secure the

vessel in position and wait for the tide to do the rest.

Before assisting a vessel aground, the CRV crew must make a thorough analysis of the

situation. The following are some key points to consider;

• Was anyone injured in the grounding?

• Are all crew accounted for?

• If appropriate advise vessels crew to don life jackets ( could definitely be classed as a

time of heightened risk)

• Is the vessel damaged in any way, or taking on water?

• Is the vessel leaking any fuel /oil?

• What time did the vessel go aground?

• What is the vessels draft?

No immediate attempt should be made to pull off a vessel that has been or is

suspected to have been seriously damaged. If there is any doubt as to the vessel's

ability to remain afloat, no attempt to refloat the vessel should be made by the CRV.

Any vessel aground becomes the responsibility of the Local / Regional Harbour Master or

MNZ depending on its location. Coastguard Units must be aware of their local

procedures & protocols as regards to grounded vessels.

(See Module Legal Considerations)


If the assessment reveals that the vessel will remain afloat, carefully determine the refloating

procedures to use. When preparing to tow free a grounded vessel the Skipper and crew of

the CRV must always assess the possible hazards to their own vessel. There are too many

cases of one vessel attempting to help another, then subsequently running aground or

suffering damage to their own vessel in the process.

• What are the sea conditions?

• What is the present and forecasted weather?

• Is shoring required to support the vessel while awaiting the tide?

• Sound around the vessel and the general area to establish actual depth of water.

• Ascertain the vessels underwater hull shape - many vessels have rudders and propellers

protruding below the keel. Severe damage and possible flooding may result from

dragging the vessel over the sea bed.

• What is the state of the tide?

• What was the state of tide on grounding?

• Unless weight is removed from the grounded vessel, or its trim altered in such a way as

to reduce its draft, pulling the vessel to deeper water should only be considered with

great caution.

A 35 ft vessel could easily have a tonnes per cm immersion of 0.2. Meaning that to

reduce its draft by 1cm / 10mm you would need to unload 0.2 tonnes from the vessel.

Taken another way if a CRV were to attempt to drag the vessel over the sea bed when

it was still 100mm away from floating free, it would effectively be trying to drag 2

Tonnes over the seabed.

Knowing the state of the tide and being able to predict with reasonable accuracy the times

and heights of tides is essential - not just for high and low water but for intermediate times

and heights. At the end of this section there is information on different methods that can be

used to find intermediate tidal times and heights.


In calm sea state conditions with no swell, a wrenching (Side to

side pull) will help free the vessel from any suction in the sand

or mud.

If there is a sea running then a straight pull can be used to take

advantage of the roll and lift effect of the waves.

Heeling a Vessel Aground For any vessel with a deep keel, heeling it over to one side

will effectively reduce the draft. This is a method most

commonly employed with yachts. Lead a halyard from the

mast to another vessel or a fixed object such as a kedge

anchor.

The longer the line from the yachts masthead the greater the leverage

Care should be taken that the halyard used will not foul and hence

put undue strain on the yachts rig when she is towed off. The

spreaders or crosstrees on a yacht rig are designed to take

compression loading from the standing rigging. They are not

designed to take large loads in a fore and aft direction.

Refloating the casualty will probably not be considered a

success if you dismast it in the process!

The spinnaker halyard is usually preferred because it is normally

led through a swivel block at the masthead allowing a wide range

of pull without chafing the line.

Pull on the line to induce the vessel to heel. Sometimes the vessel will drift off on its own

when heeled by the mast. If not then the vessel itself will need to be towed off. When the

vessel is free, release the line used to heel it over as soon as there is sufficient depth of

water.


There may be times where running a line from the yachts masthead is not feasible. In which

case the use of its boom to hang weights from, may be sufficient to heel the vessel.

• Once the weights are attached under the boom, a line is

taken from the aft end of the boom to the yachts bow or any

suitable fitting forward of the mast.

• The boom is hauled outboard using the line to the bow.

• Once the boom has been swung as far outboard as

possible, both the line to the bow and the mainsheet are

used to secure the boom in position.

Tidal Times & Heights

The NZ almanac or other local publications such as those produced by the local / regional

council or local boating clubs will have HW and LW times and heights. What is relevant

however in the case of a grounded vessel is intermediate times and heights of tide.

For example: a vessel runs aground on a falling tide. Your CRV responds to its call for

assistance and you establish that the vessel ran aground 1hr 45mins after high water – it is

now 2 hrs 20 mins after high water.

The question is how much will the tide drop from now until low water, and will the next high

water be sufficient to refloat the vessel?

In grounding the vessel may have ‘run up’ a sand bank or rock and will need more height of

tide to refloat it than there was at the time it ran aground. This can only be properly

ascertained by sounding around the vessel.

In the case (for example) of the next high water being lower than the previous one, and the

vessel having run up as it grounded, it may be necessary to immediately make preparations

to lighten and / or heel the vessel to ensure it can refloat at the next high water.


Sources of Tidal Information

Some chart plotters have the facility to give local tidal predictions for any given time between

high and low water.

The NZ Almanac contains tidal information for standard ports that can be plotted on a graph

to find intermediate times and heights. The NZ Almanac also contains information on

secondary ports, but this information cannot be plotted on to the graph without some

calculations. These can be time consuming and you probably will need a calculator.

Alternatively if you can find your local times and heights of tide from another publication, you

can plot this information directly onto the graph in the Almanac.

NZ Almanac Graph


Generic Tidal Graph

Below is a tidal graph that works in just the same way as the one in the NZ Almanac, just a

little easier to use and read.

Caution - Tidal predictions do not take into account the influence of weather - namely

atmospheric pressure and prevailing wind direction and strength. These factors can

have a marked affect on predicted tidal heights.

Average air pressure is usually taken to be around 1013. With a higher than average air

pressure the water levels will be lower than predicted, and with lower than average air

pressure there will be higher water levels than predicted.

Variations in air pressure alone usually only account for a maximum of around 0.3 m

difference in predicted tidal heights. Wind direction and strength can make a much larger

difference to tidal heights.

The typical conditions that lead to flooding in coastal areas, would be a low air pressure, and

strong sustained onshore winds (which would effectively push or back up water into

estuaries) Heavy rainfall leading to higher volumes of river water meeting the incoming flood

tide would increase water levels even more.


Vessel at Anchor

A disabled vessel will often have put down its anchor. If there is sufficient sea room then, the

anchor can be raised and the vessel allowed to drift before setting up the towline. This at

least allows a clear foredeck prior to accepting the tow. If the vessel is close to a lee shore

then the towline may need to be attached prior to raising the anchor.

One problem that can occur is when a vessel is unable to raise its anchor. The anchor may

need to be ‘tripped ‘by the CRV.

A bight of line or preferably a short length of chain is passed around the anchor rode and

pulled slowly and gently along the rode until it comes in contact with the anchor. The anchor

is then pulled out by the CRV.

The tripping line should be allowed to sink to the sea bed and the pull from the CRV should

be as horizontal as possible. If the tripping line

from the CRV is pulled too hard, or the anchor

rode from the anchored vessel has very little

weight / pressure on it then there is the chance the

tripping line will snag on the rode before it has

reached the anchor (diagram right).

If the tripping line does snag on the anchor rode, it will tend to pull the anchored vessel

towards the tripping line. This will eventually exert a pull on the anchor, but it risks damage to

the anchored vessels bow (due to contact with

the tripping line chain / anchor rode), and

tripping the anchor in this way is not as

effective as pulling directly with the tripping line.

If for whatever reason the anchor cannot be tripped, or the CRV Skipper decides that in the

circumstances tripping the anchor is unnecessarily hazardous, then the anchor and rode will

need to be left behind. If the anchor is to be let go completely then a GPS position should be

taken and the end of the anchor rode buoyed so that it can be retrieved at a later date.


Towing Alongside or Barging

Towing alongside should only be attempted in calm to slight seas, and for a short period of

time. The movement of two vessels alongside each other in a sea way can easily damage

both vessels.

To give the greatest amount of control over the tow the CRV should be tied alongside

the vessel as far aft as possible while still remaining secure alongside.

With vessels smaller than the CRV the positioning generally isn’t that critical, however with

vessels the same size or larger it becomes increasingly important.

The CRV should be made fast using a bow line, stern

line, and springs to prevent the vessels surging. All

lines should be led so that adjustments can be made on

board the CRV. It may be in some cases that a bow line

at a suitable angle will double up as an effective spring –

, in which case the tow may be adequately secured

using just 3 lines. (See diagram below)

Once secured alongside all slack in the lines should be

taken up, with the bow of the CRV pointing in towards

the other vessel by approx 10-15°. Securing the CRV so

that its bow is pointed in slightly ensures that when

moving ahead the water pressure created is keeping the

vessels together, not trying to force them apart.

There are no hard and fast rules as to exactly how

the tow is made fast, each vessel will be different as

the position of the cleats or posts available will

determine how the tow is finally secured.


Transferring Tow Astern to Tow Alongside

There are 3 common ways in which a tow astern can be transferred to an alongside tow:

• While Underway.

• While at Anchor.

• While on a Mooring.

Transfer While Under way Choose which side of the other vessel you wish to go alongside. The choice may well be

determined on the ultimate destination of the tow ensuring that as far as possible the

approach to the berth will be as near as practical into tide or wind. When planning to berth

a tow it should always be remembered that the CRV is obliged to secure the towed

vessel to a safe berth not necessarily its customary berth.

• Brief CRV crew on plan and assign individual tasks.

• Brief crew on towed vessel on plan and if feasible assign tasks.

• Reduce speed and shorten up the towline.

• Reduce speed still further to allow towline to go completely slack.

• If possible keep the towline attached to the disabled vessel until alongside.

• Manoeuvre CRV to the chosen side of the vessel.

You must ensure that you have adequate sea

room in which to complete the operation. If not

you may find your self drifting down onto a lee

shore or other vessels before you have gained

control of the tow!

While manoeuvring the CRV gather in any slack or pay out on the tow line accordingly to

prevent the tow line catching on any obstructions, and to keep it clear of the CRV props / jet

units (jets are particularly prone to ‘swallowing’ lines in the water). If the attempt to go

alongside has to be abandoned for any reason, with the towline still attached control of the

tow can be regained and the manoeuvre attempted again.


There are no hard and fast rules as to the order in which lines should be attached

when towing alongside, but the sensible approach would be to attach those lines which will

enable control (while going ahead) over the tow first. – This almost inevitably means the

stern (aft) spring is the last line to be secured.

With vessels smaller than the CRV a bow line can often be used

almost immediately to gain control over the tow while going ahead.

The bows of both vessels are held approximately in line / next to

each other (with a smaller vessel this will automatically ensure the

CRVs stern projects behind the other vessels stern). The remaining

lines required for the tow can then be secured.

With vessels that are larger than the CRV the position of the CRV relative to the other

vessels becomes more important. With larger vessels, as the CRV comes alongside the

most important line to secure first is often the bow (forward) spring, followed by the stern line

then bow line.

The bow (forward) spring dictates the position of the CRV alongside the other vessel, and the

stern line controls the angle at which the CRV sits alongside the other vessel.

Applying power in ahead will tension the bow spring, and by adjusting the steering on the

CRV, and the length of the stern line the desired angle to the towed vessel can be

maintained. The remaining bow line and stern spring are then attached and tensioned.

The original tow line may become the new stern (aft) spring, or by transferring it forward on

the CRV it may be used as a bow line. Often however the new lead of the original towline

will not be fair on larger vessels due to stanchions or rails, risking chafe to the line or damage

to the other vessel.


At Anchor Ensure that the other vessel has sufficient anchor chain / warp for the depth of water.

Ensure that it can drop its anchor, and just as importantly recover it – with loss of engine it

may not have power to its anchor winch, and not all winches can be manually operated.

• Tow the other vessel to a stop. Slacken the tow line by going astern / easing tow line.

• Beware - the casualty may take some time to stop due to its momentum, so the entire

manoeuvre should be carried out at as slow a speed as possible.

• As other vessel gathers sternway it should let go

its anchor. Keep the tow line slack until it is

confirmed that the anchor is holding.

• If the other vessel cannot let go its anchor with the

tow line in place, then remove the tow line from its

fitting but keep it on board until the anchor has

been dropped, and it is confirmed that the anchor

is holding.

Do not simply cast off the towline – just in case!

On a Mooring The other vessel can be secured to a mooring prior to transfer of the tow.

• Reduce speed and shorten up the towline to a

suitable length.

• Manoeuvre the casualty to pick up the mooring, as

with anchoring the tow line should never be cast off

until the towed vessel is secure.

• It may be that this entails the mooring being initially

secured by the shoulder of the vessel rather than

directly at the bow.


Berthing a Tow Before committing to any close quarter manoeuvres it is imperative to test

manoeuvrability. Performing a figure of eight then coming to a stop will give you an

indication of your turning circle and stopping distance.

• With a large vessel alongside visibility will be hampered so a lookout on the other vessel

should be posted.

• Approach to the berth should as far as practical be made into the wind or tide (which ever

is the greatest influence). Slow down gradually to maintain control of the tow.

• Ensure all crew (CRV& towed vessel) are briefed and if applicable assigned roles / tasks.

• Ensure fenders are in place and all shore lines made ready.

Visibility can be severely reduced by the tow – in many cases with a large vessel

alongside the best position for the CRV Skipper may not be on the CRV, but on board

the tow – relaying helm and throttle orders by voice, hand signals or hand held VHF.

Sometimes even a ‘safe berth’ can present difficulties if there is a strong wind or tide.

CRV’s have more than adequate power and manoeuvrability to berth in adverse

conditions, but that may not be the case with another vessel tied alongside. Berthing

the tow may well be a manoeuvre best carried out in two or more stages.

In the case of a strong offshore wind putting the bow of the

towed vessel (with adequate fenders) onto the berth first, then

rearranging the lines to allow the CRV to push it alongside

may be an option (opposite).

With a strong onshore wind the same approach could be

taken but this time with the CRV pulling on the towed

vessels stern to control the operation (opposite).

Berthing in Marinas often leaves little

option but to perform the operation in

separate stages as there isn’t enough

space for two vessels. The towed

vessel may have to be held in position

by the CRV until it can be pulled into

the berth by its shorelines.


Using an Anchor to Turn

There may be times where just using engines and steering alone will not be able to turn a

large tow quickly enough, or in as tight a circle as is needed.

For example: entering a narrow channel on a flood tide or with a strong following wind.

In a case such as this using an anchor to ‘short turn around’ may be the only option.

• The other vessels anchor is made ready.

• The tow is slowed to bare steerage way.

• The tow is turned slightly (to port in the example

diagram) so that that the CRV will be on the

outside of the turn. This will ensure there is no

chance of the anchor rode fouling on the CRV or

towed vessel.

• The anchor is let go, and the tow allowed to

swing around on the anchor once it bites – with

engine assistance from the CRV if necessary.

• Once the tow has turned to face into the wind /

tide, the tow can be slowly motored ahead while

the anchor is recovered.

Note – to turn on the anchor it often isn’t necessary for the anchor to hold and dig in as you

would normally expect when anchoring – just the drag created by the anchor along the sea

bed can create a powerful turning effect.


Slewing a Tow For the vast majority of barging operations the CRV should be able to manoeuvre the tow

without too much difficulty, however with vessels considerably larger than the CRV another

technique to turn the tow may be needed. This technique is commonly used in commercial

tug & barge operations, where the vessel being towed is often many times larger than the

tug.

In the example diagram the CRV is driven

ahead with port helm onto the bow spring. The

stern line is eased (other lines may need to be

eased also depending on their lead) thus

allowing the CRV’s stern to swing out.

This manoeuvre is best affected if the CRV’s bow spring is led from as far forward on the

CRV as possible, giving the greatest pivoting effect.

With the CRV now as near perpendicular to the other vessel as possible, the CRV pushes

the stern of the vessel to port thus slewing the tow to starboard. To return to its original

alongside position the helm is reversed (in this case to starboard) allowing the CRV’s stern to

swing back into the tow, and slack is taken out of the lines previously eased.

To slew the tow the other way the bow line is eased under

control to allow the CRV to drive astern on its stern spring.

This makes the bow swing away from the tow (again other

lines may need to be eased at the same time depending

on their lead). As the CRV pivots on its stern spring, slack

is taken out of the stern line.

With the CRV in position and its lines secure again the

CRV is driven ahead to slew the tow’s stern to starboard

thus turning the tow to port.

To return to its original alongside position the CRV is driven ahead onto the bow spring helm

to port, and the stern line eased.


6 VICTIM RECOVERY

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 107 SAP – Stop Assess Plan ............................................................................................................... 108

Phase 1 – Stop......................................................................................................................... 109 Pre-Arrival Planning ............................................................................................................ 109

Phase 2 – Assess..................................................................................................................... 110 Phase 3 – Plan ......................................................................................................................... 110

SAP Flow Chart. ............................................................................................................................ 111 Recovery of Person in Water (PIW) .............................................................................................. 112

Method of Approach (calm to slight conditions).................................................................. 112 Method of Approach (moderate to rough conditions) ......................................................... 113 Life Ring Method ................................................................................................................. 114

In Water Assistance ................................................................................................................. 115 Recovery Techniques.................................................................................................................... 115

Recovery by Hand.................................................................................................................... 116 Recovery with PIW facing away from CRV......................................................................... 116 Recovery with PIW facing towards CRV............................................................................. 116 Recovery Equipment........................................................................................................... 116

Hypothermic Casualties ................................................................................................................ 117 Recovery from the Shore or Grounded Vessels ........................................................................... 118

Direct Approach........................................................................................................................ 118 Veering down ........................................................................................................................... 120 Breeches Buoy Transfer .......................................................................................................... 121 Single Line Transfer ................................................................................................................. 122

Recovery from Marine Structures ................................................................................................. 122 Recovery from a Drifting Vessel.................................................................................................... 123

Sea Anchors & Drogues...................................................................................................... 123 Heaving To (Sail) ................................................................................................................ 124

Recovery from Vessels on Fire (Or Gas / Chemical Situations) .................................................. 125 Recovery from a Vessel Underway............................................................................................... 126

Pacing / Transfers While Underway......................................................................................... 126 Procedure to Come Alongside ............................................................................................ 127 Use of a Bow Line ............................................................................................................... 127 Procedure to Come Off Other Vessel ................................................................................. 128

Vessels under Sail.................................................................................................................... 128 Recovery from Liferaft ................................................................................................................... 129 Recovery from Lifeboats ............................................................................................................... 130 Rescue Flow Chart........................................................................................................................ 131 Medical Care ................................................................................................................................. 132

Patient Assessment.................................................................................................................. 132 Assessing a Conscious Patient........................................................................................... 132 Assessing an Unconscious Patient..................................................................................... 133

Patient Handling & Transport ........................................................................................................ 134 Patient Care during Transportation.......................................................................................... 134 Working with Stretchers ........................................................................................................... 135 Transfer (Vessel To Vessel) Using Stretchers......................................................................... 135

Transfers between Comparable Sized Vessels.................................................................. 135 Transfers between Different Sized Vessels ........................................................................ 135

Diver Care ..................................................................................................................................... 136 Multiple Casualties ........................................................................................................................ 137

Rescue Scene Management.................................................................................................... 137 Phase 1: Hazard Identification and Priorities...................................................................... 137 Phase 2: Crew Preparation................................................................................................. 137 Phase 3: Prioritisation of Casualties ................................................................................... 137 Phase 4: Casualty Search................................................................................................... 138 Phase 5: Triage................................................................................................................... 138 Phase 6: Continuing First Aid ............................................................................................. 139 Phase 7: Evacuation ........................................................................................................... 139

Corpse Retrieval............................................................................................................................ 140


Overview

Victim recovery is essentially the rescue part of search and rescue operations. As such the

CRV and its crew will enter situations that may involve a high degree of risk if proper

planning and procedures are not followed.

This module describes various scenarios that may be encountered; however no manual can

cover every eventuality.

Knowledge of the theory and general principals involved, coupled with practical training will

equip you with the ability to carry out different recovery methods. This knowledge and

training will enable you if necessary, to adapt or modify procedures to suit different

circumstances.

Before looking at the types of situations a CRV crew may face, we should first look at

procedures to ensure that they do not also end up as victims in need of recovery.

It has long been recognised in SAR operations that operational accidents and incidents often

stem not from equipment failure, or deficiencies in people’s skill and experience in using

equipment, but more often from the operational plan (or lack off) that was employed by the

CRV crew.


SAP – Stop Assess Plan

When things go wrong on an operation, and crew members get hurt it usually stems from

one of two problems:

• A loss of scene awareness.

• A bad action plan.

SAR crews need to observe the scene carefully and notice all the details then formulate and

agree to a plan before getting involved.

When faced with a potentially hazardous situation proper assessment is the key to a

successful outcome. A few moments standing away from the action observing and

formulating a plan will save time and possibly lives.

The idea of assessing the situation before formulating any plan of action is something that

has always been taught to those involved in Search and Rescue, or any of the other

emergency services. For example assessing the situation, and not just rushing in is a

cornerstone of all First Aid training. SAP is merely a more structured form of what should

already be an accepted common sense practice.

What is emphasised in SAP is that all the crew, not just the Skipper are involved in both the

assessment and planing stage.

If it’s only the Skipper assessing the situation, then the whole operation is dependent

on one person’s evaluation - and no one is infallible.

Using SAP, a SAR crew can:

• Identify all the hazards at a scene.

• Receive input from all crew members.

• Formulate a plan that best fits the situation.

• Assign tasks / roles for each crew member.

SAP can be as short as fifteen seconds for routine situations such as taking a vessel

in tow, and could take several minutes for more complex or hazardous situations.


Phase 1 – Stop Once you have entered the immediate area of an incident you are within range of any

dangers that may be present, and involved in the scene. The urgency of the incident can

compel people to act instinctively. They are pushed to act quickly to solve the problem as it

presents itself (winging it).

This is why it is critical to stop outside the immediate area of the incident for an initial

assessment. It is the small or partially hidden factors that can quickly turn an operation into a

disaster.

In many situations, the vessel should come to a complete stop (all way off). In some

situations, it may be necessary to maintain steerageway, to slowly circle a scene, or even

pace a vessel underway in order to keep a constant position.

This all counts as stopping

Hollywood films give a false impression of what real life SAR incidents are like. They

constantly portray ‘nick of time’ rescues that are not accurate depictions of reality.

Very seldom is a situation so urgent that a team does not have time to stop and

assess.

Pre-Arrival Planning Plans should not be made based just on dispatch information. The situation that a CRV crew

expect may well be different from the situation that they arrive to, and so will the solutions to

the problems.

Pre-arrival planning can lead to problems when CRV crews go in with a plan that does not fit

the situation. When the CRV crew arrives they should always take a fresh, unbiased view of

the scene.


Phase 2 – Assess The most important step, assessment must be just that – assessment not planning.

Here the entire crew observe the scene carefully, and comment on what they can see.

Details can make a profound difference.

“I can see lines in the water off the stern”

“Looks like she’s listing to port and down at the bow”

“There’s fuel or oil on the water”

If the scene is complicated, it may be necessary to have a few seconds of silence while

people observe; this gives the crew time to focus on their task of observation.

Phase 3 – Plan The planning stage is where all crew are involved in coming up with the most effective plan.

Everyone is allowed input, but the Skipper has the final say. Once a plan is decided the

Skipper assigns tasks and gets verification from the crew that they all understand the plan,

and their individual roles. Sometimes situations can change and turn a good plan into a bad

one. If the Skipper & crew can foresee potential problems then a backup plan should be

discussed.

SAP is a structured habit, a basic tool used in any situation with potential risk even

scenes that appear routine should still be assessed.


SAP Flow Chart.


Recovery of Person in Water (PIW)

In a marine SAR incident, the highest priority must generally be given to people in the

water, particularly those who appear to be unconscious, injured, or without flotation.

How you actually recover a person from the water depends on prevailing conditions, and the

equipment you have available. Recovery of persons from the water can be potentially

hazardous for both the PIW and the CRV crew.

There is no single correct method for all vessels, in all circumstances, and for all sea states -

but the preferred method of approach is to manoeuvre the craft from a down wind position to

provide greater manoeuvrability and speed control.

The CRV is then driven towards the PIW with her bow into the wind and sea. The final

approach to the casualty should be made at reduced speed to avoid causing injuries from

impact with the hull or propellers.

At this point there are two quite different methods of recovery that might be employed

depending on the type of vessel and the sea state.

NOTE: In the following examples the helm position of the CRV is taken to be on the

starboard side.

Method of Approach (calm to slight conditions)

• Drive the CRV into the wind and sea with the PIW slightly off

to starboard.

• Once the PIW is approx abeam, turn the CRV so that the

wind catches the port bow.

• Take all way off and allow the CRV to drift down on the PIW.

• Slight corrections to the CRV’s position can be made by

nudging ahead or astern so as to make contact at the most

appropriate point on the hull (usually somewhere between

midships and the starboard quarter).


If the PIW is conscious and uninjured, contact may be made with a messenger line. The PIW

slowly pulled toward the CRV, with the engine(s) put in neutral, and the PIW assisted aboard.

As the wind speed and wave height increase, this method becomes potentially more and

more hazardous for both the PIW and the CRV itself. As the rate of drift of the CRV

increases, so does the tendency for the PIW to be forced under the sponsons and hull of the

CRV. This risk can further increase with the CRV’s rolling motion beam on to the waves.

With the increased motion, there is also an increased risk of CRV crew going overboard

while recovering the PIW.

Tethers or harness lines for CRV crew should be considered when making any PIW

recovery in adverse conditions.

Lastly, there is increased risk to the CRV itself as sea conditions deteriorate. The vessel will

be at its most vulnerable – beam on to the sea and listing down wind due to the position of

the PIW and the crew making the recovery.

If there is any doubt as to the safety of the CRV and its crew in laying beam on in the

prevailing weather conditions – then this method should not be used.

Method of Approach (moderate to rough conditions) In more adverse sea states a different method of approach may need to be employed.

• Make contact with the PIW with virtually all way off by either

driving directly to point of contact, or by slewing the CRV’s

stern slightly (by applying a touch of port helm, or reverse on

port engine).

• Once initial contact is made secure the PIW by any means

available to prevent losing contact.

In the example diagram opposite the starboard engine would be

in neutral upon contact, and the vessel held in a relatively

stationary position using the port engine only. The CRV should

be held almost directly into the wind and sea with it slightly

(approx 5 - 10°) on the starboard bow.


There are three major advantages to this type of manoeuvre;

• The person’s lower body will tend to stream away from the craft and not under it.

• If unexpected problems arise in handling the CRV, the craft will move to leeward, and the

casualty will then tend to float clear instead of being driven under the craft.

• In adverse conditions the CRV itself is in the safest position relative to wind and waves.

If the CRV fails to make contact or secure the PIW on

the first approach, the CRV can be driven ahead or

slightly to port to keep clear of the PIW and another

attempt made. If for any reason the vessel is

manoeuvred to starboard in a circle for re-approach

then it should be done using the port motor only, with

the person in the water always being on the inside of

the turn.

Note this is an example of one method (regarding use of engines) that might be

employed in heavy weather or surf. The important principal behind it is that the CRV’s

bow should not be allowed to fall off the wind, and hence risk a high degree of roll or

possible capsize.

Life Ring Method A floating line and life ring or similar may

also be used. The CRV deploys the

tethered life ring and manoeuvres slowly

while paying out the line until contact is

made. In practice control of the line and

life ring can be difficult to achieve, but it

may well be a viable option for recovery if

the CRV is restricted by shallow water or

obstructions as in the diagram opposite.


In Water Assistance In some cases it may become necessary for a crew member to voluntarily enter the water to

assist in the recovery operation. This can be extremely hazardous and should only be

undertaken after careful consideration.

The crew member should ideally be trained in lifesaving, and be suitably equipped with an

appropriate PFD, fins, mask and any necessary thermal protection. Consideration must be

given to tethering the swimmer to the CRV by a hand held floating line, or allowing them to

swim free.

Recovery Techniques

The most appropriate technique for actually getting the PIW on board will depend upon a

number of factors;

• Firstly If the person is conscious or unconscious.

• If the person is conscious the degree of assistance they are able to offer will depend on

whether they have any injuries. Having made contact with a conscious patient,

always ask them about any injuries before pulling them onboard.

• Size / weight of the victim - a very large person can be extremely difficult to recover

aboard.

• Clothing / lifejacket worn - a lifejacket not only provides buoyancy but may help to bring

the PIW aboard by providing a good handhold. At the same time its bulk can also be a

hindrance.

• Available crew and equipment.

• Time in the water, and possible level of hypothermia.(See Module Personal Safety)


Recovery by Hand The most common method of recovery is by hand. Even a conscious person will usually

require at least two crew members to accomplish this task. One method is to turn the person

with their back to the CRV. Crew then put their arms / hands under their armpits and lift

them aboard. This method is especially relevant with anyone wearing a lifejacket, as its bulk

can make recovery difficult if the person is facing the CRV.

While this method of turning the PIW to face away from the vessel may make life easier for

the rescuers, it must be balanced with consideration for the PIW. If the method of making

contact was to allow the CRV to drift down onto the PIW, by turning the PIW to face away

from the vessel the PIW to end up in an arched back position with their legs being pushed

under the CRV’s sponsons – the faster the drift the more extreme the position.

Recovery with PIW facing away from CRV

• Often easier for CRV crew because PIWs lifejacket doesn’t get in the way.

• Can be an uncomfortable even painful position for PIW if CRV drifting onto them, and

may risk back / spinal injury.

• Back injury not an issue if CRV is drifting away from PIW.

Recovery with PIW facing towards CRV

• PIWs lifejacket can make recovery awkward.

• Increased risk of soft tissue injury – in particular to the face.

• Can be a painful method of recovery for women due to soft tissue injury to the breasts.

Recovery Equipment Slings, scoops, boarding ladders, floating stretchers, and other

devices may be found on some CRV’s. Whatever equipment is

available all the crew of the CRV must be familiar with its use –

and its limitations.


Hypothermic Casualties

Casualties suspected of being hypothermic require special consideration to help combat

what is known as post - circum rescue collapse. (See Module Personal Safety)

Firstly, any PIW that is suspected of being hypothermic should not be encouraged to exert themselves during recovery. Any physical activity will increase circulation, draw

blood from the body core, and further increase cooling and risk of cardiac arrest.

While the casualty is in the water, the water pressure helps to reduce blood flow to the

extremities. When the casualty is taken from the water this pressure is removed and their

blood pressure may fall drastically. If this is coupled with the effect of gravity draining blood

from the body’s core to the legs, as in a vertical lift, it can cause unconsciousness and

possible cardiac arrest.

During the Fastnet yacht race (UK1979) 3 of the 15 fatalities (20%) occurred during

rescue. One while being winched to a SAR helicopter and two more while climbing a

cargo net thrown over the side of a ship.

All 3 victims were exposed to a prolonged period in a vertical condition, and in the case of

the 2 who died climbing the cargo net, physical exertion also.

The risk of post rescue collapse increases the longer a person is in a vertical position. The

low freeboard of most CRV’s, and the speed at which people can be removed from the water

means that recovery itself is highly unlikely to produce post – circum rescue collapse. Once

recovered however a hypothermic casualty must be placed as quickly as possible in a

horizontal position, preferably with legs raised.

While every effort should be made to avoid injury to a casualty during recovery, such as a

horizontal lift for a person with hypothermia, there may be times where due to weather and /

or time constraints it will not be possible to use specialised recovery equipment.

The priority is to get them out of the water quickly, and without undue risk to the CRV

and crew.


Recovery from the Shore or Grounded Vessels

This section describes three general methods of approaching a vessel or person ashore.

• Direct approach (adopting close handling techniques with the CRV itself).

• Using an anchor to veer down.

• Using a breeches buoy (or similar).

Direct Approach Every situation will be different - the sea state, depth of water, direction of tide / current and

proximity of hazards will all be factors in deciding how to approach.

As a general rule to allow greater ease in holding position, CRV should when possible be

angled so as to have the wind or tidal stream / current pushing it away from nearby hazards

rather than on to them.

Approaching the shore bow first is the most common method

in shallow water or in the vicinity of any rocks. This gives

some protection to the CRV’s drive units. If the loss of

manoeuvrability is not a problem, raising one of the outboard

engines clear of the water is also a sensible precaution.

However, there may be situations that going in bow first is not

the best option.

Unless there is good reason not to – raise the port hand outboard, as port / left hand

propellers and gearboxes are usually harder and more expensive to replace or repair.

In surf or onshore swell the risk to the CRV’s drive units may have to be weighed

against the risk of being swamped, broached or even capsized.

To approach the in adverse conditions, the Skipper may

run the CRV in stern to the sea, and then turn around to

go alongside or adjacent to the vessel or PIW.

If the waves are breaking heavily it is often better to keep

the CRV’s bow to the waves and gradually drop back

down or crab across the sea.


Going alongside a stranded vessel can be fraught with all

manner of dangers. The Skipper must consider both the

best method of approach to the vessel aground, and the

best position alongside for transfer of persons - a point of

low freeboard, clear of obstructions and with no

overhanging hazards. Debris floating close to the stranded

vessel may damage the CRV or foul its drive units. The

vessel might have deployed an anchor before grounding

and its anchor rode may be just under the surface.

One thought that must be uppermost in the Skipper's mind – Always ensure there is an

escape route.

Whether it is for a vessel aground or person ashore the CRV’s anchor should be

available for immediate use in an emergency.

Ensuring you have a clear escape route is especially important when an approach is being

made into a narrow inlet, or an area with limited turning space.

If the casualty is in a narrow inlet with an onshore

sea or swell, it may be preferable to go in stern first.

This reduces the risk of being unable to overcome

the force of the waves as they travel up the inlet

(and it makes getting out again a lot easier).

In moderate seas it will usually be possible to drive the CRV astern, giving short bursts

ahead to correct any steerage problems. In adverse conditions it may be better to allow the

CRV to be washed back into the inlet, using both astern and ahead power to control steering.

In any rescue of persons ashore the CRV crew must properly assess the local terrain.

There is a tendency for rescuers to concentrate their efforts in approaching directly to

the position of the casualty.

In the case of an injured person on the shore line the easiest access to the casualty

may be a landing area further away where CRV crew members can be put ashore in

safety, and then make their way back to the casualty.


Veering down Veering down is a technique that;

• Can allow the CRV to remain close to a disabled vessel or person ashore, and not have

to constantly manoeuvre with throttle and steering to maintain station.

• Will allow the whole situation to be ‘slowed down’, and provide a more stable platform

form which to communicate, plan or prepare a rescue.

• Will ensure that in the case of an approach close to shore with onshore winds the CRV is

pointing into the wind and waves, and hence in the best position to ride the seas (and

escape if necessary).

The limitation to veering down will always be the holding power of the anchor and rode –

which will depend on the weight and length of anchor gear carried (the tow line can always

be bent on to the anchor rode), the depth of water, and sea conditions.

To veer down onto a vessel aground or person ashore, first lay an anchor upwind and sea

from the vessel. A large amount of anchor rode is desirable to reduce the possibilities of

dragging.

After ensuring a good initial hold with the anchor the

CRV is manoeuvred astern while veering out the

anchor rode. In adverse conditions this task calls for

good co-ordination and communication between the

crew.

The hard part in veering down is often to judge the

length of rode needed to anchor in the depth of

water and prevailing conditions while still ending

up in the desired position.

The anchor rode should be controlled with a running turn around the samson post or similar

fitting to keep the CRV’s bow into the sea until the CRV is adjacent to the vessel or person

ashore. The CRV is then held in position by use of its engines and the anchor. The

helmsman can manoeuvre sideways with the engines as required, while being held from

dropping astern. In heavy seas one crewmember (usually the one controlling the anchor

rode) should act as lookout to give prior warning of any seas likely to break onboard.


At the approach of any large, steep or breaking waves the engines should be put in neutral to

relieve the strain on the anchor rode and allow the CRV to lift its bow to the wave.

Larger waves may need the CRV to power ahead to lift the

bow, while the slack in the anchor rode is recovered. This is

crucial to avoid the CRV being swamped. Vessels have

been capsized because of their inability to rise to an

oncoming wave. They have been swamped and literally

rolled around the ‘pivot point’ created by the anchor rode

made fast to the bow.

If conditions are such that the CRV needs to power ahead to ride the waves then

veering down is probably no longer a viable option.

Breeches Buoy Transfer Breeches buoys have been used in rescues for centuries.

Although largely superseded by faster more manoeuvrable

rescue vessels and helicopters, the principals remain sound.

A situation may still arise where the CRV is unable to

manoeuvre close to the vessel, there is no possibility of

rescue from the shore, and a helicopter is not available

or capable of affecting a rescue.

A breeches buoy is basically a continuous line with a

lifebuoy or similar in the middle, running through a

block at each end of the line.

To carry out a breeches buoy transfer;

• The rescue vessel first anchors to seaward of the vessel aground.

• A messenger line is transferred to the vessel.

• One end of the breeches buoy is passed to the vessel.

• The lifebuoy is pulled out to the other vessel and the person for transfer is secured in the

lifebuoy and pulled back out to the rescue vessel.

Breeches buoy equipment is not usually carried on board Coastguard vessels, but a similar

arrangement can be effected using available equipment.


In the absence of a dedicated breeches buoy, a lifering and lines carried onboard could be

used in its place. The arrangement need not have blocks at either end, but could be looped

over a suitable deck fitting.

One thing that should be communicated to the other vessels crew is that for the comfort of

any persons being transferred in a lifering, they should position themselves with their backs

to the surf.

Liferafts and small inflatable boats have also been used. A small inflatable could be a good

option in slight to moderate conditions and it allows more than one person to be transferred

at a time.

When either of these alternatives are employed, the Skipper and crew of the CRV must

control the number of persons being transferred at any one time. In heavier seas the

resistance by the raft or inflatable boat to the oncoming seas may place an unacceptable

load onto the controlling lines and cause them to part.

Single Line Transfer If the distance to the other vessel is such that a

continuous loop cannot be passed to it, then it may

be that only a single line can be used. Once the

line has been passed to the vessel aground, if it is

not feasible to transfer all personnel together in a

life raft or inflatable boat a line from the other

vessel could be attached to the initial line so it can

be recovered for the next person.

Recovery from Marine Structures

Around the country there are a number of different and unique

structures that each local Unit needs to consider in their rescue

plans, and conduct appropriate training as required - e.g.

wharves, bridges, and breakwaters.

The Skipper and crew should be familiar with all the

hazards specific to the site.


Rescuing people from the water close to such structures may involve a high degree of boat

handling skill, and efficient team work by all of the crew. Prior to making an approach to the

casualty it is essential the Skipper is sure that once the CRV is committed to the rescue

approach it still has a way out.

Always ensure there is an escape route.

Recovery from a Drifting Vessel

Coming alongside a disabled vessel in rough weather can be hazardous. Normally a vessel

will drift approximately beam on to the wind and sea. Before doing anything, stand off

and assess the situation. (SAP – Stop Assess Plan)

During this time the motion and rate of drift of the vessel can be determined, as can the most

suitable position for the CRV to go alongside.

As a general rule the larger vessel is the one positioned to windward so as to provide

a lee (shelter) for the smaller vessel.

Different vessels and different sea conditions will dictate different methods of recovery –

there are no hard and fast rules, each situation must be assessed individually.

The best place for transfer of persons is usually the

lowest part of the vessel that is not being swept by

seas. This will allow easier access to the CRV as the

vessels rise and fall.

The use of boarding ladders or equivalent should

generally be avoided due to the danger of people being

trapped or ‘nipped’ between the disabled vessel and

the CRV as the two vessels rise and fall.

Sea Anchors & Drogues Some vessels carry sea anchors or drogues which can be

deployed to keep them orientated either bow or stern to the

sea. They come in various different designs; the difference

between them is essentially one of size.


A drogue is designed to slow down a vessel and give it more

directional stability, i.e. deploying a drogue from the stern of a towed

vessel to stop it yawing or broaching in a following sea.

A sea anchor is designed to stop a vessel completely, or at least reduce

its drift to an absolute minimum, and therefore is larger than the drogue

and normally deployed off the bow.

With either a drogue or sea anchor deployed, the vessel’s drift will have

been reduced but its pitch and roll could still make getting alongside hazardous.

A method of reducing this motion and creating a lee for the CRV is to ‘spring’ on the sea

anchor. A line of suitable strength is taken from the vessels quarter and attached (using a

snatch block if available or series of rolling hitches) to the rode of the sea anchor.

The rode is then veered out with the strain taken on

both the rode and the spring. The vessel will take up

an increasing angle to the sea. Generally an angle of

between 30° to 50° will reduce the vessels motion and

create the desired lee.

Springing on a sea anchor is a heavy weather

survival tactic adopted by many yachts.

Heaving To (Sail) Another method that may be used to reduce the motion of a

vessel in a sea way particular to sailing vessels is heaving to.

‘Heaving to’ is where all forward motion is stopped and the vessel

drifts slowly to leeward while presenting its bow to the sea at an

angle similar to the method described above. In reality most

modern yachts are unable to stop completely, and will continue

making way although at a much reduced speed.

Different vessels heave to under different combinations of sail and rudder angle. Heaving to

is unlikely to be successful if the Skipper of the vessel is not practiced in doing so.


Recovery from Vessels on Fire (Or Gas / Chemical Situations)

In a fire it’s the smoke, not the flames that are the biggest killer. One breath of toxic

fumes may be all that is needed to inflict permanent lung damage.

The CRV should stand off the distressed vessel to assess the situation (SAP), and come up

with a plan for safely evacuating its crew, while at the same time minimising risk to the CRV

and crew.

CRV crews are neither equipped nor trained to fight any but the smallest fires – the

priority is to save lives not property.

The leeward side of the distressed vessel is most likely to

be affected by flames, smoke or fumes. However there

may be space on the lee side to affect a rescue depending

on the size of the vessel and its orientation to the wind.

If coming alongside to windward, a bow on rather than

parallel approach should be considered. This exposes

less of the CRV and personnel to the danger of explosion

from fuel or LPG. The other danger of coming alongside

parallel to the other vessel is the CRV being ‘pushed on’

by wind and waves and subsequently having difficulty

clearing away from the vessel in a hurry.

The merits of a bow on approach will have to be weighed

against the increased difficulty in transferring people

across the bow.

If coming alongside the distressed vessel is not considered a safe option, the only

course of action is to instruct the crew to abandon ship, and then recover them from

the water.


Recovery from a Vessel Underway

The use of CRV’s to transfer personnel from / to another vessel while underway, takes good

seamanship and knowledge of the CRV’s handling characteristics. The Skipper of the CRV

should consult with the Skipper of the other vessel involved as to a speed and course to

maintain.

Experimenting to establish a course that produces the least amount of motion at a

speed sufficient to give effective control will be time well spent.

Pacing / Transfers While Underway Coming alongside another vessel while it is underway to transfer personnel or equipment will

often be easier than coming alongside a vessel drifting in any seaway.

The higher the speed at which this manoeuvre is carried out the more difficult and

potentially hazardous it becomes.

• Any displacement vessel or planing

vessel at displacement speed

produces a bow wave while underway.

• At the bow and the quarters the

movement of water pushes objects

away from the vessel.

• Between those two points the water flows back in toward and along the vessel’s hull.

• This movement of water creates areas where the CRV will be either attracted to or

repelled from the other vessel.

Remember – the greater the bow wave created by the other vessel the greater the

forces involved.


Procedure to Come Alongside

• Approach the other vessel on a parallel course at approximately its 4 o’clock (or 8 o’clock)

position.

• Pick a fixed point on the other vessel on which to focus and use as a reference point.

• Match the other vessels speed – this will probably need constant adjustment of the

throttles.

• Move the CRV in toward the other vessel using small adjustments on the helm and

throttle.

• Once alongside push the CRV’s shoulder into the other vessel using the helm and a

slight increase in throttle.

Use of a Bow Line Once alongside a line from the CRV can sometimes help maintain position but should be

used with caution. In adverse conditions lines secured to the other vessel can end up

snatching and jerking the CRV violently.

If the line is led directly from the bow of the CRV to the other vessel, and weight taken on it,

the CRV will tend to assume a bow in stern out aspect to the other vessel. Ideally the line

should be led from a fitting abaft the bow (approx 1/3 the boat length) to ensure the CRV

stays parallel to the other vessel.

The line should also be led as far forward as is possible on the other vessel. The more

vertical the lead, the more the line will snatch and jerk with the motion of the two vessels.

The more horizontal the lead, the more it will allow the CRV to ride up and down with the

sea.


Procedure to Come Off Other Vessel

• Straighten up the helm and ease back slightly on the throttle.

• Maintain your position next to the other vessel.

• Apply small amounts of throttle and helm (typically no more than 10° to 15°) to crab

sideways, and create a gap between the CRV and the other vessel.

• Once there is a sufficient gap to allow the CRV to turn away without making contact with

its stern.

• Turn away from the other vessel and increase throttle to leave the vessel’s bow wave at

approx the 2 or 10 o’clock position, or move away from the other vessel along the same

track that you used to approach until clear of its bow wave and wash.

Do not be tempted to let the CRV slide astern of the vessel – the different directions of

water flow at the vessel’s stern can make control of the CRV extremely difficult.

Vessels under Sail Vessels under sail will generally have a much steadier motion in a seaway than when under

power.

• Approaching from its leeward side will give the

most shelter, and because of the heel induced by

the wind, it will also be the lowest side of the

vessel.

• The boom(s) should be sheeted inside the line of

the hull to avoid contact with the CRV.

• Consult with the skipper of the other vessel to

establish a course to steer taking into account

the position of the boom(s).


Recovery from Liferaft

The transfer of persons to a CRV from a raft is made

easier by the fact that both are usually quite low in

the water; however there are a number of other

aspects to be considered.

A liferaft adrift in strong winds will ‘sail’ down-wind

and may attain a fairly fast rate of drift. A drogue is

supplied in every liferaft, but be aware that it may not

have been deployed.

The drogue, if deployed, will be streamed to windward of the raft and probably just below the

water surface. The CRV should, therefore, manoeuvre to leeward of the raft and approach

into the wind and sea.

When the CRV is alongside the liferaft the two can be kept together by means of the liferaft

painter and lines from the CRV. Liferaft painters are designed to part under load to avoid the

raft being pulled down by a sinking vessel, so care should be exercised if the painter alone is

used to secure it alongside.

Transferring from a liferaft to any other

vessel, even in relatively calm conditions can

be difficult. This is mainly due to the

undulating motion of the life raft’s soft floor

and the constantly changing motion of the

liferaft as a whole.

Subject to sea conditions and with a small

liferaft, the liferaft drogue can be tripped

once initial contact has been made. The

CRV can then be allowed to fall off the wind

and the liferaft secured on its lee side.


Recovery from Lifeboats

Lifeboats are classed as open, partially enclosed or totally enclosed.

The transfer of persons from lifeboats, especially totally enclosed lifeboats has always

presented particular problems. Lifeboats in general by the nature of their construction and

design are usually very buoyant and lively at sea. The motion a lifeboat may have, even in

moderate conditions can make transfer of personnel extremely difficult.

With open or partially enclosed lifeboats it is generally just their motion that can make life

difficult and they should be treated just like any other distressed motor vessel. With enclosed

lifeboats comes the added difficulty of the size and location of its hatches.

Enclosed lifeboats are designed to protect against fire or toxic environments. They are also

designed to be self righting, providing that the personnel onboard are strapped in and all

hatches are closed. To meet these design specifications the hatches are necessarily small.

Transfer of survivors who are unable to help themselves can be extremely difficult and, in

adverse conditions potentially dangerous.

Different designs have different positions for hatches. For some of the smaller free fall

lifeboats the only usable hatch may be at the stern. Others may have hatches on either side

of the hull with sufficient freeboard to be used.

In general terms, unless there is a definite requirement to transfer persons, enclosed

lifeboats and their personnel should be monitored or towed only, until sea conditions

have moderated sufficiently to enable a safe rescue operation.


Rescue Flow Chart


Medical Care

With any SAR operation the CRV crew may have to administer first aid.

All Operational crew will have undergone First Aid training, and this section of the

module is a recap on the general First Aid / medical care guidelines.

• Check the victim’s ABC’s and carry out necessary first aid.

• If the person is conscious, obtain their identity, and determine number of POB the vessel

or involved in the incident.

• Obtain a history of the incident.

• Update the IMT with a sit-rep.

• Never leave the scene of an incident until you are sure that you have recovered all

survivors!

Patient Assessment A systematic approach to an assessment will ensure that nothing goes unnoticed. Avoid

making any snap judgments. A common mistake is to become preoccupied with obvious

injuries (for example, a broken arm) and overlook more life-threatening injuries that are not

immediately apparent.

Assessing a Conscious Patient A conscious patient is generally easier to assess as they will probably be able to give some

indication of their injury. Concern should be given to their emotional well-being.

The assessment procedure is as follows:

Prioritise your victims for immediate care.

• Ask the patient for a brief history of the incident.

• Ask the patient if and where they have any pain, examine these parts first. Remember,

though, that pain in one area can mask pain or injury elsewhere.

• Using the standard first-aid assessment examination, check the victim’s head, neck,

back, trunk, arms and legs for injuries.

• Look for any Medic Alerts (necklace, wrist or ankle type).

• Treat conditions as recommended by your first-aid training.


Assessing an Unconscious Patient The assessment procedure is as follows:

Determine the level of consciousness by gently squeezing and shaking the victim’s shoulders

and shouting to illicit a response.

Your most important function is to check the patient’s ‘ABC’:

• A = Airway — is the patient’s air passage open and clear?

• B = Breathing — is the patient breathing?

• C = Circulation — is there a pulse?

• If you are satisfied that the patient’s heart is beating and they are able to breathe

normally, then check for and treat bleeding, and support fractures.

• Place in recovery position or tilt and support head to maintain the airway.

• Use the standard first-aid assessment examination to check the victim’s head, neck,

back, trunk, arms and legs for any other injuries. Look for any Medic Alerts (necklace,

wrist or ankle type)

• Continuously monitor the patient’s level of consciousness, their breathing and if possible

pulse rate.

After any patient assessment your findings should be communicated to the IMT or

medical professional. Your report should include:

• The patient’s age and gender.

• A history of the incident.

• A description of any injuries you have identified, and any treatment you have given.

• The patient’s current state of consciousness and any changes in responsiveness.

• The patient’s pulse, skin colour, and blood loss; and any changes that have occurred in

these during your assessment.

• Any unusual behaviour of the patient.


Patient Handling & Transport

Coastguard rescue work sometimes involves the transport and movement of patients at sea.

This should be done with the following guidelines in mind:

• Promote comfort and safety of patients during treatment and subsequent transportation.

• Minimise the aggravation of injuries and deterioration in the patients’ conditions.

• Develop good techniques based on smooth, deliberate, and unhurried movement of the

patient.

• Some injuries require specific patient positioning for transportation — for example,

hypothermia and dive-injury patients.

Assess all immersion victims for hypothermia, and if necessary treat accordingly. Depending

on the degree of hypothermia, the IMT may arrange for a helicopter evacuation.

Seasickness is a very debilitating condition at sea and should be anticipated with the majority

of patients.

Due care and consideration should be given to any injuries when moving a patient. Many of

the standard movement techniques are designed for stable underfoot conditions and often

require more than one rescuer. You will need to consider these limitations as you develop

movement techniques for work on a CRV.

Patient Care during Transportation • The nature of the patient’s injuries will in most cases influence the speed of the CRV to

the shore.

• If there is severe bone injury the affected part must be immobilised before transportation.

• Communication with the patient should be maintained throughout the journey. This helps

them to relax, and enables the level of consciousness to be monitored.

• Use of space blankets, polythene sheets and thermal suits or blankets will minimise the

onset of shock, help in the treatment of hypothermia, and will protect the patient from

wind-chill.


Working with Stretchers The following points should be considered:

• If the patient is to be transferred ashore via helicopter, liaise with the IMT and air crew

before putting them in a stretcher. The CRV stretcher may not be suited for helicopter

transfer and the air crew may want to use their own stretcher instead.

• The toilet requirements of a patient may need to be considered before transportation.

• Allow the patient to use their hands to grip something, like the rails of the stretcher. This

provides a more secure feeling for them and can be a great psychological booster.

• Use a footplate if it will not aggravate any injury, as it often assists by making jolts and

bumps a little easier to bear. A conscious patient will be able to bear weight on uninjured

legs, decreasing the feeling of helplessness.

• When securing a patient to a stretcher, do not to restrict breathing or circulation.

Transfer (Vessel To Vessel) Using Stretchers Transfer of a patient secured in a stretcher can be a hazardous operation, and a very

frightening one for the patient. It is essential that all risks are minimised and they are kept

reassured and comfortable.

During this operation lifelines should be secured to the head and foot of the stretcher, and

that contact is maintained on these lifelines until the transfer is complete. When stretcher

transfers are undertaken a method of flotation should as far as possible provided for the

patient. Depending on the type of stretcher used and the nature of the patient’s medical

condition, a lifejacket can be secured directly to the patient within the stretcher, or to the

stretcher itself. - If the CRV carries a dedicated stretcher – find out what works best.

Transfers between Comparable Sized Vessels Stretcher transfers between a CRV and another vessel of comparable size and / or freeboard

often requires that the patient be passed over rather than lowered or raised with ropes, etc.

Transfers between Different Sized Vessels The CRV should come alongside the vessel after the

larger vessel has taken up a course and speed which

allows the most stable conditions for a stretcher transfer.

The transfer should then be carried out in the manner

detailed in the diagram.

Only one person only should be coordinating the transfer.


Diver Care

Diving accidents can rapidly become medical emergencies. Any person who has recently

been diving and displays unusual behaviour or complains of unusual symptoms should be

treated as a diving injury, and expert advice should be sought immediately.

Diving Emergency Service 24–Hours

0800 4 DES 111 (0800 433 7111)

The doctor from the Navy’s hyperbaric unit in Devonport

will advise on the best course of action based on the

available information.

To treat a suspected diving incident;

• Information on the patients recent dive history should be collected from the diver or any

‘dive buddies’. Dive ‘computers’ can be sent with the patient in any subsequent

evacuation.

• Remove diving equipment but not wetsuit.

• Log all diving equipment and its status.

• Keep patient lying flat on their back. If vomiting or unconscious use ‘recovery’ position.

• Keep patient warm but not overheated.

• If fully conscious give water to drink.

• Administer oxygen at a comfortable breathing rate until supply runs out.

• Monitor and treat as per First Aid ABC.

• Liaise with IMT to arrange evacuation / further transportation of the patient.


Multiple Casualties

A major incident may involve multiple casualties and this will call for even greater care and

organisation.

• The crew member with the most experience of first aid should liaise with the skipper to

determine the best course of action.

• The casualties will probably have a range of injuries and levels of consciousness.

• Only basic First Aid can be delivered, irrespective of the number of casualties and

complexity of injuries.

• Space will be limited aboard the CRV.

• A shortage of First-Aid materials may also be a problem.

• Try if possible to use other available uninjured victims, or other members of the public to

help with the ongoing medical care of the injured, and control of the scene.

Rescue Scene Management. Managing the scene and the resources available will be a full time task for the CRV Skipper /

On Scene Command. There are seven components to managing a multiple-casualty

incident.

Phase 1: Hazard Identification and Priorities

• Conduct an assessment (SAP – Stop Assess Plan) of existing and potential dangers to

CRV crew and casualties.

• The CRV crew must then decide on how best to affect a rescue in the circumstances.

• CRV crew should be briefed on the intended plan, and assigned roles / tasks.

Phase 2: Crew Preparation

• Crew members must be prepared to control the immediate situation, to issue orders and

organise available resources and persons, including non-crew members.

Phase 3: Prioritisation of Casualties

• A rapid assessment of all casualties is required to decide which require priority attention:

• Follow the basic principals of First Aid priorities, ABC – Airways, Breathing, and

Circulation.


Phase 4: Casualty Search When (or while) all priority casualties are being attended to, a search of the vessel or area

should be carried out for casualties who may be hidden in debris or below decks. Patients

should be interviewed to provide pertinent information.

Phase 5: Triage When the total number of casualties is known and priority actions have been carried out, it is

necessary to divide casualties into categories to ensure the best level of care possible with

the resources you have.

This medical categorisation is known as ‘triage’.

• Category 1 – CRITICAL: casualties requiring continuous attention and basic life support

(breathing and bleeding).

• Category 2 – SERIOUS: injuries not immediately life-threatening — major fractures,

serious burns, impacts, external and internal injuries, progressive shock, and changes in

level of consciousness.

• Category 3 – LESS SERIOUS: conscious casualties who need minimal attention, and

can usually help themselves to some extent.

A fourth group, not strictly part of the triage, are those victims who are obviously dead. A

casualty who appears to be dead must be initially placed in Category 1 and basic life support

attempted. Ideally a casualty should only be considered dead if there is no possible doubt —

decapitation, total body burned, severe crushing, in sea several days, etc.

In the case of mass casualties the difficult choice may need to be made as to who is treated

especially those in Category 1. With a limited number of people available to administer

medical care, using 2 or more to administer CPR on a casualty who has little chance of

recovery is not necessarily good management of the scene. Using those people to

administer medical aid to 2 or 3 others who do have a chance of recovery may be a more

sensible and ultimately more successful use of resources.

Dead casualties should be covered up and placed out of sight if possible, as they can have a

very disturbing effect on other casualties.


Phase 6: Continuing First Aid Continue to monitor all casualties after initial first aid. This is important to identify

deteriorating conditions, or manifestation of injuries that were not immediately apparent in the

initial assessment. Sit-reps could also provide contact with medical professionals.

(Refer First Aid Course)

Phase 7: Evacuation In most cases the IMT will decide the order and method of evacuation in consultation with the

CRV Skipper. Once the means and logistics of evacuation have been decided, prepare the

casualties for the transfer.

A hint to help remember the seven phases is;

• Hazard ID How

• Crew Preparation Can

• Prioritise Casualties People

• Search for Casualties Summon

• Triage The

• Continue 1st Aid Coastguard

• Evacuate Effectively


Corpse Retrieval

The retrieval of a body may be an unpleasant task and one that if possible only

experienced crew should be asked to carry out.

• The Police must be involved in all cases of body retrieval. The IMT should be consulted

for advice if the Police are unavailable to retrieve the body themselves.

• In the event that next of kin may be nearby, the body should be covered to avoid causing

them additional distress.

• Depending on the circumstances, the IMT may determine that the task poses too great a

danger to crew and advise that the body be left at the scene.

• Use equipment available to ease the task of recovering bodies, such as scoops, body

bags and recovery stretchers.

• All personnel should wear medical latex gloves (infection can remain in a body after

death).

• A body can float on the surface because of trapped air. Care should be taken to avoid

causing the body to sink.

• The time a person has been dead in the water will determine the care needed to retrieve

the body. A recently deceased corpse can normally withstand heavy handling, such as

passing a rope under its shoulders and lifting it on board. However, a severely damaged

corpse, or one that has had prolonged exposure (usually one that has been in the water

for several weeks if not months) may disintegrate with only minimal handling. Use of a

body recovery sheet or bag is advised.

• Greatest care should be taken to avoid causing any additional damage to the body.

Clothing or anything else attached to the body must be contained as found.

• If possible photograph the body prior to, and immediately after retrieval.

• Many deaths on or near the water will meet the criteria for a sudden-death inquest, and a

few may be the result of suspicious circumstances.


Crew Welfare

The continued well-being of crew and helpers is paramount to the success of an operation.

The Skipper should manage the status of the crew, including rest periods, sustenance,

protective clothing and general well-being. After any operation that involved trauma, severe

injuries or fatalities, any debrief for those CRV crew involved must emphasis the opportunity

for counselling. Counselling services are available through your local Unit / Region if

required.

Recognising Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is a very real, and potentially very disruptive and damaging

condition for the individual, their family, friends, and colleagues. Symptoms of PTSD most

often begin within three months of the event. In some cases, however, they do not begin

until years later. The severity and duration of the illness vary. Some people recover within

six months, while others suffer much longer. Symptoms can be grouped into three main

categories;

Re-living the Trauma People with PTSD repeatedly re-live memories of the trauma. These may include

flashbacks, hallucinations, and nightmares. They also may feel great distress when things

remind them of the trauma, such as the anniversary date of the event.

Avoiding things associated with the trauma The person will avoid places, people, or situations that remind them of the trauma. This can

lead to feelings of detachment and isolation from family and friends, as well as a loss of

interest in activities that the person once enjoyed.

Emotional and physical problems These include outbursts of anger; difficulty concentrating; and being "jumpy" or easily

startled. There can be difficulties relating to others, including feeling or showing affection;

and difficulty with sleeping. The person may also suffer physical symptoms, such as

increased blood pressure, heart rate, rapid breathing, muscle tension, and nausea.

No one – no matter how ‘tall or bullet proof’ is immune from the risk of suffering Post

Traumatic Stress.


7 MAN OVERBOARD PROCEDURES

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 142 Primary Actions ............................................................................................................................. 143

Shout ................................................................................................................................... 143 Throw .................................................................................................................................. 143 Point .................................................................................................................................... 143

Secondary Actions ........................................................................................................................ 144 Initiate Turn .............................................................................................................................. 144 Methods for Turning ................................................................................................................. 145

Williamson Turn .................................................................................................................. 145 Simple Turn......................................................................................................................... 146 Stop / Slow and Turn........................................................................................................... 146

MOB Button.............................................................................................................................. 147 Distress Call ............................................................................................................................. 147 Crew Tasks .............................................................................................................................. 147

Post Rescue .................................................................................................................................. 147

Overview

Man Overboard (MOB) is an extremely serious and potentially fatal event that every CRV

crew could experience at least once in their career. A well-trained Skipper and crew have a

far greater chance of succeeding at recovering the person alive. (See Module Personal

Safety – Sea Survival)

It is vital that drills are conducted frequently with regular crew members. It is a legal

requirement for the Skipper or designated crew member to brief any new crew or passengers

on the procedure, and as with other emergency procedures to record training drills in the

vessel log / SSM manual.


Primary Actions

The immediate response taken by the crew member witnessing a MOB or realising that a

crew member is missing;

• Shout.

• Throw.

• Point.

Shout Shout “Man overboard”. This will alert all crew to the emergency situation.

Throw Deploy a ‘Dan buoy’, life ring or similar to provide a floating datum. It does not

matter if the person is visible at this time or not. The person in the water may see

the flotation device/marker and be able to get to it, if not it serves as a reference

point for manoeuvring the boat back to the MOB.

CRV crew wear lifejackets at all times while underway, so the primary function of

any equipment thrown in a MOB situation is not necessarily additional flotation,

but as a reference day or night.

The equipment thrown should be;

• Highly visible (brightly coloured / reflective tape / flag attached)

• Have a light / strobe attached.

• Be able to be deployed quickly.

• Be affected as little as possible by the wind.

The same equipment would be suitable for use as a floating datum in any subsequent

search. (See Module Search Techniques)

Point The crewmember who shouted the alert now points continuously with outstretched arm at the

MOB (if still visible) or Dan buoy / marker, ensuring that visual contact is maintained. This

will also indicate the MOB’s location to the Skipper / helm. It is imperative that this crew

member does this and nothing else until relieved from this duty by the Skipper.


Secondary Actions

• Initiate turn.

• Press MOB button on GPS.

• Transmit distress call by VHF (if necessary – see notes on Distress Call).

• Assess, approach, and brief & delegate crew on appropriate actions for recovery.

Initiate Turn In large vessels a common practice is for the initial turn to be made towards the side which

the MOB fell from, to reduce the chances of the vessels propellers striking the MOB. The

size of most CRV’s means that the crew member on the helm is unlikely to respond quickly

enough for this to be relevant. Given a reaction time of 3 seconds from the person falling

overboard to the helm being put over;

• At 6kts the vessel will have travelled 9m

• At 12kts the vessel will have travelled 18m

Initiating an immediate turn to avoid ‘propeller strike’ is not only irrelevant for most

CRV’s, but a potential hazard - risking injury to other crew or even a second MOB.

There are different methods that can be employed to turn the CRV back towards the MOB.

Regardless of which method is employed one thing that the crew member on the helm must

be able to establish is the reciprocal course. The reciprocal of any course is found by adding

or subtracting 180°.

• For courses less than 180° add 180°.

• For courses more than 180° subtract 180°.

For example;

• Course 050° reciprocal is 050°+180°=230°.

• Course 315° reciprocal is 315° -180°=135°.

The design of many marine compasses allows the helmsman to see the course the vessel is

on, and the reciprocal at the same time. Another useful aid is a reciprocal table displayed by

the helm position.


Methods for Turning This module describes three commonly used methods that can be used to turn a vessel back

towards a MOB.

• Williamson Turn.

• Simple Turn.

• Stop / Slow & Turn.

Williamson Turn The Williamson Turn was developed primarily for large

vessels, whose turning circle was such that the MOB

would almost certainly be out of sight by the time the

vessel had turned around. The size of the turning circle

also meant that merely turning 180 might put the vessel on

a reciprocal course, but it would be nowhere near its

reciprocal water track. (Diagram opposite)

To execute a Williamson Turn;

• The same speed is maintained throughout the manoeuvre until the vessel is on its

reciprocal course.

• Vessel is first turned until the heading is approx 60° - 70° from the original course.

• The helm is then reversed with the same amount of helm applied the opposite way as

was used in the initial turn,( for example one full turn of the wheel to starboard then back

to midships and one full turn of the wheel to port) until the vessel is on the reciprocal of

the original course.

• The vessel turns and initially describes ¼ of a circle, when the helm is reversed it then

describes ¾ of an identical sized circle.

What needs to be known for this

method to be fully effective is at

what point on the initial turn is

the helm reversed?

This can only be established through practice and training.


Simple Turn An alternative method is;

• Maintain or reduce speed.

• Turn the vessel around.

• Use the still visible wake / floating datum to turn onto the reciprocal water track.

While simpler than a Williamson turn, this method depends heavily on the wake and / or

floating datum being visible. Both may be rapidly lost from sight in bad weather especially at

night or in poor visibility.

The size of the turning circle will determine at which point

the vessel returns to cross its original water track. With a

large turning circle there is a small, but potential risk of

running over the floating datum or even MOB if reference

to either is lost during the turn.

The need to keep a visual reference on the floating datum or wake means that this method

needs a relatively small turning circle to be effective.

Stop / Slow and Turn Unlike the previous two methods the first step is to slow down to a near or full stop, then;

• Turn short around.

• Motor ahead on the reciprocal course

• The manoeuvrability of most CRV’s means they can be turned in little more than a boat

length. As the vessel was slowed down without altering course, the wake will be clearly

visible off the stern (lining up the centre of the residual wake and the floating datum

means there isn’t a need to calculate a reciprocal heading)

•

Whatever method is used in a MOB

situation the helmsman must alert the other

crew members prior to any manoeuvre.

• Any manoeuvre should be preceded by a loud and clear warning from the helmsman.

For example; ‘Turning starboard!’

• Followed by a pause of 1-2 seconds before initiating the manoeuvre.

This is a practice which should be a Standard Operating Procedure at all times, not

just in a MOB.


MOB Button The MOB function on the CRV’s GPS should be activated at the first opportunity; this will

provide a back up to the floating datum, and automatically displays bearing and distance to

the MOB waypoint.

Distress Call Sending out a distress call will ensure that assistance will be available if it becomes

necessary. It can always be cancelled should the situation be resolved.

Whether the Distress call is sent immediately or at a later stage is at the discretion of

the Skipper.

The average CRV carries four crew as its normal complement, and in the event of a MOB

there will be two crew needed to help in the recovery of the MOB, and one on the helm.

While turning around, sighting the Mob, then preparing to approach and recover, sending a

Distress Call may be an unwarranted distraction.

In the event of an un witnessed MOB, or where the CRV fails to locate the MOB a then

Distress Call must be made.

If the MOB is lost from sight, a structured search must be initiated. Being unable to locate a

fellow crew member will be highly stressful for all aboard. For the search to be successful

correct procedures must be followed. (See Module Search Techniques)

Crew Tasks Having sighted the MOB and assessed the situation, the Skipper or crew in charge (Skippers

are not immune to falling overboard) will allocate positions to the crew and brief them on

appropriate recovery actions. (See Module Victim Recovery)

Post Rescue

The following points must be considered after rescuing the MOB:

• Cancel any Distress Call.

• Continue to monitor the patient’s condition – ABCs and treat for shock as required. (See

Module Victim Recovery)

• Complete the necessary Unit and Maritime NZ forms as required for a MOB incident.


8 OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 148 Search Preparation ....................................................................................................................... 149

Briefings ................................................................................................................................... 149 Search Considerations .................................................................................................................. 149

Ambient Light ........................................................................................................................... 150 Weather Conditions.................................................................................................................. 150 Sea Conditions ......................................................................................................................... 151 Height of Eye............................................................................................................................ 151 Size & Shape............................................................................................................................ 152 Colour / Contrast ...................................................................................................................... 152 Target Movement ..................................................................................................................... 152 Target Ability to Make Sound ................................................................................................... 152 Targets Radar Reflection ......................................................................................................... 152 Search Vessels Speed............................................................................................................. 153 Observer Fatigue...................................................................................................................... 153

Observer Positions & Procedures ................................................................................................. 153 Visual Observation ................................................................................................................... 153 Night Vision .............................................................................................................................. 155 Using Searchlights ................................................................................................................... 156 Optical Aids .............................................................................................................................. 157 Radar Observation ................................................................................................................... 157

Radar Horizon ..................................................................................................................... 157 Beam Width......................................................................................................................... 158 Echo Stretch / Expansion.................................................................................................... 159 Long Pulse .......................................................................................................................... 159 Radar Overlay ..................................................................................................................... 159

Reporting Targets.......................................................................................................................... 160 Visual Targets .......................................................................................................................... 160 Radar Targets .......................................................................................................................... 160

Range and Bearing from Vessel ......................................................................................... 160 Range & Bearing from another Vessel / Position ............................................................... 161

Crew Management in a Search..................................................................................................... 162

Overview

Almost every search and rescue operation requires the use of observation techniques in

some form or other. This module covers the more common aspects, and factors that must

be taken into consideration when conducting a search.

As an integral member of a SAR team it is vital that all Coastguard Crew are able to

understand tasking instructions, and the requirements and techniques for effective

observation.


Search Preparation

Crew are often made aware of an impending search operation at short notice, so there may

be little time available to prepare.

If you are on a roster for call-outs, it is essential to maintain a state of readiness. This means

remaining sober, and fit for the duration of the roster period. If for any reason your physical

health or mental state is impaired, you should inform the Skipper.

There should be suitable equipment stored on the CRV or at the base, but you may also

need a bag already filled with your own personal items. (See Module Personal Safety)

Briefings A brief will be given by the CRV Skipper as to the details of the operation. This should

include all the information that the Skipper has, and may cover aspects such as:

• The target type, size, colour, general description (and any other relevant information such

as if the person missing is known to be wearing a lifejacket).

• Allocating crew roles, positioning, and roster.

• Equipment required.

• Communication set-up.

• Search pattern to be used.

• Weather / sea conditions.

• Other vessels or agencies involved.

Search Considerations

The success of a search depends on the ability to detect the target.

As with the requirements of the collision regulations to keep a look out with all available

means, observing should be carried out with all appropriate means i.e.

• Visual (including optical aids such as night sights & thermal imaging).

• Aural (listening).

• Radar.


There are many different factors that will affect the ability to detect the target;

• Ambient light.

• Weather conditions.

• Sea Conditions.

• Observer’s height of eye.

• Target size and shape.

• Target colour / contrast.

• Target movement.

• Target ability to make sound.

• Target Radar reflection.

• Search vessels speed.

• Observer fatigue.

Ambient Light Whether the search operation is being carried out during the day or night will obviously affect

target detection, but there are other factors that should be taken into consideration.

• Bright sunshine can produce a lot of glare from the water surface.

• Variable surface shadows caused by scattered or broken clouds will make it more difficult

to detect targets due to the contrast / dulling effect of the shadows, and the mottled

appearance of the water surface.

• The greater the amount of cloud cover, the less ambient light in the search area.

• Searching towards shore lights (as from a town) can be dramatically more effective than

looking away. When travelling away from the lights, an observer (if available) looking

astern into the shore lights can be very effective.

• Searching for a target ‘up sun’ into bright reflected sunlight can be difficult and tiring. ‘Up

sun’ implies looking into the sun. ‘Down sun’ implies looking away from the sun.

Weather Conditions • In high winds, distress flares and smoke flares are rendered less effective. Surface

visibility is also reduced due to salt spray.

• Heavy rain can seriously affect both visibility and Radar detection.

• Aural detection (listening) will also be affected with increasing wind speed. The chances

of hearing a distress signal from a position up wind of the CRV will always be greater

than from a position downwind of the CRV.

• Fog not only reduces visual detection, but because of its distorting affect on sound can

make estimating the direction and distance of a sound difficult.


Sea Conditions Sea conditions will affect visual and radar target detection.

• Dye markers tend to dissipate rapidly.

• Whitecaps and foam streaks on the water break up the uniformity of the surface and

markedly reduce target detection.

• Reflection of the sun off breaking seas and whitecaps.

• The increase in sea clutter on a Radar screen will affect target detection. Adjusting the

sea clutter control will reduce the effect, but possibly at the risk of missing the target.

(Refer CBES Radar course)

In moderate or rough seas it is more effective to sight along wave tops and troughs, by

adjusting the angle at which Observers are searching, or it may require a reorientation the

search pattern to ensure the CRV spends the majority of the time running with or driving into

the waves.

Height of Eye The higher the observer is above the water, the greater the sighting distance. A small

increase in height of the observer can often result in a dramatic increase in the area

effectively searched – an increase of approx 66% in the example below.


Size & Shape The size and shape of a target will have a large affect on both visual and radar detection.

The bigger the target then obviously the easier it is to detect, but its shape may also be

important. An irregular / angular tall shape may be easier to detect visually compared to a

smooth round low shape. The same is true for Radar detection - flat / angular surfaces

usually produce a better echo than round smooth surfaces.

Colour / Contrast Colour aids detection due to its contrast with background colour. Yellow, red, or orange

colours provide good contrast against a water background. Fluorescent and reflective

colours will be sighted at greater distances.

Target Movement A target is more easily detected if it is moving. A waving arm, flag, light, or moving vessel

will catch the eye well before a stationary object.

Target Ability to Make Sound S.O.S or continuous sounding of a whistle, horn etc, are internationally recognised distress

signals. Shouting or any other means of making noise may be used by a target to attract

attention. If appropriate to the search / target, searches should be periodically paused,

engines turned off, the target hailed e.g. “Coastguard Rescue can you hear me?” and

a period of silence then observed.

Targets Radar Reflection While the size and shape of a target affects Radar detection, equally important is the

construction / material of the target. The more electrically conductive the material, the more

reflective the target will be.

• Vessels made of steel or aluminium make good Radar targets.

• Wood is a poor reflective material.

• GRP / Fibreglass is virtually invisible to Radar. For a GRP (glass reinforced plastic)

yacht it is the alloy mast and deck / rigging hardware, not the hull that will be reflecting a

Radar pulse.

A 5m ‘tinny’ may be a better radar target than a dismasted GRP yacht twice its size.


Search Vessels Speed Search operations must be carried out both effectively and quickly. The search speed must

suit the target and the conditions at the time. The CRV should be maintaining the best speed

it can while still conducting an effective search.

Observer Fatigue Crew roles, especially observers, should be rotated regularly (approx every 30 minutes) to

ensure adequate rest. Ideally there should be periods of complete rest on an extended

operation. To achieve this it may be necessary to suspend the search for a short period. In

which case the CRV must;

• Inform the IMT.

• Note the time.

• Activate a waypoint on the GPS.

• Deploy a floating datum.

• ‘Shout out’ and then observe a period of silence if appropriate.

All of the above factors can be taken into consideration when formulating a realistic

and effective Sweep Width in a search operation. (See Module Search Techniques)

Observer Positions & Procedures

Visual Observation The vessel layout, configuration of Nav & Comms equipment, number of crew available (and

their level of experience / competence) will all have a bearing on the positioning and roles of

the crew.

Visual searches place a great responsibility on crew. Observers should assume that no one

else is scanning their search sector - they must stay alert and be thorough.

The angle of the individual search sectors should not need to be greater than approx

60°, and Observers must inform the Skipper if they think the vessel speed or angle of

the search sectors should be adjusted to maintain adequate coverage.


On a typical CRV (with four crew), positions would be;

• The Helmsman looking (generally) ahead as they would normally.

• A Crew member in charge of the navigation / comms and / or search pattern (who is

usually too preoccupied to be considered a reliable and effective observer).

• One Observer on each side.

For a search to be carried out effectively, the only observers that can be relied upon

are those who are left to observe free of any disruptions or distractions.

The angle or orientation of the Observers search sector can vary depending on several

factors.

If the Observers are looking forward of the beam this can have a

distinct advantage. The water ahead of the Observer will appear to be

moving slower (than if looking straight out the side), and hence easier

to scan. Any target sighted ahead will get closer, gradually appear

larger, and may be easier to spot.

Spray from the CRVs bow wave, and the Observers eyes beginning to

water due to the combined air temperature and vessel speed, may

mean that looking ahead is not viable. In which case the Observers

may have to adopt a more sheltered position, and look more to the side

rather than ahead.

The Observers may adapt the angle of their individual search sectors in response to the sea

conditions, angle of the sun, location of any shore lights, or reflected moonlight.

There is no rule that says the Observers should be

observing at identical angles, and the Observers are the

only crew who can judge their effectiveness, and if

necessary request any changes to vessel speed & course.

Observers must inform the CRV Skipper if the estimated

distances that they are searching (Sweep Width) still hold

true if conditions change.


A system must be used to ensure the assigned sector is searched effectively. Start a ‘scan’

near the vessel and work outwards in a series of parallel lines to the maximum detection

range (See Module Search Techniques)

With the eyes focused straight ahead,

the Observer should move their head to

search the assigned sector. Using eyes

alone, without any head movement, can

lead to overexertion of the eye muscles

causing early fatigue. At the start of

each scan, pause briefly to allow the

eyes to re focus.

Night Vision At night it takes about 20 - 30 minutes for the eyes to become fully adapted to the available

light. Any exposure to bright light either directly, or by reflection will instantly destroy night

vision.

There are two types of sensors in the eye: rods and cones;

• Cones work well in bright light, can perceive colour, and are found predominantly in the

centre of the eye.

• Rods are far more sensitive than cones, so work well in poor light. They do not

distinguish colour, (only black, white & shades of gray) and are found around the

periphery of the eye. Rods are also very insensitive to red light (hence the use of red

lights to help preserve night vision).

• At night observation is far more effective either side of the eyes centre. Looking directly

at an object can cause the object to ‘disappear’. This is because at night the eye has

blind spot in the centre due to the predominance of cone sensors.


Using Searchlights Observers with searchlights must take care not to cause reflection from own vessel, or shine

their lights onto other vessels involved in the operation.

• When searching in-line abreast at night, keep searchlights off the other vessels by aiming

the beam into the middle of the vessel spacing and slightly ahead.

The exact angles at which searchlights are deployed when working with other vessels, is

something which needs to be worked out on a case by case basis – so long as the area

between vessels is being searched effectively and the searchlights are not ‘flashing’ other

vessels.

• Turning the search pattern can result in other

vessels being ‘flashed’ by searchlights. Dipping

the lights, or turning them off just before the turn

can avoid this problem.

• When searching for any small targets such as a

person in the water it is vital that there also be a

forward looking searchlight.

Locating the search target by running over them would not be considered a

successful conclusion to an operation.

There may be occasions where a search is being carried out with Radar and visual

observation, but without the continuous use of searchlights (i.e. for a distressed vessel). In

this situation, if a searchlight is to be used for any reason, then to preserve the Observers

night vision they should be instructed to close their eyes while the searchlight is in use.


Optical Aids • Sunglasses affect the adaptation of the eye to light, and may enhance or suppress

colours or contrasts. Polarised lenses are very effective at reducing glare, and are

recommended for bright conditions.

• Binoculars (standard is 7 x 50mm) should be used with discretion as they narrow the

observer’s field of vision dramatically. Additionally they tend to tire the eyes and can

bring about nausea. Once an object has been located, they may be used to identify

it, but continuous use of binoculars as the primary method of observation should

be avoided.

• Using binoculars at night to best effect can take practice. The binoculars should be

aimed straight ahead, but the eyes turned slightly to the side to make use of peripheral

vision (rod sensors).

• Some CRVs may be equipped with ‘Night Sun’

searchlights or thermal imaging (Infrared) equipment.

• Night vision equipment, used in conjunction with a

searchlight can be very effective for locating reflective

material such as lifejacket tape over long distances.

It should always be remembered that persons in distress may use any means

available to attract attention, and therefore any unusual sights or sounds should be

investigated.

Radar Observation Radar can be an invaluable aid in target detection, but as with any equipment Coastguard

crew must be aware of its limitations as well as its features that can help a search operation.

Radar operation is covered in greater detail in the CBES Radar course. The following notes

are to highlight certain aspects of Radar operation that have particular relevance to search

operations.

Radar Horizon The first limitation that every Radar operator should be familiar with, is the Radar horizon for

their vessel. The height of the Radar scanner / antenna dictates the Radar horizon. The

curvature of the earth means that the Radar will not detect targets beyond a certain distance

unless they are sufficiently high enough to project above its ‘blind area’.


In the diagram opposite, the area

underlined in red shows the ‘blind area’,

only the very top of the land mass (in

green) will be visible on the Radar.

To work out the Radar horizon for particular Radar, take the square root of the scanner

height in metres, and multiply by 2.2 to obtain the Radar horizon in nautical miles.

• I.e. scanner height 4m above waterline – √4 = x 2.2 = 4.4NM

The Radar horizon can also be determined almost as effectively by using the Geographical

Range Tables in the NZ Almanac, and adding 10%

• I.e. Height of eye (scanner height) 4m = horizon of 4.1NM Add 10% (0.41) = 4.51NM

For most search operations (unless the target is especially large / high) the Radar

horizon would normally be considered the maximum detection range.

Beam Width The scanner / antenna concentrates the radio waves generated into a narrow ‘beam’.

• The larger the scanner, the narrower the beam.

• A typical beam width for small boat radar with a 450mm wide scanner would be approx

6°. The width of the beam can have a large affect on the Radars ability to detect targets.

In the diagram opposite (using a 6° beam width) the Radar scanner is

pointing North. Because of its beam width, it is getting reflected radio waves

from the headland approx 3° to the NE. As far as the Radar is concerned

this reflection is from the North, so it shows the headland on the Radar

screen as being North.

Radar will always distort / extend targets on the screen by approx half the beam width

either side of the target. (Beam width is one of the reasons that Radar / GPS overlays

never quite match up, especially at longer range)

Beam width will affect the Radars ability to see into coves, bays or

harbour entrances, unless the Radar is sufficiently close that the

beam width is narrower than the entrance to the bay. Any target

within a small cove, or nearby a land mass may not be detected

simply because the Radar is unable to see the ‘gap’ between the

headlands, or the ‘gap’ between the target and the shore.


A 6° beam width will mean that;

• At 1NM the beam will be 0.1NM (approx 200m) wide.

• At 2NM the beam will be 0.2NM (approx 400m) wide.

The width of the beam will increase in the same proportion to

the distance;

In the diagram opposite, the distressed vessel is anchored less than

200m from the shore, and because of the beam width its radar image

merges into the image of the nearby headland. At a distance of a mile the

CRV may not be able to see the vessel.

Radars will have a note of their approx beam width in the operator’s

manual. Every competent Radar operator should be aware of the beam

width, and its affect on target detection at varying distances.

Echo Stretch / Expansion Most Radar sets have an Echo Stretch or Expansion function that will make contacts on the

Radar screen appear larger than normal. This can be very useful when trying to locate a

small or poor Radar target.

Long Pulse Some Radars offer the facility to change the length of the Radar pulse. This means that the

Radar will transmit each pulse for a longer period of time before switching to receive mode.

The longer it transmits a pulse, the more radio waves transmitted, the greater the chance of

receiving a returned signal from a target. Like Echo Stretch / Expansion, the Long Pulse

function can be very effective when searching for a small or poor Radar target.

Radar Overlay Many Radar sets have an overlay function to enable the

Radar screen to be superimposed on the chart plotter. This

can be invaluable when trying to identify a target, especially

in areas with many buoys, beacons or off lying rocks.


Reporting Targets

Having spotted an object which may be the target of your search, you need to communicate

this to the other crew whilst retaining the target in sight / identified on the Radar screen.

Visual Targets There are several methods of communicating an object’s position to other crew.

• When reporting a target is vital to keep the target in

sight. This should be done by constantly pointing with

an outstretched arm, as for man overboard.

• The easiest and most common is the ‘clock face’

method, with 12 o’clock being dead ahead, 5 o’clock

being off the starboard quarter and so on.

• The estimated distance to the target should also be

included in the communication. i.e. “Target two o’clock

at 500 metres”.

Radar Targets The method for reporting Radar targets to other crew members will depend largely on the

equipment set up on board, and the Radar functions available.

Range and Bearing from Vessel The range and bearing of a target is found by using the

Cursor, EBL (Electronic Bearing Line) / VRM (Variable

Range Marker) function or a combination of these

functions.

• If the information from the Cursor or EBL / VRM is in

‘relative’ i.e. an angle from the vessels bow, it may be

easier to report its position by using the clock face

method.

• If the information is in True or Magnetic degrees then

this will be of use to crew who can view a Chart plotter,

or to the helmsman who can see the compass, but it

will not be of help to any other crew such as the

Observers.


Whatever reporting system is used it must ensure there is no confusion between the

Radar operator and the other relevant crew members.

There is a good case for reporting a target by using both clock face method, and True or

Magnetic degrees. This will ensure that what ever the configuration of the Radar and Chart

plotter, the description of the targets position will be of use to everyone.

• “Target two o’ clock, range two decimal five miles, zero five zero degrees.”

Range & Bearing from another Vessel / Position When another vessel reports a target, or gives a position in terms of range and bearing from

known point, the ability to ‘offset’ or ‘float’ a Radar’s EBL / VRM can be very useful.

The EBL / VRM can be placed on another point on the Radar screen (the reporting vessels

position or the point of land used as reference) and used to obtain range and bearing

information from that point. Using the EBL/VRM in this way can help identify targets or areas

where the target is likely to be.

• In the diagram below left a vessel in a search (which is maintaining the same course as

the CRV) has reported a possible Radar contact with the target at 055° relative, range

1.6NM.

• In the diagram below right a vessel has reported its position as being 1NM SE of a known

point.

Once any target has been spotted and identified, a sit-rep should be made to the IMT.

Full and accurate details must be supplied to allow confirmation of the target by the

IMT.


Crew Management in a Search

A search is perhaps the most demanding of marine SAR operations. It requires a technical

knowledge of search planning, and a high degree of concentration that must be maintained

throughout the search. The latter can be very physically demanding, and crew must be

aware that their performance will deteriorate over time.

• Motivation is a very important factor affecting the performance of search crew. Tiredness

greatly reduces motivation.

• Food and fluids are important to maintain concentration, and to protect against

hypothermia.

• Seasickness is always a possibility, especially when vessels are under way at reduced

speed during a search in uncomfortable seas.

• The requirement to rest and rotate crew members puts an added strain on the

management of the crew especially when coupled with the need to preserve night vision.

If a CRV’s normal complement is four crew, then in a search operation, especially at

night it would be prudent to increase the number of crew to allow for these

requirements.


9 SEARCH TECHNIQUES

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 165 Developing the Search Plan.......................................................................................................... 165

Search Planning Sequence...................................................................................................... 165 1 Define the Target ............................................................................................................. 165 2 Define the Datum ............................................................................................................. 165 3 Define the Search Area.................................................................................................... 165 4 Select the Appropriate Search Pattern ............................................................................ 166 5 Determine the Desired Area Coverage............................................................................ 166 6 Develop a Practical Search Plan ..................................................................................... 166

Search Terminology ...................................................................................................................... 167 Initial Position / Splash Point (IP / SP) ................................................................................ 167 Last Known Position (LKP) ................................................................................................. 167 Area of Probability (AOP).................................................................................................... 167 Datum (D)............................................................................................................................ 167 Target Drift .......................................................................................................................... 168 Leeway Angle / Divergence ................................................................................................ 169 Maximum Detection Range................................................................................................. 169 Maximum Detection Distance ............................................................................................. 169 Beam Sighting Distance (BSD)........................................................................................... 169 Sweep Width (W) ................................................................................................................ 170 Track Spacing (S) ............................................................................................................... 170 Search Leg.......................................................................................................................... 170 Cross Leg............................................................................................................................ 170 Coverage (C)....................................................................................................................... 171 Probability of Detection (POD)............................................................................................ 172

Search Patterns............................................................................................................................. 172 Shore Line Search.................................................................................................................... 172 Track Line Search .................................................................................................................... 172 Barrier Search .......................................................................................................................... 173 Sector Search........................................................................................................................... 173 Box or Square Search.............................................................................................................. 174 Parallel Track & Creeping Line ................................................................................................ 174

Parallel Track ...................................................................................................................... 174 Creeping Line...................................................................................................................... 174 Combined Aircraft Vessel Search ....................................................................................... 175

Use of GPS.................................................................................................................................... 176 Outlining the AOP ............................................................................................................... 178

Use of Floating Datum................................................................................................................... 179 Marking the Search Datum ................................................................................................. 179 Pausing or Leaving a Search Pattern ................................................................................. 179 Floating Datum in Use - Examples ..................................................................................... 180

Establishing Sweep Width............................................................................................................. 181 Time / Speed / Distance ................................................................................................................ 183

Speed & Distance Tables......................................................................................................... 183 Search Pattern Templates............................................................................................................. 186

Sector ....................................................................................................................................... 186 Box / Square............................................................................................................................. 187 Parallel Track / Creeping Line.................................................................................................. 188


Overview

This module covers search terminology, search patterns and some basic information about

search planning.

In marine SAR the responsibility for search planning generally lies with the Marine SAR

Controller (as part of the Incident Management Team), the On Scene Command, and / or

RCCNZ. (See Module NZ SAR System)

As an integral member of a SAR team it is vital that all Coastguard Crew are able to

understand tasking instructions, and the requirements for setting up and carrying out a

search.

Developing the Search Plan

When planning a search, the Marine SAR controller will have to take into consideration

numerous variables. These will need to be constantly revised and updated during the

search.

Search Planning Sequence The planning sequence encompasses six specific steps;

1 Define the Target This is the major factor in the planning and implementation of a search. An accurate

description of the target can make all the difference. Size, colour, type of vessel, markings,

equipment carried, and number of persons on board (POB) are all vital details.

2 Define the Datum The SAR Controller will calculate the most probable location of the target allowing for;

• The accuracy and reliability of available information.

• Time elapsed since the incident.

• Wind direction and strength, and its probable affect on the target.

• Tide / current direction and strength, and its probable affect on the target.

3 Define the Search Area The size of the search area will influence the choice of search pattern and resources

required.


4 Select the Appropriate Search Pattern The selection of the appropriate pattern is often made after consultation with the On Scene

Command / CRV Skipper.

5 Determine the Desired Area Coverage The required coverage of the search area is dependant on the size of the search area,

resources available, and time available.

6 Develop a Practical Search Plan A practical search plan is a combination of the points above, and the conditions on scene.

The form shown below is an example showing the type of information that may be relevant to

the search operation. A record of the key information in any SAROP must be kept on

the CRV and updated when required.


Search Terminology

Initial Position / Splash Point (IP / SP) The position where the distress incident first occurred.

Last Known Position (LKP) The last known position may not be the same as the initial position

Area of Probability (AOP) The area to be searched which is normally communicated to the CRV by reference to

charted objects / land features, or positions in Latitude & Longitude.

Datum (D) The probable location of the target (and hence start point of any search). This is not the

same as the Initial Position, as the target may have been subject to drift (due to tide / current

& wind) in the intervening time.

The Datum for a search may be;

• An individual position (Datum Point) in Lat & Long or distance and bearing from charted

object.

• It may be a line (Datum Line) representing the track of a missing vessel.

• Or it may be a given area (Datum Area) in which to commence the search.

In the diagram opposite the target gave a position

when it made the initial Distress call. (IP)

A subsequent position was given a little later, but

there has been no update since then. (LKP)

The Datum is the most likely position for the target given its estimated rate and direction of

travel (target drift) since the IP and LKP.


Target Drift The direction and speed that a search target is estimated to be moving is known as Target

Drift. This is the combination of two main influences of the target;

• The wind and waves (leeway).

• The tide / current.

Any body of water can be subject to movement through tide or current. This can

include inland lakes where currents may be caused by a predominant wind, the

circulation of water due to differences in temperature, or rivers running into the lake.

There are tables available to the SAR Controller which give estimated leeway speeds for

different types of target, in different wind conditions. Combined with information on tidal

streams and current, this will produce an estimate on the targets drift.

The direction of a search should be orientated in the direction of the targets drift.

Depending on the rate of the targets leeway estimated by the SAR Controller, this can result

in a search pattern being orientated a varying angles to or even in the opposite direction to

the tide / current.

In the diagram opposite;

• Tide is setting East at 0.6kts (black

feathered arrow).

• Wind is from a NNW direction at

25kts (blue arrow).

From the leeway tables the SAR Controller might expect

that the speed of a small vessel adrift is approx 1.3kts. This results in

an estimated target drift (dotted line) of in a SE direction at approx 1.8kts

The same tide and wind will produce a very different target drift on a PIW (diagram right),

whose leeway might be around 0.3kts, resulting in a target drift in an ESE direction of approx

0.8kts.


Any subsequent change in tide / current or wind direction & speed will have a corresponding

influence on the target drift.

In the diagrams opposite the wind speed, direction and

leeway remain the same as the previous diagrams, but the

tide has changed direction and weakened. This results in a

very different rate and direction of target drift.

This is why it is vital that the IMT – and more specifically

the SAR Controller, be kept in formed of any changes in

wind speed / direction and tide / current.

Leeway Angle / Divergence The job of the SAR Controller is further complicated by the fact that targets do not drift

directly downwind, but invariably move at an angle to the wind direction. This is known as

Leeway Angle or Divergence, and it has a profound effect on search planning.

Using one of the previous examples, the PIW

could be expected to move at an angle of up to

30° either side of the downwind direction. The

estimated leeway angles for different types of

targets are also contained within the leeway

tables used by the SAR Controller.

Maximum Detection Range The maximum distance each side of the vessel at

which the target might be located.

Maximum Detection Distance The sum of the maximum detection ranges each side of

the vessel.

Beam Sighting Distance (BSD) The BSD is distance that can be effectively searched

on either side of the vessel.


The beam sighting distance should represent the maximum distance in which the

target will be, not could be detected.

Sweep Width (W) The sum of the distance effectively searched

each side of the vessel (beam sighting

distance x 2). Sweep width can apply to

multiple vessels - known as Total Sweep

Width.

Establishing the Sweep Width is crucial as

usually it forms the basis for setting up a

search pattern.

Track Spacing (S) The distance between successive search legs in a search pattern. Track spacing can also

apply to multiple vessels known as Total Track Spacing.

Search Leg Search legs are generally the longest tracks in a given search pattern.

Cross Leg Cross legs are the shorter tracks which connect the search legs


Coverage (C) The Coverage Factor is a measurement of ‘quality’ or effectiveness of the coverage in a

search area. The coverage is determined by sweep width (W) and track spacing (T).

For example;

• If the sweep width is 1 NM but it is only possible to achieve a track spacing of 2 NM then

the coverage factor will be 0.5. (50%)

• If the sweep width is 1 NM and the track spacing is 0.5 NM then the coverage factor will

be 2. (200%)

In the first example the coverage is far from ideal, but time and resources available are

always factors in the SAR Controllers planning. It may be that coverage of 0.5 is the best

that can be achieved, at least on the initial search.

An example of this situation would be a search initiated only a short time before sunset. With

the resources available at the time it will not be possible to search the whole area with 100%

coverage before its dark. The SAR Controller may make the tactical decision to search the

AOP with a lower coverage, knowing that more resources will soon be available to search

the area again with a much higher coverage.

In such cases the track spacing may not be of

equal distance to the sweep width.

(Diagram right)

In the second example with coverage of 200% the

probability of detecting the target is far higher, but

consequently the time taken to search the AOP is

far greater.

In search operations;

Survivability decreases with the passage of time.

Search areas increase with the passage of time.

Sweep Width (W) Coverage Factor (C) =

Track Spacing (S)


Probability of Detection (POD) In conversation it is normally referred to as POD (pee oh dee), and it is based on the

coverage of the search area achieved by single or multiple searches with different coverage

factors. SAR Controllers can calculate the POD of a search from tables and graphs available

to them. While not something that Coastguard crew are expected to calculate, it is a phrase

that is commonly used to describe the estimated effectiveness of a search.

Search Patterns

Shore Line Search A Shore Line search entails following the natural

contours of the land with due caution regarding any

hazards.

The distance off the land can often be maintained

using the Radars VRM (Variable Range Marker). The

search can be conducted with observers looking to

shore or on either side of the vessel.

Track Line Search A Track Line search follows the presumed track of a missing vessel. Conducted by one or

multiple vessels directly down the track, or offset by half the individual sweep width (beam

sighting distance)

The vessel(s) then returns along the other side of

the track using same offset. If the supposed track

of the missing vessel is entered as a route in the

CRV’s chart plotter, the correct off set can be

maintained by XTE (Cross Track Error) as well as

visually on the chart plotter.


Barrier Search A barrier search is essentially a patrol between fixed points on the land, conducted by one or

multiple vessels. Principally used in rivers / estuaries or channels with significant tidal /

current flow. This would normally be conducted in conjunction with another vessel(s)

searching up tide / current of the Barrier Search.

Sector Search Used when the datum is well established and AOP is small. This pattern gives a very high

POD, and with pre calculated courses is easily executed.

The Sector Search is however limited in the area it

covers – once the length of the search legs exceed 3x

the sweep width, ‘gaps’ start to appear in the pattern.

Its coverage and hence POD is correspondingly

reduced.

The first leg is usually orientated in the probable

direction of the target drift, and the datum point itself is

marked with a floating datum.

The Sector Search can be carried out by two vessels; one vessel carries out the first sweep

while the second conducts the second sweep orientated 30° to starboard.

There must be a delay or separation between the vessels to avoid collision at or near

the datum point.


Box or Square Search Used when the datum is reasonably well established and AOP is

relatively small. The Box Search does not give as high a POD as

a Sector Search, and is more complicated to carry out due to the

constant changes in distance and times for the search legs.

Unlike the Sector Search it is not limited in the area it can cover. The datum point itself can

be marked with a floating datum. The first leg is usually orientated in the probable direction

of the targets drift.

The Box Search can be carried out by two vessels (resulting in

a very high POD). The second vessel commences the same

pattern orientated 45° to Starboard. If the same speed is used

for both vessels, the first vessel must be allowed to complete at

least 3 search legs before the second commences to avoid risk

of collision.

Parallel Track & Creeping Line Parallel Track Used when the AOP is large and location of target not

well established. The search legs are parallel to the

major axis of the search area. The pattern can be

carried out by single or multiple vessels.

Creeping Line Used when the AOP is large and location of target is

more probable at one end of the search area. The

pattern can be carried out by single or multiple vessels.

Essentially the same as the Parallel Track but with the

search legs at right angles to the major axis of the

search area.

The Parallel Track and Creeping Line patterns are very

versatile and can be adapted to suit search areas of

various size and shape. They are probably the most

commonly used of all the search patterns.


The search legs usually terminate because of the proximity

of hazards, or because the CRV has reached the edge of

the search area. They can often be combined with a shore

line search (opposite).

Templates for Sector, Box, and Parallel Track / Creeping

Line searches are shown at the end of this Module.

Combined Aircraft Vessel Search The aircraft flies a Creeping Line / Parallel Track pattern, while

the vessel maintains a course along the centre of the search

area. Ideally the aircraft and vessels speeds are coordinated

so that the aircraft passes overhead of the vessel at the mid

point of each of its search legs.

In this pattern the aircraft is the primary search resource, while the vessels course and speed

is to ensure that there is the least possible delay in reaching the target once spotted by the

aircraft. The SAR Controller will use a simple formula in order to determine what speed the

CRV should be driven, using the searching speed of the aircraft.

track spacing (miles) x aircraft speed (knots) CRV speed =

search leg (miles) + track spacing (miles)

With a track spacing of one mile, aircraft speed of 100 knots, and the search leg of three

miles, the CRV speed would need to be:

1 x 100 100

3 + 1 =

4 = 25 knots


Use of GPS

Important - When searching an area for a target on the water (not anchored or aground)

such as in a Box, Sector, or Creeping line pattern, searches are run using;

• The compass for direction.

• Time at a set speed, to determine the length of search legs or cross legs as required.

This is to maintain the search patterns sweep width, and track spacing on the surface of the

water, regardless of tide / current. While the search area may be defined by fixed

geographical points such as charted objects on land, or a position in Lat & Long, the CRV

must carry out a search of the water surface within that area.

The influence of tide or current can have a marked effect on a search pattern when it is

viewed on a chart plotter. The GPS chart plotter shows positions, and hence course and

speed over the ground (sea / lake bed).

A search pattern accurately steered through the water can appear distorted on a chart

plotter. The diagram below left shows the track of a vessel through the water (black), and

what it would look like on a chart plotter (red) with the tide / current running in a South

Easterly direction.

With the tide / current running in the opposite direction (below right), the track shown on the

chart plotter now looks quite different.

The diagrams above are drawn in correct proportions for a tide / current speed of

approx 1/8 of the vessels speed through the water. I.e. Vessels speed through the

water 8kts, tide / current speed 1.0kts


If a search pattern is run using the GPS for direction (by COG course over the ground

information) the coverage of the search area will be affected.

In the diagram below left the search pattern and relative speed of the tide / current are the

same as the previous example. This time however the search is run using the chart plotter to

set the pattern.

To keep to the pattern (red) and the course over the ground, the vessel must steer to

counteract the tide / current. This will produce a track through the water (black) that is very

different from the intended search pattern.

Viewed on a chart plotter the pattern looks fine. The actual pattern through the water

however is not. In this case the search legs are actually beginning to cross each other, and

the track spacing varies enormously.

In the diagram below right the tide / current is running the other way. The pattern through the

water is stretched to a point where the track spacing is more than twice the required

distance. Coverage and hence POD have been dramatically reduced.

Remember – because search patterns are primarily orientated with the target drift,

which is a combination of the influence of wind and tide / current, they may

(depending on the target and its estimated leeway) be run with the tide at any angle to

the search direction.


Outlining the AOP While GPS is not generally used to run area search patterns, it can be used to outline the

AOP. This can be especially useful in a Parallel Track / Creeping Line Search. In a Sector

or Box Search every leg needs to be timed, but if the AOP is outlined in a Parallel Track /

Creeping Line Search then only the cross legs need be timed.

• Some chart plotters will allow the operator to draw lines / bearings on the screen – which

can be used to draw the outline of the search area.

• Alternatively with the corners of the search area entered as waypoints they can be joined

as a ‘route’.

• A Chart plotter can be used to display the edge of the AOP regardless of ‘zoom’.

The vessel should ideally turn to initiate a cross leg when it is half the track spacing from the

edge of the search area. To identify the turning point;

• Most chart plotters will give distance and bearing to the cursor, so if the cursor is placed

on the edge of the search area, this can be used to indicate the turning point.

• With the option of Radar overlay a VRM can be set to show the distance to the edge of

the search area.


Use of Floating Datum

A floating datum is a marker that is deployed in the water. It should be;

• Highly visible (brightly coloured / reflective tape / flag attached).

• Have a light / strobe attached for use at night.

• Be able to be deployed quickly.

• Be affected as little as possible by the wind - to ensure it drifts at the same

rate and direction as the surrounding body of water.

Marking the Search Datum A floating datum can be deployed at the start of such patterns as the Sector or Box search.

• The time at the start of the search is recorded.

• A waypoint is entered on the GPS.

• If the target is not found in the initial search, the floating datum is recovered.

• The distance to the waypoint and the time between deploying and recovering the floating

datum will give a fairly accurate rate and direction for tide / current in the area.

With a Sector search the floating datum also provides a reference point so that small

corrections to the CRV’s course can be made to maintain the pattern.

Pausing or Leaving a Search Pattern If a search is temporarily suspended for any reason (taking a break to rotate / rest crew or

leaving the pattern to investigate a possible sighting);

• The time is recorded.

• A waypoint is entered on the GPS.

• The IMT is informed.

• A floating datum is deployed.

A GPS position/waypoint can be used to return to the general area, but the floating datum

will help the CRV return to the actual point in the water to recommence the search.

The smaller the sweep width / track spacing, and the stronger the tide / current then

the more important the use of a floating datum becomes.


Floating Datum in Use - Examples In the examples below a CRV is searching for two PIWs. The first target is spotted and the

CRV leaves the search pattern to recover the person. A waypoint is activated to mark the

geographical position where the search was suspended.

In the intervening time the whole body of water containing the CRV and the remaining target

is moving NE. If the CRV returns to the waypoint to resume the search it will be searching

water already searched previously.

The same situation with the body of water moving in the opposite direction (to the SW) This

time if the CRV returns to the waypoint to recommence the search, a gap will have

developed in the pattern and the CRV may miss entirely the second target.

If a floating datum is deployed (below right), the CRV will return to the actual point in the

water where the search was suspended. This reduces the chance of any gaps in the pattern.

With a tide / current of as little as 0.5kts the body of water will move approx 200m in

ten minutes.

Local tide / current eddies can sometimes be running in a very different direction to

the general area tide / current.


Establishing Sweep Width

The ability to establish a viable sweep width is crucial. Every opportunity should be taken to

practice establishing realistic sighting distances (by both visual & Radar observation) for a

variety of objects, and in different conditions.

The SAR Controller may have a theoretical sweep width in mind for a search pattern,

but it is only the CRV crew that can provide an actual sweep width for the prevailing

conditions.

• Using Radar to verify an objects distance is a useful practice (which also gets crew

familiar with some of the basic Radar functions).

• Alternatively an estimate on the objects distance can be made, a waypoint activated and

the CRV driven to the object (such as a mooring buoy). The GPS will give a reasonably

accurate distance travelled by the range to the waypoint (also gets crew familiar with

basic GPS / chart plotter functions).

• Another practice is for the CRV to drive away from the object (typically a small object

such as a mooring buoy or something similar deployed from the CRV). The time is

recorded for the object to be still visible for approx 50% of the time, which will be the

effective sweep width. The comparison of time / speed will give the distance from the

object (also gets crew familiar with time / speed / distance tables).

On the next page is an example table of Visual Sweep Width Guidelines. The main body of

the table is of uncorrected sweep widths (calm sea, no wind or swell). Below the main body

are correction factors that can be applied depending on the wind strength and sea state. For

example;

• Visibility approx 5NM (Fair)

• Target 6m power boat.

• Uncorrected Sweep Width of 2.2NM.

• With wind and sea state correction of x 0.5 applied.

• Corrected Sweep Width is 1.1NM.

The tables do not factor in swell, which can have a huge effect on sweep width.

These are just guidelines – an aid that will help in establishing ‘ball park’ figures. Only

practice and experience will enable you to improve these figures.


Time / Speed / Distance

Speed & Distance Tables Once a viable sweep width has been established, the next decision is usually what speed? It

should be the fastest speed at which observation is still effective. If the CRV’s motion

means crew have to constantly struggle to hold on, they are unlikely to be very effective

observers. Alternatively the search could be conducted at a very slow comfortable speed,

but in search operations;

Survivability decreases with the passage of time.

Search areas increase with the passage of time.

Using the tables the time for the distance and speed can be established.

As mentioned previously Creeping Line / Parallel Track patterns usually need only the cross

legs to be timed.

With Sector or Box searches every leg needs to be timed. The legs can be timed singly; with

the stopwatch stopped, reset and started again each time. This can lead to problems with

the delay, and with the increased chance of mistakes.

Alternatively the legs can be timed consecutively, with the cumulative time used to mark the

end of each leg. This method also has its drawbacks, as calculating / setting up can be time

consuming and prone to error. Having an ‘easy’ time to work with can make all the

difference.

To help with this certain time values have been highlighted in the tables i.e. values above 10

seconds with 5, 10, 15, 20 & 30 seconds as part of the value. Any times + /- 2 seconds of

these values have also been highlighted, to indicate times that could easily be rounded up or

down to obtain a better time to work with.


Using the extract from the tables below;

A distance of 100m at 10 kts gives a time of 19 seconds. This could be rounded up to 20

seconds without any significant change to the effectiveness of the search pattern, but it will

be a whole lot easier to use.

With 20 sec as the chosen time a Sector search could be conducted with all legs timed at 1

min. A Box search would have the first 2 legs at 20sec, the next two at 40sec, and the next

two at 1 min and so on.

To get a feel for how much an adjustment to speed or time actually means, it is useful

to remember that to convert kts to meters / second you multiply by 0.5 (half the value)

I.e. at 10kts the CRV covers approx 5m / sec.

So if you round up a given time by a second you will be increasing the distance travelled in

meters by approx half the speed of the vessel. Round a time up by 2 secs and you will have

increased the distance in meters by the speed of the vessel.

For example;

At 10kts in 19 secs you will cover approx 100m

At 10kts in 20 secs you will cover approx 105m (+ 5m – half the boat speed)

At 10kts in 21 secs you will cover approx 110m (+10m – the boat speed)


The tables for time speed and distance should be all that is normally required, but crew

should also be familiar with the equations;

• SPEED = DISTANCE (in nautical miles) x 60

(In knots) TIME (in minutes)

• TIME = DISTANCE (in nautical miles) x 60

(In minutes) SPEED (in knots)

• DISTANCE = SPEED (in knots) x TIME (in minutes) (In nautical miles) 60

These equations can be represented in the time / speed / distance triangle.

Note

Shore Line, Track Line, and Barrier searches are usually referenced to fixed points

such as the land (or to a fixed datum line in the case of a Track Line search). With

Sector, Box, or Parallel / Creeping searches it is the water that is being searched.

The speed at which such searches are conducted should ideally be speed through the

water, not speed over the ground (SOG) as indicated by a GPS.

In the absence of a log that records water speed, every effort should be made to

maintain as constant a speed through the water as possible.


Search Pattern Templates

Sector The Sector search template contains pre calculated courses based on the initial course being

one of the cardinal points of the compass i.e. North, South, East or West.

Alongside each of the courses is a box for the individual legs if cumulative time is used. It is

advisable to cross out or tick each leg once it has been completed.


Box / Square The square search templates contain pre calculated courses. These are based on the initial

course being one of the cardinal or inter cardinal points of the compass i.e. North, Northeast,

East, and Southeast etc.


Parallel Track / Creeping Line There are two separate templates for a Creeping Line or Parallel Track - one for a pattern

where the first turn is to starboard, the other when the first turn is to port.

In most cases it is unnecessary to write down the course, distance, and time for each

individual leg. With an extended search however there is always the chance of the sweep

width or track spacing being altered to accommodate other vessels joining the search or a

change in visibility / sea state.


10 WORKING WITH AIRCRAFT

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 190 Aircraft Regulations & Policies ...................................................................................................... 191

Civil Aviation Authority ............................................................................................................. 191 Police, RCCNZ & Coastguard.................................................................................................. 191 IMT (Incident Management Team)........................................................................................... 192

Aircraft Personnel.......................................................................................................................... 192 Pilot in Command..................................................................................................................... 192 Co Pilot..................................................................................................................................... 192 In Flight Coordinator (IFC) ....................................................................................................... 193 In Flight Observer (IFO) ........................................................................................................... 193 Crew Member (Helicopter) ....................................................................................................... 193 Specialists (Helicopter) ............................................................................................................ 193

Aircraft Communications ............................................................................................................... 193 Coastguard Air Patrol .................................................................................................................... 194

CAP Locations.......................................................................................................................... 194 Operational Procedures ................................................................................................................ 194

Aircraft Tasking ........................................................................................................................ 194 Combined Searches – CRV and Aircraft ................................................................................. 195

Helicopter Operations.................................................................................................................... 196 Information Required by Helicopter.......................................................................................... 196 Rules for Winching ................................................................................................................... 197 Prior to Winching...................................................................................................................... 197 Winching................................................................................................................................... 198

Direct ................................................................................................................................... 198 Hi Line Transfers................................................................................................................. 199 Using the Hi Line for Uplifting ............................................................................................. 201 Safety Line Transfer............................................................................................................ 201

Preparing a Landing Site.......................................................................................................... 202 Night Landing Operations ................................................................................................... 203 Safety Around Helicopters .................................................................................................. 203

Aircraft Ditching ............................................................................................................................. 204 On Scene at Impact.................................................................................................................. 204

Overview

Aircraft, both fixed wing and rotary, are an invaluable resource to marine SAR operations.

They have two distinct advantages over surface craft — altitude and speed.

This module is to provide Coastguard crew with the basic essential knowledge relating to the

use of aircraft during marine SAR.


Aircraft Regulations & Policies

Civil Aviation Authority The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) is the government body responsible for enforcing the

aviation law. Its role in the air is similar to that of Maritime New Zealand on the water. All

aircraft in New Zealand are subject to the Civil Aviation Act and Rules. These regulations

are rigidly enforced and the penalties for non-compliance are high.

CAA accepts that in an emergency some actions may be required that in ordinary

circumstances would contravene provisions of the Act. For this reason, Section 13A of the

Act provides for pilots, under strict guidelines, to breach some regulations and rules in

emergencies.

The section provides for breaches in two scenarios:

• Emergencies that arise during flight.

• Emergencies that require the immediate use of aircraft to render assistance.

In SAR situations, the use of aircraft to render emergency assistance is the more likely of the

two scenarios. These types of situations may arise when urgent air transportation of persons

/ medical supplies, or the aircraft’s assistance in a search is required.

Whenever a pilot is required by emergency circumstances to breach the Act or its rules, they

must advise the relevant air traffic control service of the action. The Director of Civil Aviation

must also be advised of the circumstances that necessitated the breach.

Police, RCCNZ & Coastguard The use of aircraft in SAR will be under the provisions of Category 1, for which the Police

have accountability and responsibility, or Category 2, for which the RCCNZ has

accountability. (See Module NZ SAR System)

Coastguard Air Patrols (CAPs) operate in accordance with the CAA, RCCNZ and Police

regulations. They may have their own additional Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs),

and these will differ for each CAP Unit.


IMT (Incident Management Team) The IMT will be responsible for tasking required aircraft (see module NZ SAR System).

A CRV Skipper / On Scene Command may request an aircraft, but it is the IMT who will task

the aircraft, subject to approval of the controlling Authority – either the Police or RCCNZ.

In such circumstances, the IMT will be expected to adhere to the following safety guidelines.

Known and inherent risks must be identified to ensure that personnel and equipment will not

be jeopardised, nor the mission attempted, unless lives are known to be at risk and the

chances of saving the lives are within the capability of the personnel and equipment

available.

Any instructions for tasking an aircraft must be issued as a request, not an order. The point

at which unreasonable risk overtakes the likelihood of securing the safety of human life, is

the point where the operation must be terminated. In other words, there is a limit to which

rescuers can be expected to go; beyond that, tasking cannot be justified.

Aircraft Personnel

Aircraft used for SAR purposes are generally either single or twin engine fixed wing aircraft,

with a crew of up to four, or a helicopter with up to five crew.

Pilot in Command The pilot, who may or may not be SAR personnel, has similar overall responsibilities to that

of a CRV Skipper. Other than flying the aircraft, their main responsibility is to avoid unsafe

situations, even if it means aborting the mission.

Co Pilot This person shares some of the responsibility of the pilot on a larger aircraft or helicopter.

The co-pilot usually handles navigation, communications, instrument monitoring, and crew

concerns. The responsibilities of the co-pilot may vary according to the type of aircraft and

mission - however, the pilot always has the final say.


In Flight Coordinator (IFC) The term In Flight Coordinator (IFC) previously known as a Tacco

(Tactical Coordinator), applies to Coastguard Air Patrol members

who have been specifically trained in the use of the marine

plotters, on-board planning, execution of the search operations,

and SAR communications. It is the IFC who is responsible for the

execution of search operations and communications with the IMT.

In Flight Observer (IFO) The In Flight Observer carries out an observation and search role. An observer’s

responsibility also involves advising the pilot of any relevant hazards in the air.

Crew Member (Helicopter) An air crew member is usually trained in a number of on-board functions, such as hoist

operator or paramedic.

Specialists (Helicopter) The term ‘specialist’ refers to a variety of air-trained personnel capable of performing specific

SAR functions — for example, rescue divers, replacement vessel skippers, medical

personnel, photographers, and police.

Aircraft Communications

Most helicopters and fixed wing aircraft deployed in SAR operations and exercises are able

to maintain communications on marine VHF radio. On occasion, ‘aircraft of opportunity’

without marine VHF radio will be used for SAR operations, and communications will need to

be effected by other means such as cell phone. Where no radio communications are

available, messages may need to be of the visual type.

(See Module SAR Communications)

Points to remember:

• An aircraft may need to monitor more than one radio.

• The height at which an aircraft flies enables it to pick up radio signals that your vessel

may not receive; therefore your station identification should be used constantly, to define

who is calling.

• The ever-unpopular ‘standby’ message from a radio operator is particularly annoying for

air crew who may have very limited flight time remaining due to their fuel reserves.


The diagram shows CAP

locations, and the approx

distance that can be flown in

30 minutes.

Coastguard Air Patrol

Coastguard Air Patrols (CAPs) are a resource available to Coastguard units, Police, or

RCCNZ when air services are required during SAR operations on both land and sea. Most

commonly, CAPs are called on to:

• Complete a ‘search and locate’ service.

• Communicate with land and sea-based rescue services and assist with the coordination

of rescue response.

• Aid in the rescue of persons or vessels in distress.

CAP Locations Coastguard Air Patrols are established in strategic areas throughout the country. CAPs and

Coastguard marine units are encouraged to train and work together to strengthen the

operational efficiency of their region.

There are ten CAP units;

• Northland.

• Auckland.

• Bay of Plenty.

• Taranaki.

• Hawkes Bay.

• Kapiti.

• Nelson.

• Kaikoura.

• Canterbury.

• Southland.

Operational Procedures

Aircraft Tasking In the course of deciding that an aircraft is required for a SAR operation the IMT must

carefully consider a number of issues;

• What type of aircraft will best suit the needs of the

operation?

• What search tasks will the aircraft be required to complete?

• What search patterns will best suit the aircraft, the incident,

the surface craft, and of course the conditions?


Some SAR incidents can attract media attention, and the Police or RCCNZ may request the

CAA to order temporary restricted air space or altitude reservations. These prevent

unessential aircraft from interfering with SAR aircraft operations, and avoid unnecessary

hazards to the aircraft.

Should these restrictions be put in place, the IMT should advise all SAR personnel involved

in the operation.

Combined Searches – CRV and Aircraft Probably the most successful type of combined search pattern is the Creeping Line search

pattern. It is particularly effective, provided good surface-to-air communications are

maintained.

• The aircraft flies over the search area in a

series of equally spaced parallel tracks.

• At the same time, the vessel(s) engaged in the

search drive at a pre-calculated speed through

the centre of the search pattern.

• The speeds of vessel(s) and aircraft are

synchronised so that the aircraft flies over the

vessel(s) at the middle of each leg.

(See Module Search Techniques)

CAP provide an invaluable service to SAR operations (both land & marine) and it is their

ability to search faster and higher (with a correspondingly greater sweep width) that makes

their aircraft so effective in the search and locate phase of an operation.

What is not often appreciated is that not only can CAP provide a search resource that can

cover the same area at anywhere between 5 to 10 times quicker than a vessel, but it can do

so at a far lower general operating cost (including fuel consumption) than most CRVs.


Helicopter Operations

A likely scenario involving aircraft that you will encounter as a SAR crew member will be

working with a helicopter during a transfer.

Information Required by Helicopter Ideally, most necessary information about the target will already have passed from the IMT to

the air crew. The helicopter will also establish communications with the CRV. The

information usually needed by the helicopter crew is:

• Position (Lat & Long / bearing and distance from a charted feature).

• Speed of vessel (kts).

• Course (True or Magnetic).

• Name of vessel.

• Type of vessel (in particular does it have any masts, booms or derricks).

• Length.

• Colour.

• Distinctive features.

• Clear deck space –approx how big?

• Wind speed (kts).

• Wind direction.

• Sea state.

• Are communications available on board other vessel?

• What frequencies are being used?

• In the case of a medical incident, details pertaining to the patient’s condition and any

medical equipment available will be asked for.

• Position of and time to nearest landing point (vessel).

The last point is important - in the case of medical emergencies the priority of the helicopter

is to get a paramedic to the patient without unnecessary risk to the aircraft and crew.

If this can be done without the need for a winching operation, and without undue delay

then it will probably be the preferred option.


Rules for Winching The basic tenets of safe winching are enshrined in law. The rules state that a pilot

performing an operation involving the suspension of a person beneath a helicopter shall

ensure that:

• The distance a person is carried is the minimum distance necessary to achieve the

objective of the operation.

• The equipment on which a person is suspended is capable of release from the helicopter

by the crew, and that the release system is so arranged that two separate actions must

be taken to effect release.

• Unless the person is unconscious or unable to understand, that person must be briefed

by a crew member of the helicopter on normal and emergency procedures appropriate to

the operation.

• Except in an emergency necessitating the urgent transportation of persons or medical

supplies for the protection of life or property, no more than one person at a time shall be

carried as a sling load.

Prior to Winching • All loose items on board the vessel must be secured to avoid being blown up and into the

helicopters’ rotors/air intakes.

• It is quite common for a helicopter to fly a circuit around the vessel once it reaches the

scene, to asses the situation.

• On making contact with the vessel, the pilot will want to discuss the method to be used

for transfer.

• The vessel(s) may be asked to alter course and speed to suit the prevailing weather, or

consulted as to the best course to minimise the roll of their vessel.

What ever method employed, all crew should be briefed as to the adopted procedure.


Winching There are many different methods and variations used in winching operations. Coastguard

crews should be aware of the procedures and practices in their local area. Generally the

different methods of transfer are;

• Direct.

• Hi line.

• Safety line.

Direct Generally used with vessels that have unobstructed deck

areas large enough for a safe transfer in the prevailing

conditions. The vessel will be asked to steer a course with

the wind at an angle to the bow (typically between 10 – 30°

off the wind) and at a given speed.

The actual course and speed will be confirmed by the

helicopter pilot. The helicopter will maintain a head to wind

aspect while matching the vessels speed and crabbing

across the wind until directly overhead.

The winch person is then winched directly onto the vessel.

Note: Static electricity can build up in any helicopter. The larger the helicopter and the

longer it has been in the air the greater the charge. The size of helicopter and the

distances flown mean that for most Coastguard operations the shock that can be

received from a winch wire is more akin to the shock you might receive when closing

the car door. While not at a dangerous voltage CRV crews should be aware of the

potential of receiving a shock.

It is recommended that the back of the hand be initially used to touch or ‘slap’ a winch wire /

hook that has not had the chance to discharge. Some helicopters may have a static

discharge wire attached to the end of the winch cable; crew should ensure that the static

discharges through the wire and not through them.


Hi Line Transfers Generally used on all vessels having masts and

rigging which prevent winching operations being

carried out directly over the vessel. The Hi line is

usually about 50 m of small diameter braided line.

A karabiner clip is attached to both ends. The top

end has a weak link, and is attached to the

helicopter winch hook. The bottom end has a

small weighted sack attached to it.

The normal procedure for Coastguard vessels is for the helicopter to come to the boat. The

Skipper and crew of the vessel must adhere to some very simple rules:

The helmsman must concentrate maintaining a constant course and speed, not

watching the helicopter.

The vessel will maintain a constant speed and

course depending on the helicopter pilot’s

instructions. Typically this course is approx 10°-

30° off the wind. Whether the wind is on the port

or starboard bow will depend on the

configuration of the helicopter.

Communications with the helicopter once

winching has started should be in the case of

emergencies only.

The most crucial part of a winching operation is

the flow of information between the winch

operator and the pilot of the helicopter. It is

imperative that these two personnel are able to

communicate without interruption.


The helicopter will manoeuvre directly overhead. The

helicopter winch operator will lower the weighted end of the Hi

line to the deck of the vessel. (1)

If available, two crew members should receive this end (a boat

hook can often be of help) and take in the slack, coiling the

loose line onto the deck or preferably into a bucket or similar.

The Hi line or winch wire must never be attached to any part of the vessel.

Once the line has been taken by the deck crew, the helicopter

will move away to one side and prepare the winch person for

lowering to the deck.

At this point, the deck crew must pay out the Hi line. The

helicopter will move to a safe height and position, and then

commence to lower the winch person. (2)

The Hi line should never be wrapped around the wrist or arm when handling.

Gloves should be worn whilst handling the high line.

The deck crew should take up the slack and maintain tension

in the Hi line so that the person being winched does not swing.

The deck crew must continue to take up the slack as the winch

person descends and on signal from the winch person haul

them on board. (3)

When the winch person is on deck, and having disconnected

themselves from the winch hook, the helicopter will move

away.

The deck crew should now pay out the Hi line. The winch

person will brief the deck crew on any requirements. (4)


Using the Hi Line for Uplifting The winch hook is pulled back on board to allow the casualty and / or

the winch person to be attached. They will then be lifted off the deck.

The deck crew must maintain tension on the Hi line to prevent

excessive swinging.

Once the casualty and / or the winch person are inside the helicopter,

the high line will be recovered by taking it up until only the weighted end

is left on the vessel.

After the last winch the deck crew should clear the weighted end from all obstructions, and

the Hi line will be recovered by the helicopter crew.

Alternatively the Hi line may be jettisoned by the winch person (by unclipping the end

attached to the winch hook) and left for the vessels crew to recover.

Note A variation on the above method of Hi line Transfer may be

used. In this method the helicopter maintains course and speed

while the vessel manoeuvres towards the helicopter to pick up the

Hi line which is suspended below the helicopter.

Once the vessels crew have the Hi line, the procedure is exactly

as described previously. This method is usually only employed

when a helicopter crew have practiced the manoeuvre with the

vessels crew previously.

Safety Line Transfer. Often used when a disabled vessel such as a yacht has too much

pitch and roll to safely use a Hi line transfer.

A safety line is attached to the harness of the paramedic / rescue

swimmer. The helicopter hovers down wind of the vessel at a safe

jump height. The paramedic / rescue swimmer enters the water and

swims to the vessel. If the paramedic / rescue swimmer has

difficulty in the water, the winch operator can deliver the winch hook

to them via the safety line. The swimmer can then clip on to the

winch hook to be recovered by the helicopter.


Preparing a Landing Site Winching operations have a higher associated risk than transferring a patient to a helicopter

on the ground. If a patient can be taken ashore for helicopter transfer without undue delay

then it will generally be the preferred option.

Coastguard crews should be aware of suitable helicopter landing sites in their operational

area, where it would be feasible to transfer a patient ashore.

There are the basic but essential CAA guidelines to choosing and preparing a helicopter

landing site.

• The helicopter will need flat firm ground for a diameter of not less than 20m.

• There should be no obstructions or foliage higher than 1m for an additional 10m around

the landing site.

• Ideally it should not be in close proximity to any overhead cables, buildings or trees.

• Clear away / secure any objects, clothing or foliage that could

be blown around by the rotor wash (this can be in excess of

100kmh).

• One person should be positioned with their back to the wind,

hands held above their head at the up wind extremity of the

landing site.

• If in contact with the helicopter pilot, identify any potential

hazards in the area. i.e. “There are power lines approx 200m

to the south of the landing site.”

Directions can also be given by using left and right or by the clock face method.

If using these methods they should be given from the helicopters point of view.

• “There is soft ground 100 m to your left of the landing site.“

• “Phone lines are 100m on your 10 clock.”


Night Landing Operations The preparations for a landing site at night are the same, but with the additional need to

illuminate the area.

Under no circumstances should any light be shone directly at the helicopter.

• Torches or vehicle headlights can be used to illuminate towards the centre of the site.

• Chemical sticks can be used to mark the outside edge of the site.

• Any lights used must be ‘dipped’ to illuminate the ground.

• Flashing lights can initially help the pilot identify the site.

• Lights used to illuminate hazards (e.g. shining up poles to indicate presence of wires).

The person positioned at the upwind end of the site should be illuminated from behind and

preferably dressed in reflective clothing.

Safety Around Helicopters There are some basic safety rules that must be adhered to while a helicopter is on the

ground.

• Do not approach the helicopter unless asked to do

so.

• The preferred way to approach a helicopter is

towards the front of the aircraft.

• Only approach in clear view of the pilot or crew.

• If you do approach the helicopter keep your head

low in a crouched position.

• The tail area of a helicopter is a ‘no go area.’


Aircraft Ditching

The pilot may be able to supply an accurate report of the craft’s ditching position.

If in the immediate area a CRV crew member should be

able to give the pilot the following information:

• Wind direction.

• Wind strength.

• Sea state, in particular height and direction of swell.

On Scene at Impact Even after a ‘successful’ ditching a fixed wing aircraft will normally sink within a few minutes.

Helicopters unless specifically designed to float will capsize and sink rapidly.

• The ditching heading may be determined by the major swell system, rather than from just

the wind direction.

• By night, and if appropriate, the crew of the CRV should turn on all deck lights and

strobes if fitted to indicate the position of the vessel.

• By day a CRV may indicate its position by a “power circle”. The CRV turns at speed to

create an unbroken circle of wake.(See Module SAR Communications)

• If the aircraft breaks up or crashes when ditching, be extremely cautious of spilled

aviation fuel.

Any scene that you may attend will be individual; therefore planning for this eventuality is

difficult - use SAP and react accordingly. (See Module Victim Recovery)

Consider the following factors:

• Ensure your own safety in the area – SAP. Aviation fuel will float on the surface for some

distance from the point of impact.

• Mark the position with GPS &floating datum.

• Search for survivors. - confirm if any other persons are trapped within the wreckage.

• Practise extreme caution if contemplating entry into the aircraft.

• Do not make fast to it.

• Dependant on the circumstances (and if practicable) attach a datum buoy to the aircraft.

• Commence a search pattern if all crew not accounted for.

• Administer first aid to any injured victims.

• Arrange for evacuation of injured victims.

• Assist in recovery as directed by the IMT.


11 EMERGENCY REPAIRS (Damage Control)

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 207 Maintenance – Prevention is better than Cure.............................................................................. 207

Grey to White Exhaust Smoke:........................................................................................... 208 Black Exhaust Smoke: ........................................................................................................ 208 Blue Exhaust Smoke:.......................................................................................................... 208

Repair Equipment on Board.......................................................................................................... 209 Basic Engine Repairs .................................................................................................................... 210

Engine Problems...................................................................................................................... 210 Outboard Motor – will not start ............................................................................................ 210 Outboard Motor – starts, runs for a while then stops.......................................................... 211 Inboard Motor – will not start............................................................................................... 211 Inboard Motor – overheats.................................................................................................. 212

General Safety Tips (fuel & electrical systems) ....................................................................... 212 Steering Systems .......................................................................................................................... 213

Mechanical systems................................................................................................................. 213 Hydraulic Systems.................................................................................................................... 213 Alternative Steering.................................................................................................................. 215

Damage Control ............................................................................................................................ 217 Fire Fighting ............................................................................................................................. 217

Removing the Fuel .............................................................................................................. 217 Removing the Oxygen......................................................................................................... 217 Removing the Heat ............................................................................................................. 217

Basic Generic Safety Rules ..................................................................................................... 218 Standard Fire Fighting Procedures .......................................................................................... 218

Alarm................................................................................................................................... 218 Reaction .............................................................................................................................. 218 Assessment......................................................................................................................... 218 Combating the Fire.............................................................................................................. 219 Overhauling the Fire............................................................................................................ 219 Final Assessment................................................................................................................ 219

Types and uses of extinguishers.............................................................................................. 220 Water................................................................................................................................... 221 Dry Powder ......................................................................................................................... 221 Foam ................................................................................................................................... 222 CO2..................................................................................................................................... 222

Rescue from Vessels on Fire (or chemical / gas situations) .................................................... 223 Water Ingress ........................................................................................................................... 224

Salvage / Fire Pumps.......................................................................................................... 225 Fothering (collision mat)...................................................................................................... 226 Heel & Trim ......................................................................................................................... 226 Tingles (patches)................................................................................................................. 226

Beaching........................................................................................................................................ 227 Bow or Stern First? ............................................................................................................. 227 Use of an Anchor to Control Speed and Broach................................................................. 228 Securing on Landing ........................................................................................................... 229 Towing a vessel onto a beach ............................................................................................ 229

Dismasting..................................................................................................................................... 231 Swamped / Capsized Vessels....................................................................................................... 232

Swamped Vessels.................................................................................................................... 232 Righting Capsized Vessels ...................................................................................................... 233

Is it necessary? ................................................................................................................... 233 Will it make matters worse? ................................................................................................ 233

Parbuckling (rolling the vessel) ................................................................................................ 233 End over End Method .............................................................................................................. 235

Pulling the bow over............................................................................................................ 235 Pulling the stern over .......................................................................................................... 235 Larger catamarans .............................................................................................................. 236


Overview

The primary objective of search and rescue is to preserve life not property, however saving

property (which in Coastguards case is almost invariably a vessel of some description)

sometimes goes hand in hand with preserving life. Towing can often be part of a SAROP

(Search & Rescue Operation) or a precautionary SAR (Good Samaritan) action, so too can

temporary repairs to vessels. Coastguard crew will inevitably deal with situations on the

water where the simple delivery of tools or assistance may forestall serious SAR action later.

Your own CRV is not immune to suffering damage, fire, or failure. Many aspects of this

module apply as much to CRV crew in their own vessel as it does to assisting other vessels.

Maintenance – Prevention is better than Cure

In the case of a CRV (or any other vessel), the process of getting home safely begins even

before the vessel has put to sea. Ensuring the vessel is well maintained, equipped with the

essential emergency / repair tools, and the crew trained in their use is essential.

Every CRV must be subject to a comprehensive and regular maintenance programme. Crew

must know the regular pre and post operation checks on the CRV, and the system for

recording (and rectifying) faults, failures, or the suspicion of a potential problem.

The maintenance schedules for the CRV and procedures for reporting faults or potential

faults should be detailed in the Units Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), and / or the

CRV’s Safe Ship Management Manual. (See Module Legal Considerations)

Be prepared – the old adage of ‘if it can go wrong it will’ is very true. Even with a sound

maintenance programme any vessel can suffer unexpected equipment failure, and an

essential part of training for just such a failure is recognising its potential in the first place (at

sea a tendency to paranoia is not a bad thing).

Its essential that the crew of the CRV ‘know the boat’ - meaning that they are able to

recognise any unusual noises, vibrations, smells, flickering or dimming lights, loss of

propulsion, power, or steering.

Anything out of the ordinary should be investigated as this could be an indicator of a potential

fault. Possible faults should be recorded in the vessels log or dedicated maintenance log

and reported to the relevant Unit Officer.


As an example - the colour of the engine exhaust is a good indicator of general engine

performance, and recognising the significance of different exhaust colour is the type of basic

fault recognition that crew should be capable of.

It isn’t required (or expected) that crew be able to identify or fix the actual engine fault, but

they should be able to recognise that something is potentially wrong.

Grey to White Exhaust Smoke: Indicates that part of the fuel injected into the cylinders

is not igniting. Possible causes include:

• Low compression.

• Broken rings.

• Valve leaking.

• Faulty injectors.

• Coolant leak into combustion chamber.

Black Exhaust Smoke: Indicates unburnt fuel (over-fuelling) or not enough air for

combustion. Possible causes include:

• Faulty injector.

• Pump timing.

• Incorrect rack settings.

• Dirty / blocked air filter.

• Choke / cold start prime not disengaged.

• Excessive use of the throttle or overloaded engine.

Blue Exhaust Smoke: Indicates that the engine is burning lubricating oil. Possible causes

include:

• Worn rings.

• Worn bores.

• Overfilled crankcase.

• Blocked breather.

• Excess oil getting into valve gear.

Operating manuals provide a wealth of information on the workings of equipment on board,

spare parts required, and various troubleshooting procedures. Manuals (or copies of) should

be kept onboard for ready reference.


Repair Equipment on Board

Lengthy tows tie up valuable resources. Being able to effect minor emergency repairs at sea

can avoid towing unnecessarily. Often attempting the repair of another vessel is not practical

or desirable, as the tools and spares necessary for the repair are not available. The repair

itself may be potentially complex, time consuming, or beyond the experience of the CRV

crew, and it would be easier to tow the vessel.

Unless the repair is very obvious and simple it would normally be best left for a professional

to deal with - in many cases trying to affect a repair may invalidate the owner’s warranty.

Under no circumstances should any repair be attempted without the Skippers’

knowledge and agreement. (See Module Legal considerations)

The best way to approach the subject of what to carry is to concentrate on the repair

equipment and tools for the CRV first, and then look at what additional gear might be of use

for other vessels, given the remaining space available.

The following items could be found on board a CRV.

• A portable pump with suction and delivery hoses, for de-watering or fire fighting.

• Jumper leads or quick start pack.

• Spare filters belts and impellors for CRV engine(s) if applicable.

• A general tool kit containing such basics as;

• Assorted screwdrivers.

• Spanners.

• Pliers.

• Allen Keys.

• Adjustable spanners.

• Socket set(s) (principally of a size suitable for the CRV).

• Vice Grips.

• Assorted tapes – electrical, plumbers, duct etc, and cable (pull) ties.

• Hacksaw & blades.

• Repair kit / plugs for CRV sponsons and or hull.


Basic Engine Repairs

Engine Problems Coastguard is commonly called to assist when a vessel’s engine stops, will not restart, or has

been stopped because it has developed a problem.

There can be many causes for any of these scenarios, and many of the causes will not be

something that can be rectified at sea. Sometimes however fixing the problem can be a very

simple and quick ‘repair’.

The following is a list of the possible simple causes for a particular engine problem, and the

sort of repair that coastguard crew might be able to help with. The same list is not dissimilar

to the checks and possible repairs that Coastguard crews will be able to carry out on their

own CRV.

In the first example of an Outboard motor that won’t start, the causes of the problem could

include a faulty starter motor, fuel pump, or faulty ignition switch / coil – not things you will be

able to fix at sea. There could equally be some very simple reasons for the problem such as;

Outboard Motor – will not start

• Fuel tank empty.

• Fuel tank vent closed or restricted.

• Engine stop (kill cord) engaged or faulty.

• Fuel supply hose incorrectly fitted.

• Fuel supply hose crushed or kinked.

• Fuel supply hose has small hole / puncture.

• Fuel filter clogged.

• Spark plugs fouled.

• Spark plug leads interchanged.

• Battery undercharged (electric start).


Outboard Motor – starts, runs for a while then stops


• Fuel tank vent closed or restricted.

• Engine stop engaged (kill cord).

• Fuel supply hose incorrectly fitted.

• Fuel supply hose crushed or kinked.

• Choke still on.

The list of simple checks and possible simple repairs (providing the vessels has the

necessary spares in some cases) to an inboard motor are not dissimilar.

Inboard Motor – will not start

• Flat battery or poor connections between battery and engine (engine won’t turn).


• Fuel tank valve closed.

• Engine stop engaged.

• Air filter clogged (filter will need to be changed).

• Fuel filter clogged (filter will need to be changed).

• Air in the system (evidence of any leaks in the fuel system would indicate this possibility).

Both of the last two problems will entail bleeding the system to remove any air. As with any

other repair, this is a procedure that should only be followed if the Coastguard crew involved

are completely confident in their ability to do so.

On no account are injectors to be loosened if the engine has a common rail (high

pressure) fuel system. Serious injuries and even fatalities have resulted attempted

repairs to common rail systems. (Refer CBES Inboard Diesel Maintenance Course)

If you don’t know the difference between common rail and in line injection systems –

you probably don’t have the experience and knowledge to confidently bleed the

system.


Inboard Motor – overheats

• Air filter clogged (filter will need to be changed).

• Raw water filter clogged.

• Raw water sea cock shut or partially closed.

• Raw water pump impellor damaged.

• Raw water pump belt drive broken or loose.

• Engine oil / gearbox oil levels low.

• Coolant level low.

Always allow an overheated engine to cool before restarting.

General Safety Tips (fuel & electrical systems) • If working on a fuel system keep a fire extinguisher handy.

• Do not start a motor if petrol fumes are present – ventilate the area thoroughly.

• Be extremely careful when checking fuel lines on a hot engine, especially around the

carburettor – allow the engine to cool before working on the fuel system.

• Care is required when working around high-voltage areas such as the battery. Batteries

when being charged produce Hydrogen gas which is highly explosive, and bridging the

battery terminals will produce a spark.

• If necessary isolate the battery – Do not attempt to disconnect the battery, you are just as

likely to create a spark removing terminals. If the system has no isolator, cover the

terminals with a non conductive material to prevent arcing which will result if terminals are

bridged by conductive materials (metal watch straps, tools etc can all ‘arc’ on battery

terminals).

Jumper leads / start packs must be used with caution if the battery is located near fuel

areas.

Whether using heavy jumper leads or a Start Pack, the same basic principles apply;

• Check for vapours, and ventilate area if possible.

• Check whether it is a 12 or 24 volt system.

• Connect leads to starter motor if possible – positive first.

• Or onto the battery terminals – positive first.

• Disconnect in the reverse order – negative first.


Steering Systems

Mechanical systems Many steering systems use mechanical linkages of wire, cable, chain or steel rod to transfer

the motion of the vessels wheel to its rudder or drive unit. An actual breakage in any of

these component parts is not something which a Coastguard crew are likely to be able to

repair even temporarily.

What can sometimes happen is a simple disconnection of part of the steering system such

as a nut & bolt that has worked loose. Many systems employing wire as a component part

have rigging screws to tighten the wire. These can work loose allowing the wire to drop out

of any pulley they are normally held in. These sorts of problems can often be repaired

quickly and easily, so it’s worth checking over the system for any obvious problems before

engaging in a possibly lengthy tow.

Hydraulic Systems A complete failure of a hydraulic steering system such as a ruptured pipe or fractured fitting

is unlikely to be repairable unless adequate spares and sufficient replacement fluid are

available. Often hydraulic systems can suffer small leaks from corroded or even loose

fittings (such as bleed screws) and these problems can be repaired - especially if it as simple

as tightening a loose fitting.

Duct tape or similar may reduce a hydraulic leak temporarily, but is unlikely to completely

stop the loss of fluid. Any fluid however will suffice as a replacement in an emergency (oil or

water). Fresh water preferably as salt water it is corrosive, however once safely home, a full

system flush, and replacement hydraulic fluid will be required anyway.

Most small boat hydraulic steering systems have a hydraulic reservoir, filler cap, and vent at

or near the steering wheel which can be filled with a replacement fluid if necessary. If

steering is a little ‘spongy’ this is an indication of air in the system.


Bleeding a hydraulic system to fully expel any air

in the system may not be something that will be

fully successful on another vessel while at sea,

but for any Coastguard CRV that has hydraulic

steering the crew should able to bleed their own

system if necessary. The basic procedure is the

same regardless of the actual system;

• Fill the hydraulic reservoir.

• Fit two lengths of clear plastic tubing to the bleed nipples on the piston cylinder, and

place the free ends into containers with a little oil in them. Keep the ends of the tubes

immersed in the oil to prevent air being sucked back into the cylinder.

• Turn the wheel slowly one way – oil (and hopefully air) will be vented from the bleed

nipple at one end of the cylinder (keep topping up the reservoir). When no more air is

vented, tighten the bleed screw, and repeat the process turning the wheel the other way

while venting the other end of the cylinder.

• If the steering is still spongy repeat the process.

Many hydraulic systems (especially those that have two steering positions)

have a bypass valve that when opened allow hydraulic fluid to circulate

freely around the system, and hence have no effect on the rudder(s) or drive

gear.

In the event of a seizure or breakage in another part of the system this by pass valve may

need to be opened to allow the rudder / drive systems to move freely. This would be

preferable to a steering system effectively jammed at an angle. With the rudder / drive

system working freely an alternative method of controlling steering might be employed, such

as emergency tiller (if the vessels has one) or the rudder(s) secured amidships by lashing /

clamping the rudders stock, quadrant or rack.


Alternative Steering If a vessels steering system is inoperable there may be alterative methods of steering that

can be employed. In most cases this will be to assist in a tow back to shore, but they may on

occasions be effective enough to allow a vessel to continue under its own power.

In a twin engine vessel varying the speed of the individual engines can be an effective

method of steering the vessel (a method that is very relevant to a lot of Coastguard CRV’s).

On small vessels an oar / paddle lashed to the stern of the vessel can made an effective

makeshift rudder. It will need to be well secured as the forward motion of the vessel will

naturally try to lift the ‘rudder’ upwards, but while secured allow enough lateral movement to

be effective for steering.

For a vessel with working outboard motor(s) but broken steering system, lashing an oar /

paddle, boat hook or similar to the outboard motor, can give enough leverage to become tiller

and hence an alternative steering method.

With larger vessels where an oar or similar will not be sufficient, rigging an effective

alternative steering method can be a difficult, complex, and time consuming problem..

Essentially what is required is sufficient drag to be employed on either side of the vessel to

steer in a particular direction. The amount or angle of drag must also be adjustable - the

speed and ease of that adjustment is the main problem to overcome. Often the only sensible

solution is a tow unless the vessel has available a powerful winch or winches to help with the

steering (as in the case with many sailing yachts).

In the picture opposite the yacht has a drogue deployed on a bridle

from its stern. Each end of the bridle is taken to one of its winches

in the cockpit. By easing away on one end, and winching in on the

other the drogue can be hauled from one side of the stern to the

other. This uneven drag will help to steer the vessel in a particular

direction.


The problem can arise however that the steering is not simply broken (in which case the

rudder / drive systems can often be secured in a central / midships position), but that the

steering is actually jammed at an angle. This may be due to damage incurred when hitting

and object, or if a rope / fishing gear has become entangled in the rudder.

To tow a vessel in such a condition it may be necessary to induce drag on one side of the

vessel to counteract its tendency to steer in one particular direction.

Trailing a drogue, suitable strong bucket (steel or canvas),

anchor and fenders lashed together, or any combination of

materials (even another vessel) that are robust enough,

and can create enough drag to help counteract a jammed

steering system may be the solution.

In extreme cases where the towed vessel is very difficult to

control the ‘drag device’ may need to be attached forward

of the vessels stern – the further forward it is the more

turning motion it will create to counteract the jammed

steering.


Damage Control

Damage control as the name would suggest is essentially about ensuring that any damage

or failure is contained, and at the very least not allowed to get any worse. Damage control is

normally an operation to combat fire, water ingress and / or structural failure.

Fire Fighting Fire is one of the most potentially dangerous emergencies to be encountered at sea. It is

also an emergency that requires quick action to contain or eliminate the emergency. Crew

training should include fire drills aboard the vessel, so that the actions required for

preventing, containing, and extinguishing a fire have been thoroughly rehearsed.

Fire needs three components

• Fuel to vaporise and burn.

• Oxygen to combine with the fuel.

• Heat to raise the temperature of the fuel vapour to

ignition point.

If any of these three are missing a fire will not start.

If any of these three are removed a fire will go out.

Removing the Fuel

• Turn off the supply – gas, petrol, or diesel.

• Physically remove near by materials that may combust.

Removing the Oxygen

• Fire blanket.

• Smothering agents – i.e. foam and CO2.

• Close down hatches and vents.

Removing the Heat

• Cool - i.e. use water.

• Turn off electrical supply.

The fourth component of a fire is the chain reaction that supports and sustains combustion.

Some agents such as Halon and dry chemical extinguishers directly attack the molecular

structure of compounds formed in the chain reaction.


Basic Generic Safety Rules • Upon discovery of a fire, call out / sound the alarm to summon help.

• Never pass the fire to get an extinguisher.

• If you enter a compartment to fight a fire, keep an escape path open.

• Never let the fire get between you and the escape path.

• Always keep as low down as possible to prevent inhaling fumes.

• If you enter a compartment, and fail to extinguish the fire with a portable fire extinguisher,

get out immediately and close the door or hatch to confine the fire.

Standard Fire Fighting Procedures The procedures described below should be part of every fire-fighting operation.

Alarm The crew member that discovers the fire, or an indication of fire, must raise the alarm and

give the location.

Reaction

• With a fire forward turn stern to wind if possible.

• With a fire aft turn head to wind if possible.

• If practical - anchoring or using a sea anchor may be a viable option.

• Make a distress call (it can always be cancelled if the fire is contained).

Assessment

• What is burning & where?

• How advanced is the fire?

• Can its spread be prevented?

• What type of extinguishing agent is suitable for the type of fire?

Are you able to secure or isolate other vulnerable areas of the boat, such as;

• Electrical circuits.

• Engine and fuel supply.

• Air intakes doors or hatches.


Combating the Fire Having assessed the fire, an attack should be started immediately to gain control and to

prevent or minimise the fire spreading. The attack will be either direct or indirect depending

on the fire’s situation.

• Direct If the fire is small and has not gained headway crew members can use an appropriate

extinguisher(s) directly onto the fire.

• Indirect Indirect attack is used once a fire has gained headway, or when it is impossible for crew

members to reach the fire. The success of an indirect attack depends on complete

containment of the fire. All possible avenues allowing the fire to spread must be cut off

by closing doors, hatches, and securing all ventilation systems.

The lack of ‘containment areas’ on most CRV’s and the speed at which fire can

spread, mean that if a direct attack with available extinguishers is not successful the

crew will have to abandon ship.

Overhauling the Fire Once the obvious signs of fire are extinguished, a careful examination of the vessel must

take place to ensure that the fire is completely extinguished. One crew member should be

assigned to do nothing but check for re-ignition.

Final Assessment

• Crew should now conduct a check of the vessel, and ‘tidy up’ as much as possible.

• Any necessary de-watering operations should be started.

• Re-stow all fire-fighting equipment.

• Portable fire extinguishers, whether partially or fully discharged, should be put aside and

replaced as soon as possible upon arrival back at Unit.

• Complete all necessary Unit and Maritime NZ paperwork.


Types and uses of extinguishers

Extinguishers generally affect one or two sides of the fire triangle. They smother the fire to

exclude or reduce oxygen, and some also have a cooling effect.

Class D fires involve combustible metals and require special purpose extinguishers.

Extinguishers also have pictograms showing which

class of fire they are suitable for, and which type of fire

they should not be used on

Note –1kg of extinguisher (regardless of type) gives approx 10 seconds of use.


Water Water is not usually carried on board CRV’s in an extinguisher – but is more likely to be used

in conjunction with a salvage / fire pump or bucket. Sea water is the most readily available

and most effective extinguishing agents for Class A fires. Water is primarily a cooling agent;

it absorbs heat and cools the burning material.

The effectiveness of water as a cooling agent can be greatly increased if it is delivered in a

spray. The increase in surface area when the water is in droplets greatly increases its ability

to absorb heat, and as a ‘water wall’ affords protection to the fire fighters from flames, heat,

and smoke.

Alternatively when delivered as a jet, the fire can be fought from a greater distance than any

hand held extinguisher.

Large amounts of water can however seriously affect the stability of a vessel – 1000

litres being roughly equivalent to 1 Tonne. There have been numerous cases of

vessels capsized and sunk because excessive amounts of water were used in fire

fighting.

The three most common types of extinguisher carried on small vessels are

• Dry powder.

• Foam.

• CO2.

Dry Powder Aimed at the base of the fire, and applied

with a sweeping motion.


Foam Foam is used in the same way as dry powder for Class A fires, but needs a different method

of application for Class B fires.

Applied directly onto a burning liquid the force of the extinguisher may spread the liquid and

hence the fire. The foam needs to be allowed to spread over the surface of the burning

liquid.

This can be done either by aiming the foam at an adjacent vertical surface and allowing it to

drop down the surface and spread out (1). Alternatively the foam is aimed in an arc to fall

vertically down onto the burning liquid (2).

CO2 Applied to the base of fire with a sweeping motion for a spill fire.

Applied downwards at the centre of a confined fire.

The effective range for a portable CO2 extinguisher is about

1.5m. Care should be exercised when using CO2 extinguishers,

the cylinder can get extremely cold – enough to induce cold

burns. The extinguisher should only be held by the trigger

handle and at the end of the hose (not the cone).

The cones usually found on the end of a CO2 extinguisher’s hose have occasionally been

known to blow off the end of the hose when the extinguisher is activated.


Rescue from Vessels on Fire (or chemical / gas situations)

In a fire it’s the smoke, not the flames that are the biggest killer. One breath of toxic

fumes may be all that is needed to inflict permanent lung damage.

The CRV should assess the situation (SAP – Stop Assess Plan), and come up with a plan that for safely evacuating

survivors from the distressed vessel while at the same time

minimising risk to the CRV and crew.

CRV crews are neither equipped nor trained to fight

any but the smallest fires – the priority is to save lives

not property.

The leeward side of the distressed vessel is most likely to

be affected by flames, smoke or fumes. However there

may be space on the lee side to affect a rescue depending

on the size of the vessel and its orientation to the wind.

If coming alongside to windward, a bow on rather than parallel approach should be

considered. This exposes less of the CRV and personnel to the danger of explosion from

fuel or LPG. The other danger of coming alongside parallel to the other vessel is the CRV

being ‘pushed on’ by wind and waves and subsequently having difficulty clearing away from

the vessel in a hurry.

The merits of a bow on approach will have to be

weighed against the increased difficulty in the

transfer of people across the bow.

If coming alongside the distressed vessel is not

considered a safe option, the only course of action

is to request that the crew abandon ship to be

subsequently recovered from the water.

If it is necessary to exchange lines its essential that a crew member tends them throughout

and is prepared to release or cut loose should the need arise.


There have been occasions where a vessel has caught fire amongst other vessels. Using a

grapple and chain / wire rope if there is a need to tow a burning vessel away from other

vessels in an anchorage or marina / fuel jetty might be a viable (and safer) alternative than

trying to attach a towline.

Water Ingress Vessels taking on water usually have one of three possible problems.

• The hull itself or fittings such as rudder stock or propeller shaft have been damaged in a

collision / grounding, or the vessel has suffered a structural failure such as a plank

working loose on a wooden vessel allowing water ingress.

• A seal preventing water ingress (such as a stern gland) or a pipe attached to a skin fitting

/ sea cock has given way or become detached.

• The plumbing system on the vessel itself has managed to create a siphon sucking sea

water into the vessel (marine toilets are a common cause of this particular problem).

The capacity of the pumps carried on most small vessels are not sufficient to deal with any

large ingress of water – One of the top priorities is to locate the water ingress and try to

stop it, or at least slow it down to the point where the pumps can cope .

An example of the pump capacity needed to deal with a ‘hole’ in the vessel;

• The large hand pump pictured opposite is a “Whale Gusher 30’.

At 70 strokes / min it displaces approx 115 litres / min.

• The smaller yellow pump (more the average size hand pump for

small vessels) will displace approx 55 litres / min.

• A 1” Jabsco engine driven pump displaces approx 75 litres / min.

• A 1”Jabsco high output electric pump displaces approx 165 litres /

min.

To put these figures in perspective - A 40mm diameter hole, 0.6m under the water will

allow in approx 265 litres / min, and 40mm is the sort of size you would expect for a

marine toilet outlet or the raw (salt water) engine cooling inlet for a large marine

diesel.


Salvage / Fire Pumps Prior to arriving at the scene the CRV crew may have the opportunity to

assemble their pump and hoses, prime and run it.

Having arrived on scene, accounted for the crew of the distressed

vessel, and carried out an assessment (remember – find out where

the water is coming from);

• The suction hose should be transferred into the water filled compartment on the

distressed vessel.

• Start the pump ensuring that the outlet clearly discharges overboard.

• Take care to keep the suction from getting blocked – loose plastic bags, rags etc in the

bilge can block the suction hose.

• Keep the pump secured on the CRV if at all possible, monitor fuel level, and provide ear

muffs / plugs for crew.

• A crew member should standby any lines made fast to a vessel that may subsequently

sink and be prepared to cut the CRV free.

If the source of the water ingress is accessible from inside the vessel, then it’s often a case

of initially stuffing rags / clothing or other suitable material into the hole to reduce the flow (or

simply turning off the relevant sea cock).

Reducing the flow to the point where the pumps can cope, will allow you time to come up

with a possibly more effective and permanent repair.

Pumps can and do fail or get blocked, so if every pump employed is only just

containing the water ingress, you should be looking for ways to reduce the ingress

still further if possible.


Fothering (collision mat) The source of the water ingress may not be easily accessible from the

interior of the vessel, in which case fothering may be an option.

Fothering is when a sail, tarpaulin or similar is positioned over the hole

and held in place on the outside of the hull. The water pressure will

push the material used into the hole and reduce the flow.

Positioning the fothering / collision mat can be tricky, and any lines

attached to the mat usually need to be weighted so they will drop

under the vessels hull. A triangular shaped mat like the one shown

opposite is often far easier to position and secure

Any movement through the water either by towing the distressed vessel, or them making way

under their own power will probably displace the fothering / collision mat – but again it may

buy you valuable time in which to come up with a more permanent fix.

Heel & Trim Deliberately heeling or trimming the distressed vessel is also a tactic that can be employed.

This may raise the hole out of the water, or at least getting it closer to the surface to reduce

water pressure, and hence the flow.

Tingles (patches) A small hole in a wooden or fibreglass hull can be repaired with what is traditionally called a

tingle. A tingle consists of a patch of soft metal or wood, tacked or screwed onto the hull

from the outside often with a cloth gasket of the same size between it and the hull.

In an emergency a patch of any suitable material may be fashioned and secured (inside or

outside the hull) from what is available – for example a plastic sheet / bag held in place with

duct tape.


Beaching

Beaching is a deliberate attempt to put the boat ashore. Such a manoeuvre may be

necessary if a boat has suffered serious damage, or is taking in water and is in danger of

sinking.

Beaching may be the only option, and the Skipper of the

damaged vessel may require help in selecting the most

appropriate method. The CRV may itself suffer some damage

and require beaching.

The nature of the emergency will probably not allow a particularly wide choice of suitable

sites, or much opportunity to spend time in selection. The ideal beach for the purpose should

be of sand, mud or light shingle. It should have a gentle slope and be free of off lying rocks,

boulders, surf, and cross-currents. A weather shore (where the wind is blowing off the land)

is almost always preferable to a lee shore (wind blowing onto the land).

If the distressed vessel still has steering and motive power, then it can beach itself – the

main question being whether to go in head or stern first?

Bow or Stern First? The advantages and disadvantages of a bow or stern first entry

onto a beach should be considered before any attempt is made

to beach a vessel.

Beaching the boat bow first will reduce the chance of damage

to the propeller / drive system and rudder(s).

Beaching stern-first leaves the bow seawards. This part of the boat is better shaped to ride

any waves and surf as the manoeuvre is carried out. For outboard-powered craft, tilting the

engine(s) will reduce the chance of damage.


Use of an Anchor to Control Speed and Broach When the wind and waves are blowing onto the beach, the vessel will try to broach (be

pushed sideways onto the beach) in the surf or as it runs aground. For example as the bow

touches bottom the waves pushing on the stern will tend to swing the vessel side onto the

shore. In addition to the influence of the wind and waves, the beach may also be subject to a

longshore current (a current running parallel with the beach which will also induce the vessel

to broach. (See Module Boat handling and Heavy Weather)

Viewed from seaward the conditions on a beach can often look far more benign than

they actually are. What can seem like only gentle surf can in reality be heavy and

potentially dangerous surf, which may cause a vessel that beaches to broach violently

or even roll.

The approach to the beach must be made at a speed slightly slower than the incoming

waves. If this is not possible by reducing the vessel’s motive power, a drogue can be used to

reduce speed, however only an anchor will prevent the vessel broaching once it runs

aground.

• The anchor is deployed from either the bow or stern (depending on how the approach is

made).

• Adjusting the tension on the anchor rode and allowing it to drag if necessary will control

the boat’s speed, prevent it from surfing uncontrollably and, by keeping it end-on to the

waves, will help prevent broaching as it approaches the beach.

• At a suitable distance from the beach the anchor is allowed to dig in and the anchor rode

surged to control the vessels speed and direction.

If conditions on the chosen beach are such that there is a significant risk of injury to

persons on board when beaching – it would be better to let the vessel beach

unmanned.


Securing on Landing Probably the moment of greatest danger is when the boat first touches the beach, especially

when there is an undertow running, as it could easily swing around to lie broadside to the

waves and subsequently be rolled up the beach.

To minimise this risk;

• On touching the bottom all aboard should jump over the side, and the boat should be

manhandled quickly as far up the beach as possible (if the size of the boat permits).

• A larger boat should be quickly secured in position. If possible lines should be run from

each bow and quarter up the beach and secured ashore to brace the boat. Secure them

to any suitable object; rocks, piles, trees, or posts driven into the sand.

• The anchor if used should be left to seaward; this will help hold the boat in position and

may be useful later when trying to refloat.

Towing a vessel onto a beach The distressed vessel may have lost steering, motive power, or conditions are such that

beaching the vessel unmanned is the only safe option. In this case the vessel will need to be

towed onto the beach. The principals remain the same, the problem is how to control the

beaching when towing.

If the distressed vessel has a significantly deeper draft

than the CRV (and the slope / gradient of the beach and

conditions allow), then towing the vessel astern of the

CRV onto the beach may be an option. As the vessels

beaches it will obviously decelerate rapidly so the final

approach should be made at slow speed and the towline

ready to be surged or let go completely.

Alternatively if conditions and time allow the vessel

might be towed alongside / barged onto the beach.

Barging the distressed vessel should only be attempted

if the vessel is not at any immediate risk of sinking –

having to cast off several lines in a hurry is something to

be avoided.


If none of these options are viable the distressed vessel will need to be towed into the shore,

and left to beach under her remaining momentum once the towline is slackened or cast off.

Any vessel that has been beached comes under the

authority of MNZ or the Local / Regional Harbour Master

depending on the location.

It is primarily the responsibility of the Skipper of the

distressed vessel to contact MNZ or the Harbour

Authority, but it’s unlikely that a recreational Skipper will

be aware of this.

The relevant authority must be informed (by Coastguard if necessary) as they have

responsibility for any subsequent pollution control.


Dismasting

Dismasting can pose a serious threat to the safety of a sailing vessel depending on the sea

conditions, where the failure in the rig occurred, and how the damaged mast and rigging are

now positioned relative to the vessels hull.

If the mast breaks completely at or near deck level, it will go overboard but still be attached to

the vessel by the remaining standing rigging (usually wire) and running rigging (rope). In

heavy weather a broken mast can easily punch a hole through a hull.

Sometimes the mast collapses (folds at a specific point) but does not break off completely.

If sea conditions are reasonably calm, a broken or collapsed mast might be pulled back on

board or lashed in position. In rough conditions for the safety of the vessel it may need to be

cut away – either completely or so that it can be towed behind the vessel.

Any assistance given to a dismasted vessel must be approached with caution. There may

be ropes trailing from the damaged rig in the water. The damaged rig can become a tangle

of moving wire & rope under tension, and any attempts to cut away or secure the broken rig

must be made methodically and carefully.

The standing rigging is normally attached to the hull by rigging screws

(pictured far right) made fast to chain plates (strong points) on the deck. The

easiest way to detach them is to remove the split ring or pin from the clevis

(retaining) pin, then remove or punch out the clevis pin.

Any tension on the rigging screw will need to be relieved to make the job easier. If this isn’t

possible then using bolt / wire cutters or a hacksaw to sever the wire may be the only option.


Swamped / Capsized Vessels

Calls for assistance can involve vessels that have been

swamped or capsized. As with all Coastguard operations the

priority is people not property; however de watering a

swamped vessel or righting a capsized vessel may become a

post rescue operation.

If a swamped vessel can be dewatered, or a capsized vessel righted it will obviously make

any subsequent tow quicker and easier, but both operations especially righting a capsized

vessel should be approached with caution. The potential risks to the CRV, its crew and

others involved must be carefully assessed.

Swamped Vessels

• Approach the swamped vessel cautiously, remaining clear of any lines.

• Attach towline - preferably to trailer eye if fitted as with normal towing operations.

• Any swamped vessel could be extremely unstable and may capsize easily - do not

attempt to board the vessel, unless absolutely sure that it is still stable.

• The CRV should get underway. The forward movement of the vessel and the free flow

effect of the water emptying over the stern will see significant proportion of the vessel de-

watered.

• When the water ceases to flow over the vessels stern, the forward way can be taken off

slowly, the vessel bought alongside, and a salvage pump used to finish off the de-

watering process.

In the case of a swamped vessel, attempting to dewater it by

towing is unlikely to make matters worse. If it was going to sink

it would have done so already. Attempting to right a capsized

vessel however could potentially result in the vessel sinking.

A vessel sinking while under tow, or attempting to establish a tow can have serious

implications for the CRV Skipper and crew. (See Module Towing Techniques)


Righting Capsized Vessels

The decision to right the vessel must be made carefully.

Is it necessary? Can the vessel be towed to a point of safety and secured

while still capsized? Can it at least be towed into

shallower / calmer water before any attempt to right it.

Will it make matters worse? A capsized vessel may be still floating because of its fixed buoyancy which is part of the

design of the vessel, or it may be air trapped inside the inverted hull that is keeping it afloat.

When righting the vessel any air trapped inside the hull will escape, and there is the very real

chance that attempting to right it will result in it sinking.

As with any Coastguard operation whether it is a simple tow or the offer of help with

some basic repairs – attempting to right a capsized vessel should only be attempted

with the full knowledge and consent of the distressed vessels Skipper.

Parbuckling (rolling the vessel)

‘Parbuckling’ is the term used to describe righting a

capsized vessel by passing ropes over its keel, and

fastening them to one side of the vessel. The CRV then

moves ahead, rolling the vessel over. As a swimmer is

often required to position the lines, this method should

not be attempted in anything but calm to moderate seas.

• Approach the capsized boat cautiously — downwind remaining clear of lines and debris.

• The CRV’s stern should be positioned perpendicular to the length of the capsized vessel

and lines made ready.

• A swimmer from the capsized vessel or a CRV crew member (wearing a PFD) should be

tasked to position and attach the lines between the two vessels.

• The lines are then brought over the capsized vessel’s keel, and attached on the side of

the upturned vessel furthest from the CRV.

• Lines should be kept clear of all handrails, life lines and stanchions. A light grapple may

also be of benefit if used carefully.


• Finally, adjust the length of both lines to prevent the righted boat from hitting the CRV,

and make fast to the CRV’s quarter cleats or bridle. In the case of righting a sailing

vessel the CRV should be positioned far enough away that the vessels mast will not hit

the CRV. The amount of water in the vessel

could make it extremely unstable, with the

very real chance that it will not just roll

upright, but will continue to roll and capsize

again.

• Recover the swimmer.

• The CRV moves ahead gently, and the force exerted on the lines should be sufficient for

the capsized vessel to be righted.

• The righted boat should be brought alongside so that de-watering can begin and the

appropriate recovery action taken.

If there is a risk of the vessel sinking once rolled upright, then a

towline from its bow / trailer eye should already be attached and

ready. As soon as the vessel rolls upright the lines used to

parbuckle are cast off or slacked away so that the towline takes up

the strain as per the operation for a swamped vessel.

Any risk of the vessel sinking also means that provision should be already made for

buoying the vessel should it subsequently sink.


End over End Method

Almost all vessels can be righted by parbuckling as they will have far less transverse stability

as compared to their longitudinal stability (see Module Boat handling & Heavy Weather).

There is however an alternative method that can be employed particularly with catamarans

where their transverse stability is far higher than that of an equivalent sized monohull.

This method for righting a capsized vessel uses two forces, one pulling on lines from the bow

or stern of the vessel, and the other being water pressure on the opposite end of the

hull(s).

Pulling the bow over Attach ropes from each of the catamarans bows running aft along the inside of its hulls to the

CRV’s stern, either as separate lines to each quarter, or in a bridle arrangement. When the

CRV moves ahead, the pressure along the rope will cause the catamaran to bury its stern in

the water, and effectively flick the bow over.

This method can risk damage to the rudders unless

they have been secured amidships, and the vessel

may try to yaw as it is being pulled over. The stern of

the vessel is also more resistant to burying in the

water than the bow. The advantage is that at least

the vessel is the being towed bow first once it has

been righted.

Pulling the stern over Attach ropes from each of the catamarans sterns running forward along the inside of its hulls

to the CRV’s stern. This time when the CRV moves ahead, the pressure along the rope will

cause the catamaran to bury its bow in the water. This method has the advantage that the

bow is far more easily buried in the water than the stern. The disadvantage is that the vessel

will be towed by the stern once it has been righted and if the rudders are not secured it will

induce the vessel to yaw and risk damage to the rudders.


Larger catamarans A variation on the same method is to increase the pulling power by employing two vessels in

the operation.

• The two vessels are positioned with their stern to the capsized craft’s bow and stern

respectively. When pulling the bow over.

• Attach lies from each of the catamarans bows running aft along the inside of its hulls to

the stern of one assisting vessel.

• Attach lines from the stern of the capsized vessel running forward outside the hulls to the

stern of the other assisting vessel at its bow.

• The vessel attached to the bow(s) moves ahead while the other vessel holds station until

the stern(s) bury. Then both assisting vessels move ahead, slowly increasing power until

the catamaran flips over.

The vessel pulling on the distressed vessels stern must be ready to instantly cast off

their tow line(s) if necessary to avoid becoming entangled with the mast.

A further variation is for one of the vessels to

be substituted for an anchor and bridle (or

preferably two anchors to avoid entanglement

with the mast) from either the catamarans

bow or stern.

Co coordinating two vessels or laying anchors from the capsized vessel can be a time

consuming and complicated affair and run the risk of increased damage to the vessel –

especially mast and rigging. Attempting this sort of recovery is probably best left to a

professional salvage company and the vessels insurers / owner to organise.


Rope Work – Knots & Methods for Damage Control

The ability to tie ‘standard’ knots, bends and hitches such as the bowline, clove hitch, sheet

bend, and round turn & two half hitches are basic core seamanship skills. When it comes to

damage control there are a few other knots which can be extremely useful, particularly when

it comes to securing things tightly (lashing a broken mast in position or providing support to a

damaged section of the vessels structure).

Constrictor knot The constrictor is essentially a variation of the clove hitch which is very secure. The

constrictor will need to be undone with the aid of a marline spike or similar if it has been

subject to heavy load.

The constrictor is formed by first tying a clove hitch (pictures 1 -3).

1 2 3

The bitter end is then tucked under its adjacent part (pictures 4 & 5). If when completing the

clove hitch, the bitter end came up from the right as in the example, it is tucked under the

adjacent standing part to its right. The hitch is then pulled tight - completed constrictor knot

(picture 6).

4 5 6


Rolling hitch A rolling hitch will enable a line to be tied onto another line, spar or similar, and pull exerted

on that line in one particular direction. There are many slight variations on how to tie a rolling

hitch, and the pictures below show just one particular version.

The bitter end is looped twice around the line / object working back towards the final direction

of pull (pictures 1 & 2).

1 2

The bitter end is then crossed over the initial turns and secured with a half hitch (pictures 3 &

4). The completed rolling hitch (picture 5).

3 4 5

Some times a single rolling hitch is not sufficient for the load. In which case a second (or

possibly third rolling hitch can be tied). The method is the same as described above only this

time there must be sufficient length of line in the bitter end to tie a second rolling hitch above

the first one (pictures 6 & 7). The completed double rolling hitch (picture 8).

6 7 8


Waggoner’s hitch The Waggoner’s hitch (sometimes referred to as a truckers hitch) also

has many variations. The essence of this knot is that it forms a crude but

still effective 2:1 purchase similar to the ‘whip’ purchase shown opposite.

To form a Waggoner’s hitch the line is first secured on the item that needs

to be tensioned (picture 1). A loop is formed (same as would be done for

a bowline) (picture 2). A bight is put through the loop (picture 3).

1 2 3

The loop is pulled down to hold the bight, which is then secured by a half hitch around the

standing part (picture 4).

The bitter end is passed through or around a fastening / strong point (picture 5). The bitter

end is passed through the loop formed previously and pulled tight - this is utilising the ‘block

& tackle ‘effect of the hitch (picture 6). The fall is made fast either by tying around another

strong point or by tying around the hitch itself.

4 5 6


Frapping Frapping is more of a method of tightening lines rather than a knot in its self. If two or more

lines are used to secure an object, frapping will increase the tension of those lines.

Once the securing lines are in place, another line (can be smaller / lighter line) is secured

(picture 1). The frapping line is then progressively wrapped around and pulled tight between

the main securing lines (pictures 2 & 3).

1 2 3

As the gap between the main lines is reduced their tension / loading will increase. Each

‘frap’ is like a small block and tackle being used – the cumulative effect is that by frapping

with even a very small diameter line, the loading on the main line(s) can be increased many

times more than by just hauling tight by hand or using a Waggoner’s hitch.

The frapping line is then secured by tying onto one of the original securing lines, or by a

couple of half hitches around the frappings (pictures 4 & 5).

4 5


12 BOAT HANDLING & HEAVY WEATHER

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 243 Small Vessel Design ..................................................................................................................... 244

Hull Design ............................................................................................................................... 244 Displacement Hull ............................................................................................................... 244 Planing Hull ......................................................................................................................... 245 Semi Displacement Hull ...................................................................................................... 245

Basic Hull Forms (planing) ............................................................................................................ 246 V Hull................................................................................................................................... 246 Tri-Hull and Cathedral Hull.................................................................................................. 246 Tunnel Bottom..................................................................................................................... 246 Tunnel “V” ........................................................................................................................... 246

Propulsion Systems....................................................................................................................... 247 Propeller Drive.......................................................................................................................... 247

Transverse Thrust ............................................................................................................... 247 Torque (Unequal Blade Pressure) ...................................................................................... 248

Twin Engines............................................................................................................................ 250 Turning – Using the ‘Outside’ Engine ................................................................................. 250 Turning – Using Alternate Engines ..................................................................................... 250 Turning – Using Both Engines (canting) ............................................................................. 251

Jet Drive ........................................................................................................................................ 252 Turning ..................................................................................................................................... 253

Pivot Points.................................................................................................................................... 254 Trim .......................................................................................................................................... 255 Trim .......................................................................................................................................... 256

Stability .......................................................................................................................................... 257 Centre of Gravity ................................................................................................................. 257 Equilibrium .......................................................................................................................... 257

Transverse Stability.................................................................................................................. 258 AVS (Angle of Vanishing Stability)...................................................................................... 258 Rolling Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 259

Longitudinal Stability ................................................................................................................ 260 Weather Forecasts ........................................................................................................................ 261

Wind Speed.............................................................................................................................. 261 Wind Directions ........................................................................................................................ 261 Swell Heights............................................................................................................................ 262

Waves............................................................................................................................................ 263 Wave Gradient ......................................................................................................................... 263 Breaking Waves ....................................................................................................................... 263 Effects of Shallow Water .......................................................................................................... 263 Reflected Waves ...................................................................................................................... 264 Refracted Waves...................................................................................................................... 264

Tide / Current................................................................................................................................. 265 Over falls .................................................................................................................................. 265 Long Shore Currents................................................................................................................ 265 Rip Currents ............................................................................................................................. 266

Bars ............................................................................................................................................... 266 Preparation............................................................................................................................... 266

Before You Cross................................................................................................................ 267 Going Out............................................................................................................................ 267 Coming Back....................................................................................................................... 268

Preparation for Heavy Weather..................................................................................................... 268 CRV Handling in Heavy Weather.................................................................................................. 269

Head Seas................................................................................................................................ 269 Beam Seas............................................................................................................................... 271 Following Seas ......................................................................................................................... 272 Ventilation................................................................................................................................. 274 Guidelines for Heavy Weather ................................................................................................. 275 General Rules on Trim ............................................................................................................. 275


Overview

Heavy-weather handling skills rely on an appreciation of vessel performance, and on

practical experience.

The widespread use of planing and semi displacement hull designs for CRV’s offers many

benefits in terms of overall speed, acceleration, and manoeuvrability.

It is often stated that a fast vessel can aid its crew to get out of a dangerous situation due to

the vessel’s potential speed of response. This is certainly true; however, this very speed of

response can also get the vessel into the dangerous situation in the first place.

Any Helmsman of a fast vessel, whatever its type or role, must have good anticipation, as

well as quick reactions.

CRV’s are very strongly built, and the greatest danger in heavy weather is usually the

potential for damage to the crew, not the vessel.


Small Vessel Design

It is important to understand how variations of design affect a vessel’s handling

characteristics. In general terms, yachts with fixed keels cope well in rough seas if properly

handled; most will capsize only in extreme conditions, and providing all hatches remain

secured, are virtually unsinkable. This is not so true of most power vessels (CRV’s

included): in extreme weather they are particularly vulnerable, and are subject to the

possibility of swamping or capsize.

Hull Design The hull is the main body of a vessel, consisting of a structural internal framework and its

external covering. There are many different skin types but the most common are wood,

fibreglass, steel, and aluminium.

There are three basic types of hulls:

• Displacement.

• Planing.

• Semi-displacement.

Displacement Hull As the name suggests, this hull design displaces the surrounding water. As the vessel

makes way, the water parts at the bow and closes in again at the stern. When making way

and as speed increases, the vessel’s stern will ride lower in the water. At maximum speed,

the vessel will exhibit a distinct bow and stern wave.

The vessel’s maximum speed is determined by its

underwater profile and waterline length, and is known as

hull speed. When a displacement vessel reaches its

maximum speed it develops a wave with a crest at the

bow and at the stern. At this point the vessel cannot

displace any more water as it moves forward. Care must

be taken when towing a displacement vessel not to

exceed this speed. (See Module Towing Techniques)


Planing Hull At rest and slow speed, the planing hull and the displacement hull are very similar. Both

displace the water around them, and a planing hull reacts in the same fashion as a

displacement hull when it initially gets underway.

However, at a certain speed (dependant on the hull

design), the external force of water running against the hull

acts on the hull shape and causes it to lift up onto the

water’s surface. At planing speed only a minimal amount

of the hull is in contact with the water.

The planing hull skims over the water surface. In this

state, small increases in power result in larger increases in

speed.

Just as the gradual and smooth application of power is required to move from displacement

to planing mode, so the reverse is true. If the power is cut suddenly, the hull will slap to the

water’s surface, causing rapid deceleration, and risk of injury to the crew.

Semi Displacement Hull A semi-displacement hull is a combination of the characteristics of both displacement and

planing hulls. That is, up to certain speeds the hull remains fully in the water in displacement

mode. Beyond this point the hull is raised to a partial plane.

The semi-displacement hull remains in the water

and never gets on top, like a planing hull does. It

gives more effective responses to increased

power than a displacement hull, but the vessels

top speed is nowhere near that of the planing

hull.


Basic Hull Forms (planing)

V Hull Most CRV mono-hull designs are based on a “V”

bottom hull form. The V hull generally offers good

speed with a soft ride. Softness of ride and increase or

decrease of speed can all be varied by the angle of the

"V" (called deadrise), the use of strakes and / or the

incorporation of a small flat at the very bottom called a

"pad. Pads on the aft keel area allow the vessel to

have certain surf board like characteristics that are, in

some circumstances an advantage. The addition of

these pads does however tend give a harder ride in

choppy seas.

Tri-Hull and Cathedral Hull Based on the principal of a central “V” hull, with some

degree of extra V added on the outside edge of the hull

(often most predominant near the bow). This hull form

provides a stable platform, particularly at rest. The penalty

however is a significantly rougher ride in choppy seas.

Tunnel Bottom This design differs from the older catamaran bottom in that

the inside corners (between the bottom and the tunnel) are

quite sharp. This allows very tight high-speed turns, and a

very soft ride. Some of these hulls have experienced

handling problems at low speeds.

Tunnel “V” Combines a shallow "V" bottom with twin tunnels, and provides

a far higher level of top speed performance, but rough water

handling characteristics are significantly reduced.


Propulsion Systems

Propeller Drive As the propeller spins, water accelerates through it, creating

a slightly smaller jet stream of higher-pressure water behind

the propeller; this creates the thrust which drives the vessel

forward.

There are right-hand rotating (RH)) and left-hand

rotating (LH) propellers. Most propellers on single

engine vessels are RH rotation. Viewed from

astern when going ahead, a right hand propeller

rotates clockwise, and a left hand propeller rotates

counter clockwise.

Transverse Thrust Transverse thrust is a sideways force that is generated as a propeller rotates (also known as

‘prop walk’ or ‘paddle wheel’ effect).’

Although the propeller is designed to concentrate the water into a jet, a certain amount is

thrown off sideways. When a propeller rotates, the blades at the bottom of the rotation are in

water of a slightly greater pressure, this will result in slightly more sideways thrust at the

bottom of the rotation compared to the top.

In a RH prop this will tend to turn the vessel to port when going ahead.

The effect while going ahead is so small, and easily corrected by the

helm that it is hardly noticed.

Every propeller will produce transverse thrust, but the effect is usually more pronounced on

fixed shaft / inboard engine vessels. This is mainly because of the deeper and larger

propellers, and hence greater proportional difference in water pressure between the top and

bottom of the propellers blades.


In reverse the effect is far more pronounced simply because the shape of the blades are not

as efficient when going astern, and more water is thrown off sideways. (Diagram below left)

Single engine vessels (if they are RH props) will inevitable swing their stern to port when the

engine is put astern (Below right).

Torque (Unequal Blade Pressure) Depending on the angle of the propeller drive shaft, another form of sideways thrust can

develop. This is when there is unequal blade pressure, and is of particular significance in

vessels with outboard engines because of their ability to change the trim of the engines.

If the engine is trimmed in or out the angle of the propeller blades

in the water will alter. In the diagram opposite a RH engine is in

ahead with neutral trim. The angle at which the downward moving

blades are moving through the water is equal to the angle of the

upward moving blades.

When the engine is trimmed in, the downward rotating

blades angle to the water has changed. Its pitch has

increased while the upward rotating blades pitch has

decreased. This results in unequal blade pressure or

torque. This effectively tries to twist the vessel, pulling the

starboard side down.

In this case with a single RH engine the vessel will be

forced to starboard.


With the engine trimmed out the opposite happens and

the vessel is now pushed to port.

With twin counter rotating engines this effect is

cancelled out as each engine (if trimmed equally) will

produce equal torque in opposing directions.

When operating with only one engine the effect can be very pronounced,

so while engaged in close quarter manoeuvres it is usually preferable to

have neutral trim rather than the engines trimmed in.

If the depth of water is such that the engines need to be

trimmed out / up then at least the torque produced will help to

move the vessel in the direction you would expect when using a

single engine.

With engines trimmed out, going ahead on the starboard engine

will produce torque that turns the vessel to port. Going ahead

on the port engine will produce torque which turns the vessel to

starboard. (Diagram opposite)

Transverse Thrust and Torque are factors to be taken into consideration when

manoeuvring. Each vessel will be different, and the only way to fully understand and

appreciate these effects is to experiment & practice.


Twin Engines Vessels with twin engines will normally be counter

rotating with the starboard engine RH and the port

engine LH. This balances the transverse thrust from

each engine and ensures it works to advantage when

turning the vessel in a tight circle or in small / enclosed

areas.

Turning – Using the ‘Outside’ Engine Twin engine vessels will develop a smaller turning circle by ‘

favouring’ (increasing the throttle) or only using the engine

on the outside of the turn. For manoeuvring in close

quarters to other vessels / objects this is far more effective

than simply turning the wheel and keeping both engines at

the same throttle setting and direction of drive.

When turning while going ahead, using the outside engine the transverse thrust (although

small) also helps to turn the vessel in the desired direction.

Turning – Using Alternate Engines To turn in a very tight circle, the engines can be used alternatively – first in ahead then

astern. In both ahead and astern, the transverse thrust is working to advantage. In the

diagram below the pictures of the vessel have been separated for clarity; in reality with this

method the vessel can be turned in space little more than its own length.


Turning – Using Both Engines (canting) Another method is to use both engines simultaneously, one in ahead, one in astern, and the

helm central. This is a slow method compared to using alternate engines and on many

vessels not a very effective method either. The outboard engines are often so close to each

other that they develop very little ‘turning’ motion.

In the diagram opposite the port engine (LH) is in ahead which

produces a small amount of transverse thrust to starboard. The

starboard engine is in astern also producing (far greater)

transverse thrust to starboard.

A slight variation to this method can produce a far quicker and

more positive turn. This time the helm is used to turn. In the

diagram opposite the helm is to starboard, starboard engine in

astern, and port engine in ahead. The speed and size of turning

circle can be further controlled by ‘pulsing’ (giving short bursts of

ahead) the port engine instead of constant throttle.

Both the above methods have limited practical application. The main reason for this is in real

life situations a vessel is turned / manoeuvred using the available space (in tight situations

may need to use all the available space). Pivoting around by canting engines often leads to

the vessel running out of space, because while turning the wind or tide is pushing it towards

a hazard or obstruction.

Using alternate ‘outside’ engines and steering is generally a much more effective and flexible

method to use in close quarter manoeuvres.


Jet Drive

Essentially, a water jet is like an aircraft jet

engine, except that it uses water not air. Water

from beneath the vessel is fed through an inlet to

an inboard pump (the impeller) which accelerates

the water flow and then directs it to an outlet

nozzle. This acceleration creates the thrust of

the water jet.

Unlike propellers drives, jets do not have any form of transverse thrust or torque.

Steering is controlled by angling the outlet nozzle (or less commonly) by directional

deflectors, that direct the water jet to one side or another.

• In ahead the reverse deflector or bucket (diagram below left - shaded in black ) is raised

to allow the jet to push the vessel forward.

• When the bucket is put in a neutral position, the jet is forced down and to each side.

Ahead and astern thrust is equal, so the vessel stays in the same position (below middle).

• Astern is achieved by lowering the bucket even further, which deflects the jet forwards

(below right).

Jet drives give a high level manoeuvrability, and very quick response to any change of helm

or selection of ahead / astern thrust. The engine can be running at full throttle and producing

a correspondingly powerful jet of water, but with the bucket in neutral the vessel is stationary.

Raising or lowering the bucket will give near instant full power in ahead or astern.

When it comes to close quarter manoeuvres, the throttle control on a jet drive is essentially

adjusted to select the sensitivity of the controls, and speed at which the vessel will react and

manoeuvre.


Turning Turning a jet drive vessel while going ahead, (bucket raised) is no different to a conventional

propeller drive. Turn the wheel to starboard and the jet is deflected to starboard (diagram

below left).

The difference with jet drives is when astern is

selected. On almost all jet drives the bucket remains

fixed so that it can go up and down, but it does not

angle from side to side with the nozzle.

When astern is selected on the bucket, the jet is

deflected in the completely opposite direction to thrust

of a propeller (opposite right).

Jets drive the completely opposite way to propeller drives when in astern.

This means that for turning in a tight circle a vessel with a single jet drive can be alternately

put in ahead and then astern and turned without having to adjust the steering.

For vessel with twin jets turning in a tight circle can be as simple as putting

the wheel over in the direction you wish to turn and then going ahead on

the ‘outside’ engine and astern on the ‘inside’ engine. With jets this can

be completed far more effectively than equivalent manoeuvres using

propeller drive (opposite).

Jet drives have the ability to turn very quickly, in very tight circles and can give full power in

an instant. With an experienced helmsman they easily carry out manoeuvres that are

extremely difficult if not impossible with most propeller drives.

This speed of response also means that an inexperienced helmsman can get

themselves into trouble very quickly.


Pivot Points

At displacement speed all vessels whether displacement, planing or semi displacement

exhibit similar handling characteristics regarding their pivot point. The pivot point of any

vessel is dependent on the position of the thrust from the drive units (propeller or jet) and the

underwater profile of the hull (how much ‘grip’ it has in the water).

Going Ahead When going ahead, a vessel has ‘rear wheel steering’ just

like a forklift. For most propeller drive vessels the pivot is

located approximately 1/3 of the vessels waterline length

abaft the bow.

Jet drive vessels often have a relatively shallow draft (with no

props or rudders below the hull they are very suited to

operate in shallow water). They also may have a fairly

shallow dead rise and very flat aft section, to allow an

uninterrupted flow of water to the jet inlet. With less grip in

the water their manoeuvrability is greatly increased, and their

pivot point is often further aft than a comparable propeller

drive vessel.

Knowing the location of the pivot point is vital in close quarter manoeuvring.

When going ahead;

• The bow cannot be turned unless there is room for the stern to move in the opposite

direction.

• To move the bow sideways will usually require a larger movement of the stern in the

opposite direction.


Going Astern This time the vessel has front wheel steering, so when the

vessel is in astern the pivot point moves aft. For most

propeller drive vessels this is usually to a point approximately

1/3 or less of the vessels waterline length forward of the stern.

For many jet drive vessels the pivot point is even further aft.

As with turning while going ahead, when going astern the

majority of the vessel swings in the opposite direction to the

turn.

When going astern

• The stern cannot be turned unless there is room for the bow to move in the opposite

direction.

• To move the stern sideways will usually require a larger movement of the bow in the

opposite direction.

Failure to appreciate and make allowance for the location of a vessels pivot point is

one of the most common mistakes made in close quarter manoeuvres.

The pivot points (in ahead or astern) of a displacement vessel remain fixed (unless the trim

and hence underwater profile is altered appreciably). The pivot point of a planing or semi

displacement vessel can change considerably.

As a vessel moves from displacement to planing mode the amount of hull in contact with the

water reduces and moves aft, as a result the pivot point also moves aft.


Trim How a vessel is trimmed can have a marked effect on its handling characteristics.

A vessel trimmed down by the bow will not be able to ride the waves in a head sea as easily,

but will tend to bury the bow into the waves. It will also be more prone to broach in following

seas. Broaching is where the bow buries itself in the face or trough of a wave but the

momentum of the stern results in the vessel slewing sideways and ending up lying across the

face of the wave. This can leave the vessel at high risk of capsize.

The trim of a displacement vessel is altered by the distribution

of weights within / on the vessel and as such is not usually

easily changed. Planing and semi displacement boats often

have the ability to alter their trim by altering the trim of the

engines, or by the use of trim tabs (picture opposite).

Trim tabs act in a similar way to horizontal rudders. When the trim

tab is pushed down it directs water downwards, and the force of the

water on the trim tab generates a lifting force which will raise the

stern and depress the bow.

In the diagram opposite the vessel is heeled to

port, by using the port trim tab only it can be

brought back to an upright position.

As mentioned previously the vessels trim can also be altered by trimming the engines.

Trimming the engines out will raise the bow, while trimming them in will depress the bow.

The engines can be trimmed individually to adjust the angle of

heel just like trim tabs. Equally trim tabs can be used together

to trim the vessels bow up or down. As a general rule engine

trim would be the primary choice for altering a vessel’s trim

bow up / bow down, and the tabs used to correct any heel /

list. .

The best general guideline as to whether a vessel is trimmed correctly is usually by the ‘feel’

of its steering. Trimmed well with a smooth flow of water around and past the hull the

steering will be light and responsive. Trimmed badly and the steering will be heavy.


Stability

A vessel has two principle types of stability, longitudinal and transverse.

Longitudinal (fore-and-aft)

• Longitudinal stability tends to keep the vessel from pitching. Poor longitudinal stability

characteristics may cause discomfort because of excessive pitching and make for a very

wet ride.

Transverse (athwartship)

• Transverse stability tends to keeps the vessel from capsizing. Knowledge of the

transverse stability of any vessel is important in order to determine the amount of roll

allowable without the danger of capsizing.

The two principle forces that affect stability are static and dynamic forces.

• Static Forces caused by placement of weight within the hull - adding weight on one side

of the vessel’s centreline or above its centre of gravity usually reduces stability.

• Dynamic Forces caused by actions outside the hull - wind and waves are dynamic forces.

Centre of Gravity The centre of gravity is the point that represents the sum of all weights of, and in the vessel.

In other words, the vessel acts as though all of its weight was concentrated at this point. The

centre of gravity of a vessel does not move unless weight is added, subtracted, or moved.

When weight is added, the centre of gravity moves toward the added weight. When

the weight is removed the centre of gravity moves in the opposite direction.

Centre of Buoyancy

The force of buoyancy that keeps a vessel afloat, acts vertically upwards through the centre

of buoyancy. This is the point on which all upward / vertical force is considered to act. It lies

in the centre of the underwater form of the hull.

Equilibrium When the centre of buoyancy acting vertically upwards is

in line with the centre of gravity acting vertically

downwards, the vessel is considered to be in equilibrium.


Transverse Stability When a vessel heels, the underwater shape changes which causes the centre of buoyancy

to move.

The centre of buoyancy will always move toward that

part of the hull that is more deeply immersed, so that

the force of buoyancy acting upwards brings the vessel

back to an even keel.

This force acting to push the vessel back upright is

often referred to as the righting lever (diagram opposite

indicated in red). Like any lever the longer it is the

more force exerted.

As the vessel continues to heel, this

lever gradually increases up to a point

at which the deck edge is awash

(immersed). At this point the centre of

buoyancy ceases to move any further

from the centre of gravity. (Opposite

left) Beyond this point the vessels

heels righting lever begins to decrease. (Right)

AVS (Angle of Vanishing Stability) When the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy are in a vertical line there is no righting

lever left, and the vessel has reached the Angle of Vanishing Stability or AVS. (Below left)

Any further movement will take the vessel

beyond its AVS, producing a lever that will

act to capsize the vessel not right it

(opposite right).

Any weights added, subtracted, or

moved will affect vessels stability.


In the diagrams below the vessel is heeled at equal angles, but if the centre of gravity is

higher the righting lever is much smaller (diagram middle). If the centre of gravity were to

move (due to unsecured equipment or crew), then again the righting lever is reduced, and

the vessel will reach its AVS far sooner (diagram right).

Rolling Characteristics The rolling characteristics of a vessel depend on the hull shape. For example a round hull

will roll easily since no water has to be displaced to alter the angle of the keel. For whatever

type of vessel;

Watch the period of time required for a complete roll from side to side. The period

should remain approximately the same regardless of the severity of the angle or roll.

Should the period increase appreciably or the vessel appears to hesitate at the end of

the roll before coming back, the vessel is approaching or past the maximum righting

lever. Immediate steps should be taken to decrease the roll by changing course,

speed or both.


Longitudinal Stability Works in the same way as transverse stability,

and because vessels are usually much longer

than they are wide they will have far greater

longitudinal stability compared to their

transverse stability.

Two of the primary characteristics affecting

longitudinal stability of a vessel are the design

of its bow and stern.

The Bow The bow of a vessel must be designed with sufficient buoyancy so that it lifts with the waves

and does not cut through them too easily. When a vessel is heading into a wave, the bow

will initially start to cut into it. Not enough buoyancy can cause the bow to continue cutting

into the wave and become immersed in it. The extra weight of the water will then shift the

centre of gravity forward and further diminish the righting lever.

Vessels intended for operating in rough seas and heavy weather generally have fuller bows

than those designed to operate in slight to moderate seas.

The Stern The design of the stern is as important as the design of the bow. Ideally a vessel should

possess the same type of bow and stern. For example, a full bow should be balanced by a

full stern. However this is not easily possible in planing hulls as there needs to be a sharp

edge between the aft section of the CRV’s hull sides and the transom, to prevent water flow

dissipating around the stern causing turbulence and drag.

The design of the stern is not too critical when operating in head seas; it is, however, of great

importance in following seas, travelling at speeds slower than the waves, when the stern is

the first part of the vessel to meet the waves. For instance, if the stern is lifted too high by

following waves and the bow is fine, it may bury itself in the sea. Such a position permits the

stern to pivot towards the bow. If this is not controlled it can result in the vessel broaching or

pitch poling.


Weather Forecasts

A weather forecast for any given area is only an estimated average of wind speed, direction

and wave / swell heights, and it must be realised that the weather that you experience locally

may differ greatly from the actual forecast.

Wind Speed Wind speed is described in multiples of 5 knots. A given wind speed implies a 10-knot

range; for example, if the wind speed is forecast to be 15 knots, wind speeds between 10

and 20 knots should be expected.

Gusts can be up to 50% higher than the average wind speed, and local affects caused by

valleys or hills can alter the wind speed by + / - 100%

In other words the forecast may be for 15kts, but locally the average may be 20

gusting 30kts. Coupled with the influence of a ravine or valley that accelerates the

wind you might encounter an average wind speed of 40 gusting 60kts.

Wind Directions Wind directions are again an estimated average, e.g. for the Recreational Marine forecast

issued by the Met service. Wind directions given are the eight points of the compass (that is,

north, northeast, east, southeast, etc)

If a forecast is for a Southerly wind (180°) then realistically the direction you might

experience is between South Southwest to South Southeast, or even between Southwest to

Southeast. In the recreational forecasts only changes in direction of 45 degrees or more are

mentioned.

A change of up to 45° in the wind direction could have a significant bearing on what

might be considered a safe route or even a safe haven for a towed vessel.

Wind direction can also be greatly affected by local terrain, and any CRV crew must be

aware of local affects on wind speed and direction in their area.


Swell Heights Swell waves are waves which have moved away from their area of generation. They may

have little or no relationship to local wind conditions. Swells generated over the eastern

Pacific regularly arrive on the eastern coasts of New Zealand. Thus, a part of the New

Zealand coast may have little or no wind but a large swell, or winds and swells which are in

opposing directions.

Swells are only included in forecasts when they are expected to be 1 metre or greater. Their

direction is given as one of the eight points of the compass.

Swells are described in terms of significant height. Significant height is defined as the

average height, from trough to crest, of the highest third of the waves. This means that some

swell or sea waves will be notably larger than the significant height. For example, if the

forecast is for 4 metre swells, then the occasional 6 metre (50% +) wave should be expected,

and there is a high probability that you will encounter an 8 metre (100% +) swell.


Waves

Broad, rounded waves associated with deep water and choppy waves frequently found in

shallow water and confined areas of bays and inland lakes cause few problems for the well

handled CRV. It is not necessarily the size of a wave that poses a danger to a vessel, but its

gradient (how steep it is) or whether the wave is breaking.

Wave Gradient The ratio of wave height to length determines how dangerous a wave is. The steeper the

gradient the more likely it is to break. The gradient of the wave also affects the ability of the

vessel to safely ride up or down the wave without loosing control.

Breaking Waves Breaking waves are the most dangerous kind of waves encountered in any small vessel

operations. Sea water weighs just over 1 tonne per cubic meter, and a breaking wave has

the potential to drop several tonnes onto a vessel and its crew.

Effects of Shallow Water In deep water waves are circular in motion, as

the waves get to shallow coastal water changes

take place both in speed and shape. They

become shorter and steeper as they come into

contact with the sea bed. This happens at a

point where the water is approximately one half

as deep as the wave's length. Breakers will

normally form when the swells reach water that is a little deeper than their height. But waves

can crest and break at a depth twice their height, if there is a strong pushing wind and if the

tide is flowing against the swells.


Waves breaking on the shore may exhibit quite different

characteristics depending on the gradient of the shoreline.

• A shallow gradient will produce spilling breakers.

• A steeper gradient will produce plunging breakers.

• A very steep gradient will produce surging breakers.

Reflected Waves Reflected waves (for example rebounding off steep

cliffs or breakwaters) can be extremely dangerous.

The effect of waves from different directions meeting

can produce extremely confused seas with individual

waves which suddenly ‘explode’ upwards.

Refracted Waves Wave patterns can be refracted or bent by land masses or shallow water. As the waves

move into shallower water it will slow down. The part of the wave still in deeper water

continues at the same speed. This will cause the part of the wave in shallower water to bend

in towards the land. In the example below the waves either side of the land mass are being

refracted inwards to meet at the end of the headland / island. This can produce similar

conditions to those of reflected waves.


Tide / Current

Over falls The gradient of a wave can be affected by the

influence of tide or current. When the wind and

tide / current are in the same direction the waves

are to an extent flattened. With wind and tide /

current in opposition the waves become steeper.

This can lead to short choppy waves much

higher than those formed by wind alone.

As a general guideline;

The additional wave height is equivalent to 10 knots of wind for every knot of tidal /

current against the wind.

For example; the sea conditions you might expect when you have 2kts of tide against a 20kt

wind may be more like the conditions normally experienced in 40 kts of wind.

This guideline is for deep open water, areas around the coast prone to strong tides

such as head lands, will probably also be subject to shallow water, refraction and

reflection affects. All of which can combine to produce extremely dangerous

conditions. These areas are known as over falls.

Long Shore Currents When a wave pattern is refracted due to shallow water it

will often result in the waves breaking directly onto the

shore, while the waves in deeper water are running at

an angle or parallel to the shore. The water reflected

back out to sea after breaking on shore is carried along

by the wave pattern in deeper water. The result is that

although the waves are breaking directly on to the shore, there is a strong movement of

water along the shore line in the direction of the waves in deeper water. This is known as a

Long Shore current.


Rip Currents A rip current is where the long shore current has been deflected (by changes in the depth

and contour of the sea bed) out to deeper water rather than running parallel to the shore. Rip

currents will often create a deep channel in a beach. The increase in depth often results in

fewer breakers within the rip. Rip currents can often be easily identifiable because of the

significantly ‘calmer’ water.

While a rip current may present problems to a swimmer – a vessel can use it to its

advantage. The reduced amount of breakers and deeper water can make a much safer area

to use in approaching the shore.

Bars

A bar is an ‘underwater hill’ caused when silt is washed

out and deposited at the entrance of a river mouth or

harbour. As waves or swell move in from the sea, they

meet the rising seabed causing seas to break. A

strong outgoing current can also create standing waves

and a confused pattern of breaking seas.

Preparation • Before crossing any bar, it is prudent to seek advice from someone who is familiar with its

current state, especially if you have any doubts about the condition or location of the best

transit area.

• A visual check of the bar from any vantage point is highly recommended.

• The weather forecast and tide times will also have a bearing on likely bar conditions.

High tide gives maximum water over the ‘hill’ which will reduce the height of any wave

formation.

• The vessel should be rigged for such conditions with all moveable objects secured.


Before You Cross

• If possible, run the vessel for five to ten minutes before you cross in order to observe the

bar and to ensure your motor is running without fault.

• Perform some tight turns to test the steering.

• Accelerate and decelerate to test the throttle performance.

• Approach the bar with caution and study the nature of any breaking seas. At this point

you need to assess whether a bar crossing is possible, based on your knowledge of the

capabilities of both your vessel and crew, and, if so, the best route to take.

• A trip report (T/R) must be made on VHF radio immediately prior to, and following a bar

crossing (this applies both to going out and coming back in).

• Once you have committed your vessel to cross a bar you should not turn back. Trying to

turn around will almost inevitably result in disaster.

Going Out Use your most experienced helmsman when crossing in difficult or hazardous conditions.

Initial crew training trips should only be conducted when the bar is considered safe.

• Slowly approach the bar, and then hold station for as long as it takes to get your bearings

and to pick up the rhythm of the wave sets. When the window of opportunity comes, take

it.

• If a big wave does unexpectedly rear up, present the vessel’s bow to the wave and hit the

wave at about 0 - 10° off head-on, with good throttle.

• Once through, back off the throttle so as not to power off the back of the wave. This will

enable an assessment of the next and subsequent waves to be made before continuing.

• Always look and try for the lowest point of the wave and be prepared to alter course early

to cross at that point. Remember the correct angle of approach.

• Be careful of applying too much throttle in the frothy residue of the breaking waves as

ventilation and loss of power may occur when it is most needed.

Units based at a harbour with a bar or where crossing bars are likely should conduct

extensive training in crossing bars. Dangerous bars should not be attempted in darkness.


Coming Back

• A trip report (T/R) must be made on VHF radio immediately prior to, and following a bar

crossing. It is far more difficult to assess bar conditions from out at sea.

• If possible communicate with a shore base or other vessels that have recently made the

return trip, to ascertain the current conditions.

• Crew should be suitably briefed for their roles which should include a stern lookout for the

duration of the crossing.

• Extreme care should be exercised if towing another vessel over a bar, due to decreased

manoeuvrability and speed.

• Plan ahead for the time when the return trip is not possible.

Due to the risk of broaching / capsize coming back in is usually far more hazardous

than going out.

Preparation for Heavy Weather

If you are knowingly heading out to seas expected to be rough, a few additional checks

should be made beforehand to ensure that your vessel is primed for the experience:

• Weights in a boat should be stowed uniformly on both sides of the hull, and stowed as

low as possible to keep the centre of gravity low.

• All loose items must be securely lashed.

• Fuel and water tanks should ideally be topped up to minimise ‘free surface’ effect, as

liquids moving within a tank can dramatically alter the centre of gravity.

• All hatches and anchors should be secured.


CRV Handling in Heavy Weather

The following text applies equally to a planing or semi displacement vessel.

Head Seas The helmsman should present the CRV to oncoming waves at a speed which allows the

vessel to maintain a slight bow up angle. This ensures that after passing the crest of the

wave, the CRV after possibly jumping partially or completely out of the water, will land in a

relatively comfortable manner, and also in the best position for the next wave. The vessel

should be driven so that it maintains an upright position at all times with no tendency to land

on either of its shoulders or its side. It must be stressed that the speed of the vessel is

critical and the correct speed required may vary greatly according to the circumstances and

sea state.

Slight to moderate conditions generally present few problems to a CRV. Good speed can be

maintained without the vessels head being thrown up and jumping occurring. In such

conditions the helmsman should maintain a speed which allows the vessel to keep contact

with the water surface and does not induce jumping.

In more adverse conditions, it may be

impossible for the helmsman to prevent

jumping when travelling at speed, but a

good angle of re-entry should be aimed for.

Ideally, this angle should not exceed approx

30°off the horizontal.


It is normally high winds with broken seas that cause most concern. In such conditions, the

helmsman must ensure that the vessel's bow does not rear up too violently. The danger is

that the CRV jumps the top of the wave at such

an angle that the windage on the hull and the

weight (and hence momentum) of the engines

combine to push the CRV into a vertical or near

vertical position with disastrous consequences

on landing.

If the CRV does become airborne do not throttle back, the vessel will just slam into the

trough even harder. Keeping the power on will also help to prevent water being forced back

up the exhaust and stalling the engine(s).

When a CRV is presented to a wave which has a curling, unbroken crest, it is essential that it

is given enough speed and power to break through this wave, but not with so much speed as

to cause a very steep angle of re-entry. It is also important to accelerate into the crest at the

right time to bring the bow up; if the bow is allowed to drop and then accelerated into the sea

it is possible for it to dig in as the curling

water passes over the bow. The vessel

may easily get caught up in the wave and

either be held stationary or even be

dragged along inside the wave.

The most direct course to the destination may not

be the best course to follow (diagram opposite).

Angling the CRV to the line of the waves has the

effect of lengthening the distance between crests.

This can produce a much more comfortable ride.

Every effort must be made to anticipate and react to the on

coming waves. Wherever possible the CRV should be

steered to the low side of the breaking sea, thereby

protecting the vessel from the full hazard of the wave

(diagram opposite).


The most dangerous type of wave that may have to be negotiated is a heavy, breaking sea.

This occurs when a large, curling unbroken crest forms, then becomes unstable. The crest

accelerates and crashes down the face of the still curling wave. These waves present an

almost vertical wall of dense water with broken surf falling in front.

If the helmsman is unable to avoid the breaking wave,

they must maintain enough way on the CRV to keep its

bow into the wave (approximately 0 - 10 ° off head on).

If the helmsman cannot keep the CRV head into the

sea and allows it to go beyond 15 - 25° off, there is a

distinct possibility of capsize occurring

Beam Seas The helmsman should avoid crossing the path of waves near to the face of their crests. The

normal practice either is to run round the back of the bigger waves, or run clear down the

face of the wave before altering back onto course.

If crossing a line of crests, wait until a wave to

windward breaks, and then drive through the

smooth patch left by the broken wave. The

helmsman must judge the speed and formation

of the waves, and then adjust the speed and

course of the CRV to best advantage.

If the CRV starts to take a list away from the wave face either immediately turn to run directly

before the wave or turn directly into the wave. Under no circumstance must the helmsman

allow the CRV to maintain a list down

the face of the wave, as very rapidly the

vessel will dip its deck edge, which may

lead to capsize.


Following Seas Oceanographic studies have shown that normal maximum wave speed in gale to storm

conditions is approximately 24 knots. This is for open water, and closer to the coast the

waves will slow down due to the shallow water affect. This means that a CRV, with speeds

in excess of 30 knots, should (theoretically) be able to outrun most normal adverse sea

conditions.

In slight to moderate conditions, the helmsman can maintain almost full speed, but must be

careful to make sure that they allow the vessels bow to rise prior to accelerating up the back

of the wave ahead. If the helmsman decides to jump the wave ahead, the re-entry point into

the water may be further away than expected. Unless the helmsman has been very careful

with the angle of the CRV passing over the crest; it may be presented with a flat landing or

worse “stuff the bow’ into the trough or back of the wave ahead.

Once the wave size increases, the CRV tends only to negotiate the crest and then re-enter

the water still on the face of the same wave. It now becomes necessary for the helmsman to

allow the CRV to regain the correct bow up attitude before accelerating into the back of the

next wave.

If the vessels bow is not kept at a good angle it can again “stuff its bow” - into the face of the

wave just negotiated or its trough. This can be dangerous if the “stuffing” is violent enough to

decelerate the CRV to the point where the crest of the wave just negotiated catches up with

the now stalled vessel. This can cause a broach and subsequent capsize.


As the sea state increases it may well be too risky to attempt jumping the crest in front or

even allowing the craft to be positioned close to the wave crest.

This area of water near the crest is often highly aerated, and can drastically affect the

performance of the vessel. It is also possible that the wave crest may collapse, and if the

CRV is positioned too near the crest, it may well fall below the ‘dumping’ sea.

If the CRV does fall down the face of such well formed waves, it can easily be pitch poled by

the sheer speed and weight of the following wave. As the vessel accelerates down the face

of the crest, the bow will dig in because of the extreme angle of descent. This will act as a

brake. The stern is held in the fast moving water adjacent to the wave crest and in extreme

circumstances, the force of water on the stern will roll the vessel stern over bow.

It is essential that the CRV’s speed and manoeuvrability are used to the full when running in

heavy weather. Ideally the CRV should be positioned on the back of the wave, away from

the possible area of aeration, but in front of the base of the trough.

This position allows a greater view of the

surrounding area. The helmsman will vary the

engine revs to allow the position to be maintained,

and it is often possible to cover a considerable

distance on the back of one wave before it is spent.

As each wave begins to spend, the helmsman

should manoeuvre the CRV diagonally across the

sea to pick up another suitable wave.


Ventilation Ventilation is when air is drawn down from the waters surface

into the propellers. This results in the engine ‘racing’ (increased

noise and apparent revs) and a sudden loss of power. Outboard

engines are fitted with anti ventilation plates (picture opposite) to

help prevent this, but it may still occur for the following reasons;

• Too tight a turn at speed will raise the bottom of the engine close enough to the surface

to suck air into the props.

• The engines are trimmed out / up too much.

• The vessel is in aerated water (such as the disturbed water left by a broken wave.

• The engines themselves are mounted too high on the vessels transom - or the engines

are not ‘long’ enough (props are not deep enough in the water) for the vessels design.

If ventilation occurs, ease the throttle right back to idle, pause then reapply power

smoothly.

Ventilation is not the same as Cavitation (although the symptoms are very similar). Cavitation

is the result of a propeller which has unsuitable pitch (angle of propeller blades) or the blades

have been damaged. Either way the propeller will have to be replaced or repaired. (Refer

CBES Outboard Engine Maintenance course)

Jet drives can suffer their own form of ventilation particularly when aerated water is drawn

into the jet inlets.


Guidelines for Heavy Weather

The greatest skill required by any helmsman is the ability to anticipate and read the waves,

assess their affect on the CRV, and make early adjustment for these factors.

The skill of a Helmsman shouldn’t be judged by the amount of physical action in handling the

conditions - constantly throttling engines, and adjusting the helm. It is demonstrated more by

the lack of big waves the CRV is made to take, and the minimum amount of throttle and helm

changes that have to be made.

• Fastest speed is not always best speed.

• The direct route is not always the fastest or safest route.

• Once you are airborne – you have no control.

• If you become airborne do not back off the throttle (slowing the engine isn’t going to slow

the boat down if you’re in mid air)

• Ventilation - back off the throttle until it stops, and then reapply power smoothly &

gradually.

• Always have power in reserve.

• Always have helm in reserve.

• Always prepare and make alterations early rather than late.

General Rules on Trim Altering the trim of a planing or semi displacement vessel can have a huge effect on its

handling characteristics. The actual angle of trim needed depends on the vessel and the sea

conditions. When going into a head sea the bow should be trimmed to allow the bow to lift to

oncoming waves, but not so much as to induce flying off the top of them. How much trim is

needed is individual to every vessel and the conditions at the time. In a following sea the

bow can usually be trimmed up far more to avoid the possibility of ‘stuffing’. In a beam sea

the CRV may need to alternatively turn both down and up sea, so the trim of the vessel

should be a compromise between the position for head or following seas.

Following sea Vessel trimmed bow up the most.

Head sea Vessel trimmed so bow can rise but not fly off the waves.

Beam sea Vessel trimmed half way between the above


13 ON SCENE COMMAND

Overview........................................................................................................................................ 276 On-Scene Command -Duties and Responsibilities....................................................................... 277 On Scene Management ................................................................................................................ 277

Actions upon arriving at the incident: ....................................................................................... 278 Actions at conclusion of the incident: ....................................................................................... 278

Multi Vessel Searches................................................................................................................... 279 Assessment.............................................................................................................................. 279

Vessel’s General Suitability (size, speed & draught) .......................................................... 279 Number of Crew in (number of crew Coastguard trained) .................................................. 279 Height of Eye for Observers (effective beam sighting distance)......................................... 280 Endurance of Resource (time) ............................................................................................ 280 Communications ................................................................................................................. 280 Navigation Instruments ....................................................................................................... 281 Searchlights / Torches ........................................................................................................ 281 Recovery Equipment........................................................................................................... 281 First Aid Equipment / Training............................................................................................. 281

Briefing ..................................................................................................................................... 283 Description of Target........................................................................................................... 283 Type of Search.................................................................................................................... 283 On Scene Command........................................................................................................... 283 Line command..................................................................................................................... 283 Individual Skipper’s Responsibility...................................................................................... 283 Communication ................................................................................................................... 284 Observation......................................................................................................................... 284 Rotation of Observers / Crew.............................................................................................. 284 Actions on Sighting Objects ................................................................................................ 284 Searchlights and Torches ................................................................................................... 285 Stopping and Listening........................................................................................................ 285 Use of Radar ....................................................................................................................... 285 Approx Speed of Search..................................................................................................... 285 Maintaining Station (distance & course) ............................................................................. 285 Turning the Search Pattern................................................................................................. 286

Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 288

Overview

With the advent of more than one vessel involved in a SAR operation, there will be one

vessel and its Skipper appointed by the IMT as On Scene Command. The On Scene

command vessel will normally be the most appropriately equipped CRV, or the vessel with

the most experienced Skipper and crew. Sometimes Police or Navy vessels will be

appointed as On Scene Command.

This appointment should be clearly communicated to them, and to all the resources

delegated to them. The On Scene Command (OSC) carries out the delegated responsibility

of the IMT, communicating closely with them and co-ordinating with other vessels or aircraft

at the scene.


On-Scene Command -Duties and Responsibilities

• Carrying out instructions given by the IMT.

• Managing and co-ordinating the on-scene response to the incident until ‘stood down’.

• Advising the IMT of circumstances or scene conditions that may necessitate modifying

the above instructions.

• Regularly updating the IMT with situation reports (sit-reps).

• Managing effective and appropriate communications with all resources.

• Appointing a Line Command when appropriate to co-ordinate multi-vessel search

patterns. A Line Command is a vessel tasked to organise and control the search pattern

(maintenance of speed and vessel spacing; regular appraisal of vessel status; sit-reps to

On-Scene Command). Delegating this task will significantly reduce the workload of the

On Scene Command and their crew.

On Scene Management

• Appraise the local conditions and incident status to provide a sit-rep to the IMT.

• Establish communications with and provide detailed briefing to all resources.

• Assess resources i.e. vessel type and status, in particular fuel duration, equipment

available (radar, spotlights, night sights, first aid) and number/ specialist skills of crew.

• Task resources to best suit the demands of the incident.

• If appropriate delegate the responsibility for control of search vessels to a Line Command

vessel

• Ensure all debris is retrieved and recorded, noting time, location and type. The IMT

should be advised immediately whenever significant debris is found.

• Sit-reps to the IMT as requested, or at least at regular intervals, detailing weather

conditions, incident progress, resource status (fuel state, mechanical problems and crew

welfare) and prognosis.


Actions upon arriving at the incident: • Assess the situation, including number and condition of persons in distress.

• Sit-rep to IMT.

• Carry out necessary action (tow, repair, evacuation, etc.).

Actions at conclusion of the incident: • Sit-rep to IMT and request ‘stand down’.

• Roll call of resources and confirm ‘stand down’.

• Ensure that any emergency radio restrictions are lifted formally.

The above is a list of the On Scene Commands responsibilities, but how does the on

scene command actually put them into practice?

Establishing communications with the other resources is the first step. Then the On Scene

Command should assess the other resources as to their capabilities, and best use for them.

For the vast majority of Coastguard units around the country any multi vessel operation will

probably include non Coastguard vessels, so it is vital that an accurate assessment is made

of their capabilities, and they are adequately briefed on what is expected of them.

The most common type of operation in which an On Scene Command is appointed is in

search operations. For the purposes of this module we will look at role of the On Scene

Command in a multi vessel search.


Multi Vessel Searches

The following text lists the various components that may make up both the assessment &

briefing of other resources. It may not be necessary to go through the whole list when a

vessel joins the search as some of the information may not be relevant at that point.

If there are eight hours of daylight left, establishing whether a vessel has a

searchlight(s) and briefing them on its use is hardly relevant, but it may become so

later.

Assessment Assessing the capabilities of another vessel in terms of its general size, speed, equipment

carried and number of crew is usually fairly straight forward (in daylight at least). How you

best use them is a different matter.

Requesting a shallow draft vessel to carry out a shore line search at night while the

rest of the vessels are engaged in a creeping line search is all very well, but if the

smaller vessel is only carrying one small hand torch rather than a decent searchlight it

will be of limited use.

A large cabin cruiser with all the electronics you could wish for, but only two crew on

board will have a limited capability in terms of effective visual observation.

Vessel’s General Suitability (size, speed & draught) The vessel’s overall suitability for the prevailing conditions should be assessed, as should its

possible use for different tasks, i.e. as a vessel to carry out a shore line search or act as ferry

boat to bring out fresh crew and equipment. Any vessel tasked to go at a speed that will be

uncomfortable for its crew is unlikely to be an effective resource in a search.

Number of Crew in (number of crew Coastguard trained) The number of crew will have a direct bearing on the effectiveness of the vessel in a search,

and the search pattern may need to be adapted to accommodate this. Any Coastguard

trained crew must be considered a bonus – as they at least will be familiar with search

operations. Lack of Coastguard crew means the On Scene Command must be especially

careful to ensure briefings and instructions are clear and comprehensive. The numbers of

crew on each vessel need not be fixed. If practical, and with the agreement of all

concerned, crew can be transferred to other vessels to even up the numbers.


Height of Eye for Observers (effective beam sighting distance) The spacing between vessels in a visual search should be such that each vessel is effective.

If the pattern is based just on the lowest height of eye available the full potential of vessels

with a greater height of eye will be lost. A pattern based on the highest height of eye will

obviously leave gaps in the search pattern for the smaller vessels. Using a standard

distance between vessels may be easier to organise, but it may not be the best use of the

resources available.

Endurance of Resource (time) One basic thing to establish is how much fuel each resource has. As On Scene Command

you don’t really want to have to organise a tow home for one of your own resources, so an

ongoing assessment of other vessels’ status is important. It will give you time to think ahead

as regards alterations to the search pattern if a vessel has to pull out, or give you time to

arrange a replacement vessel.

This assessment of vessels endurance should not just be limited to fuel reserves but also to

how much food, water and shelter there is on board. Does the crew have adequate clothing

for an extended search at night or in deteriorating conditions?

Communications The type - base unit or hand held. If the vessel only has a handheld, you will have to bear in

mind its limited range and battery power. Some Coastguard units have UHF which should

be used for communicating sensitive / private information. With private vessels assisting in

the operation cell phone may be the only available alternative.


Navigation Instruments As On Scene Command you may have overall responsibility for the management of other

resources, but this doesn’t relieve the Skipper of any other vessel from their responsibility to

their vessel and crew. Any vessel involved in an operation is responsible for its own

navigation and personal safety. It must be emphasised to other resources that any safety

concerns should be reported to the OSC.

• Compass – many small vessels do not have a compass. Even if equipped the Skipper /

crew may not be used to steering to a compass course. Instructing vessels of opportunity

to turn to starboard or port (right or left may be more appropriate for some resources),

and maintain their position in the search by reference to another vessel may be far more

effective than giving compass courses to steer.

• Echo Sounder - A reliable echo / depth sounder or fish finder must be considered one of

the most basic and essential of navigation aids.

• GPS / Chart Plotter - In the case of a vessel equipped with a chart plotter rather than just

a basic GPS receiver or no GPS at all, they may be better suited to be on the ‘outside

edge’ of a search pattern near any hazards.

• Radar - If a search is to use Radar then an assessment of each vessel’s Radar

capabilities must be made. The abilities of different Radar sets and the skill of their

operators vary hugely. You may only be able to ask the Skipper of the vessel their

opinion as to the effective range they would (not possibly could) detect an object of that

size and type in the prevailing conditions. The vessel spacing should be set up

accordingly.

Searchlights / Torches Does the vessel have a searchlight(s) or suitable torches?

Recovery Equipment Does the vessel have a boarding ladder / swimming platform? Is its free board suitable for

recovery of persons in the water? Does it have any specialised recovery equipment?

First Aid Equipment / Training Does the vessel carry any first aid equipment, and are any of its crew trained in first aid or

have medical training?


Vessels may leave or new vessels join the search at different times. The role of On Scene

Command may change to a different Skipper and crew (if they are replaced by fresh crew) or

be assigned to a completely different CRV.

A checklist such as the one detailed below will help the On Scene Command to gather

and most importantly, retain the relevant information for future reference.

With the information gathered, a plan of how to best utilise resources can be made, and the

IMT kept informed. The IMT may not need or want every detail (such as which vessels have

Radar and which don’t). It is the On Scene Commanders job to organise and manage the

vessels effectively.

What the IMT will need to be kept informed of is details relevant to the overall effectiveness

of the search; in effect the tactical details i.e. Speed, course, Total Sweep Width / Total Track

Spacing etc. The IMT must also be kept informed as to any subsequent changes to the

tactical details, and any change in conditions – sea state, visibility etc.


Briefing The other vessels briefing as to how the search is to be conducted must cover all the

relevant information. A checklist of the information to be covered in any briefings will ensure

that no important information is left out. Vessels may join the search at different times and

use of a check list will ensure that every vessel receives the same information.

If conditions and time allow, going alongside the other vessels to conduct your assessment

and briefing, may be preferable to just communicating on the radio. This will ensure that all

the crew of the other vessels hear your briefing, and the On Scene Command has the

opportunity to view the vessel and crew.

Avoid using ‘Coastguard ‘speak’ or technical jargon in any briefing to vessels of

opportunity - Keep it simple and concise.

Description of Target All the relevant information concerning the object of the search should be relayed to the other

vessels. Any updates on information should also be passed on.

Type of Search The general pattern of the search, and each vessels position within the search should be

explained. A copy of a search template (to show the general pattern) given to each vessel

could be a useful aid.

On Scene Command The role of On Scene Commander should be explained.

Line command If a Line Command is appointed, their role should be explained.

Individual Skipper’s Responsibility It should be made clear that while the On Scene Command has responsibility for the

operation as a whole; the Skipper of every vessel is still responsible for the safety of their

vessel. It should be stressed that if the Skipper of another vessel has at any time doubts as

to the safety or welfare of their crew during the operation, they should make this immediately

clear to the On Scene Command.


Communication VHF channels for communication and procedures established. Appropriate simplex

channels for on-scene use; duplex for longer range and IMT communications.

It may be for example that a regular inter ship channel such a Ch 6 or 8 could be used for

any communication within the search pattern, leaving the dedicated Coastguard frequency

free for communications between CRVs and the IMT. Any vessels involved should be

instructed to keep communications brief and to the point.

Observation The other vessels must be briefed on how to carry out their observation, i.e. designated

sectors, try to scan with the head not the eyes, etc. (See Module Observation Techniques)

Rotation of Observers / Crew The need for rotation of observers should be explained. A set time for all vessels could be

used, every … minutes or at the end of each second leg of the search – whatever is

appropriate.

Actions on Sighting Objects If an object of interest is spotted by another vessel, then their initial actions must be made

clear. For example;

• The crew member should alert the rest of the vessel, maintain eye contact with the object

and have arm outstretched pointing at the object. The vessel that spots the object of

interest is to immediately contact the OSC or Line Command and head towards the

object.

• At this point the remaining vessels will slow down (enough to maintain steerage) and

continue to hold their relative stations until told otherwise.

• Any vessel of opportunity that has sighted an object, is not to attempt recovery of debris

or persons from the water, but must await instruction from the OSC or Line Command

vessel.


Searchlights and Torches In the case of a multi vessel search operation, care must be taken to ensure that everyone

involved is fully aware of operational procedures at night, and that observers’ night vision is

not spoilt by inappropriate use of torches / searchlights.

Stopping and Listening Cries for help or the blowing of a lifejacket whistle are likely to be hidden by your own vessels

engine noise. If appropriate to the target and conditions, and especially at night, searches

should be stopped periodically to listen.

Use of Radar Depending on the Radar set, and also the operator’s preference the display may be in a

different mode (Head up, North up etc) to the Radar on the CRV. If any vessel reports a

target of interest by range and bearing, then to avoid confusion you will have to know if the

bearings are true, magnetic or relative. (See Module Observation Techniques)

Approx Speed of Search The approx speed of the search should be established (all vessels will register a slightly

different speed, either with a log or GPS), and it must be made clear that it is the On Scene

Command or the Line Command vessel that sets the speed.

Maintaining Station (distance & course) Every vessel’s compass course will vary, and it is the On Scene Command or Line

Commander that sets the course. What is vitally important is the spacing between each

vessel and who to keep station on as reference.

Radar is a very effective for maintaining the correct spacing in a

multi vessel search pattern. Using the Radars VRM (Variable

Range Marker), one vessel either side can be tracked. With two

VRMs available, a total of four vessels can be monitored on the

one Radar.

For those vessels with Radar your briefing should include distances to set on their VRM, i.e.

200m is 0.108nm (practically the VRM would probably be set to 0.1nm).


Without Radar maintaining a constant spacing between

vessels can be a problem. A visual aid that can help for

vessels without Radar is to mark on their wheelhouse

windows, or fix something on their vessel that will give a

gauge of their distance from adjacent vessels.

For example to help a vessel maintain its correct distance

from the CRV a mark is placed on its side windows (with

marker pen or tape) when it is the required distance off as

confirmed by the CRV. The mark corresponds with an

identifiable feature on the CRV- in this case the top of its

wheelhouse (1).

The helmsman need only look to their right to confirm the

distance. Too far away and the mark will be above the

CRV’s wheelhouse (2). Too close and the mark will be

below the CRV’s wheelhouse (3).

Turning the Search Pattern How to turn the search pattern at the end of each search leg needs to be addressed

There are two common methods in use. One is simply to;

• Instruct all the vessels to turn together 90° (to starboard in the example on the next page)

and line up on the stern of the vessel ahead.

• The column of vessels then runs the required distance (the total sweep width of 650m)

which in this example at 8kts would be timed at 2mins and 40 seconds.

• All vessels then again turn 90°to starboard and resume their search stations.

The vessels can be instructed to either maintain speed, or to slow down just before making

the turn, and then accelerate again afterwards. Different vessels have different rates of turn,

and if in close proximity and especially at night it may be more prudent to slow down to

execute the turn.

The advantage of this method is its simplicity; the disadvantage is that each vessel’s position

in the line is now reversed. The vessel that was on your starboard side is now on your port

side.


This can lead to confusion identifying other

vessels in the search pattern, especially at

night. A record of each vessel’s position in the

line should be kept throughout to avoid such

confusion.

There is another method sometimes used to turn a search pattern. It has only one

advantage over the previous method – every vessel returns to its original position in the line.

Its disadvantage comes from it being a more complex manoeuvre to carry out, and judging

when to start the turn when in proximity to hazards can be difficult

For sake of clarity only three vessels are show in the diagram below.

• All vessels maintain speed (1), and at the OSC’s or Line Command instruction the outer

vessel turns 90°. In this case the outer vessel is on the port side of the line for a turn to

starboard.

• As the outer vessel crosses the wake of the

middle vessel in the line, it to turns 90° to

starboard (2).

• As the first and second vessels cross the wake of

the third vessel, the last vessel then turns to

starboard (3).

• The last vessel to turn runs for a distance

equivalent to its individual sweep width, then turns

90° to starboard again (4). As it crosses the wake

of the middle vessel, that vessel also turns to

starboard, and the pattern is repeated until the line

is restored.


In a multi vessel search vessels may join the operation at different times. It is essential that

every vessel receive the same briefing as to the plan and procedures of the search. A

checklist such as the one detailed below (and contained in the SAR Boat Book) will ensure

that no important information is left out of a briefing.

Summary

Every operation will be different, and the On Scene Command must remain flexible in the

planning and execution of their duties.

On a CRV the Skipper’s job is to manage the vessel and crew, and that often requires

stepping back from a ‘hands on’ position. As On Scene Command this requirement to be

able to see the ‘big picture’ is even more important. Effective and appropriate delegation

plus good communication are essential.

For example, as On Scene Command you may decide the most effective position to take is

behind the line of searching vessels to concentrate purely on the command and co-ordination

of the search.

As On Scene Command you are the eyes and ears of the IMT, and in particular the Marine

SAR Controller. Any change in circumstances or organisation of the resources under

your command must be communicated to the IMT.


Practical Masters Course & CoC Assessment

Practical Masters Course

The Practical Masters course is a pre requisite for anyone wishing to attempt the CoC Master

Assessment. The course is designed to address two particular issues, firstly possible

improvements in a candidates practical skills, and secondly to help the candidate “bridge the

gap” between the very different roles and responsibilities of being crew to being the Skipper.

The course is not an assessment (not a pass or fail scenario) but an evaluation – an

opportunity for a candidate to receive feedback, coaching and advice from an Instructor from

out side of the Unit.

Prior to the course attendees are sent an outline of the course, and a practice assessment

paper that is similar in content to the current CoC written assessments. They are required to

complete the pre-course assessment paper prior to the course, and bring the completed

paper with them. The paper will be reviewed at the beginning of the course. This enables

the attendees and course Instructor to discuss any matters arising from them.

The course is run at the local Unit by an accredited SAR Instructor. Its duration is around 9 –

10 hrs, although there is a small amount of ‘classroom’ work the vast majority of the day is to

be spent on the water running through practical exercises / scenarios. At the end of each

exercise the opportunity will be taken for a de brief in which all involved will be able to look at

ways to improve or refine their skills.

The culmination of the course is for the Instructor and candidate to produce a report / training

action plan for the candidate and Unit Training Officer to address before attempting the CoC

Master assessment.

Further information on the Practical Master Course can be found in the CRV Crew Training

Syllabus and Log Book, and in the SARTR section of the Coastguard New Zealand web site.


CoC Assessment Process

Any candidate who is unsuccessful in the practical components of an assessment may re-sit

at any time within the Assessment Permits validity.

The Assessment Permit is valid for a period of 6 months from date of issue. Once the

Assessment Permit has expired the application process must be repeated.


Guidelines for CoC Assessment

The following is intended as a guideline as to the required content and criteria for a CoC

assessment. Coastguard Masters are primarily responsible for the practical training of their

crew and maintaining the standards expected of Coastguard personnel. As such they must

be able to demonstrate a level of knowledge and understanding that will promote and

maintain these standards.

Assessment Conduct

Assessments are carried out on individual candidates, and there cannot be more than one

assessment candidate on the vessel at any one time. It is the Units responsibility to ensure

adequate crew for the CRV, and for Unit and Assessor to arrange a suitable timeframe for

conducting the assessment(s).

Before commencing the practical assessment the Assessor and candidate must agree upon:

• The legal master of the CRV for the duration of the assessment

• The purpose, criteria & content of the assessment

• Responsibilities and role of the Assessor

• Responsibilities role of the candidate

• Who the assessment information will go to

• Accommodating any special needs

• Options for reassessment and process of moderation / appeals

The Assessor should ensure that any scenarios are as near realistic as is practical. Trick

questions and outlandishly complex, unlikely or unrealistically ‘time pressured’ scenarios are

to be avoided. The Assessor should give clear unambiguous instructions to the candidate,

and then step back to assess solely on what competence is demonstrated by the candidate.

Should an Assessor feel the need to correct or instruct/teach the candidate(s) on any subject

covered in the assessment, this should only be done at the conclusion of, and clearly

identified as separate to any actual assessment.


Assessment Criteria

A candidate must demonstrate competence in the procedures and operation of on board

equipment to ensure the safe & efficient operation of the vessel. As such an Assessor must

judge the overall performance of the candidate during the assessment.

There are however some instances where a candidate would be automatically judged ‘Not

Competent’

• If a candidate demonstrates any inherently unsafe practice.

• If a candidate by action or inaction endangers the vessel, its crew or other persons.

• If a candidate demonstrates a lack of competence / understanding of any procedure,

equipment or boat handling that would result in injury or risk of injury to crew or other

persons.

• If a candidate violates or demonstrates a serious lack of understanding of the

requirements of part 22 & part 91 of the Maritime Rules.

• If the Assessor is required to intervene in the operation of the vessel due to safety

concerns

The Assessor will be judging the candidates performance in each of the different

components of the assessment to form an overall picture of the candidates competence. A

lack of competence / mistake in one particular section (depending on the severity of the

mistake / lack of competence) may not in itself result in the candidate being assessed ‘Not

Competent’.

If a candidate fails to demonstrate the required level of understanding / competence in two or

more sections then the Assessor may well judge the candidate as overall ‘Not Competent’.

There may be several issues highlighted within the assessment that individually may not be

of a serious enough nature to judge a candidate ‘Not Competent’, but taken together may

raise concerns for the Assessor.


The final decision may be ultimately judged against the following criteria;

• Given the overall competence demonstrated by the candidate;

• Would the Assessor be without undue concern if a member of their own family were to

be a crew member for the candidate on board a Coastguard Rescue Vessel?

• Given the overall competence demonstrated by the candidate;

• Would the Assessor be without undue concern that the candidate would be able to

safely and efficiently command a CRV in a SAROP if it was one of the Assessors

family members in distress?

If the answer to either of these questions is no, then the candidate should be judged ‘Not

Competent’, and given as much feedback and encouragement as practical to help them

reach the required standard.

Assessment, Moderation & Appeals

Feedback forms regarding the Practical Assessment are sent to individual candidates, and it

is important that these are completed and returned. Electronic feedback forms that can be

completed on line are also to be made available in the near future. It is this feedback that is

at the core of Practical Assessment Moderation.

If any individual or Unit have issues with the Assessor /Assessment process that they feel

cannot be adequately addressed by the feedback forms, then they can contact the CoC

Assessment Moderator at CBES Training & Development 0800 40 80 90.

Assessors are subject to periodic Moderation (approx once a year) during CoC practical

assessments. Any such moderation will be arranged with the prior knowledge and

agreement of the Unit, Candidate(s) and Assessor.

CoC Practical Assessment Content

Details of the content of a CoC practical assessment can be found in the CRV Crew Training

Syllabus and Log Book, and in the SARTR section of the Coastguard New Zealand web site

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