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'Cultural policy

in Kenya, Kivuto Ndeti

The Unesco Press Paris 1975

Studies and documents on cultural policies

In this series:

Cultural policy: a preliminary study Cultural policy in the United States, by Charles C. Mark Cultural rights as human rights Cultural policy in Japan, by Nobuya Shikaumi Some aspects of French culturalpolicy, by the Studies and Research Department of the French

Culturalpolicy in Tunisia, by Ra& Said Cultural policy in Great Britain, by Michael Green and Michael Wilding, in consultation

Cultural policy in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, by A. A. Zvorykin with the

Culturalpolicy in Czechoslovakia, by Miroslav Marek, Milan Hroddka and Josef Chroust Culturalpolicy in Italy, a survey prepared under the auspices of the Italian National

Cultural policy in Yugoslavia, by Stevan Majstorovid Cultural policy in Bulgaria, by Kostadine Popov Some aspects of cultural policies in India, by Kapila Malik Vatsyayan Cultural policy in Cuba, by Lisandro Otero with the assistance of Francisco Martínez

Cultural policy in Egypt, by Magdi Wahba Cultural policy in Finland, a study prepared under the auspices of the Finnish National

Culturalpolicy in Sri Lanka, by H. H. Bandara Cultural policy in Nigeria, by T. A. Fasuyi Cultural policy in Iran, by Djamchid Behnam Cu@uralpolicy in Poland, by Stanislaw Witold Balicki, Jerzy Kossak and Mirodaw

T h e role of culture in leisure time in Nau Zealand, by Bernard W. Smyth Cultural policy in Israel, by Joseph Michman Cultural policy in Senegal, by Mamadou Seyni M'Bengue Cultural policy in the Federal Republic of Germany, a study prepared under the auspices

Cultural policy in Indonesia, a study prepared by the staff of the Directorate-General of

Culturalpolicy in the Philippines, a study prepared under the auspices of the Unesco

Cultural policy in Liberia, by Kenneth Y. Best Culturalpolicy in Hungary, a survey prepared under the auspices of the Hungarian National

The culturalpolicy of the United Republic of Tanzania, by L. A. Mbughuni Cultural policy in Kenya, by Kivuto Ndeti

Ministry of Culture

with Richard Hoggart

assistance of N. I. Golubtsova and E. I. Rabinovitch

Commission for Unesco

Hinojosa


Zulawski

of the German Commission for Unesco

Culture, Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia

National Commission of the Philippines


The serial numbering of titles in this series, the presentation of which has been modified, was discontinued with the volume Cultural policy in Italy

Published by the Unesco Press, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Printed by Imprimerie des Presses Universitaires de France, Vendôme

ISBN 92-3-101202-9 French edition: 92-3-201202-2

0 Unesco 1975 Printed in France

Preface

The purpose of this series is to show h o w cultural policies are planned and implemented in various Member States.

As cultures differ, so does the approach to them; it is for each Member State to determine its cultural policy and methods according to its o w n conception of culture, its socio-economic system, political ideology and technical development. However, the methods of cultural policy (like those of general development policy) have certain c o m m o n problems; these are largely institutional, administrative and financial in nature, and the need has increasingly been stressed for exchanging experiences and information about them. This series, each issue of which follows as far as possible a similar pattern so as to make comparison easier, is mainly concerned with these technical aspects of cultural policy.

In general, the studies deal with the principles and methods of cultural policy, the evaluation of cultural needs, administrative structures and management, planning and financing, the organization of resources, legislation, budgeting, public and private institutions, cultural content in education, cultural autonomy and decentralization, the training of personnel, institutional infrastructures for meeting specific cultural needs, the safeguarding of the cultural heritage, institutions for the dissemination of the arts, international cultural co-operation and other related subjects.

The studies, which cover countries belonging to differing social and economic systems, geographical areas and levels of development, present therefore a wide variety of approaches and methods in cultural policy. Taken as a whole, they can provide guidelines to countries which have yet to establish cultural policies, while all countries, especially those seeking n e w formulations of such policies, can profit by the experience already gained.

This study was prepared for Unesco by Kivuto Ndeti, Ph.D., of the University of Nairobi, Kenya.

The opinions expressed are the author’s and do not necessarily reflect the views of Unesco.

Contents

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10

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37

46

52

63 65

69

Foreword

Background

Assessment of cultural needs

Administrative and financial structure

Protection of the national heritage

Cultural promotion and planning

Appendixes 1. Preservation of objects of archaeological and

2. Government ministries palaeontological interest

with culture component

Foreword

This study presents an account of what the Government of Kenya and private agencies are doing to conserve and enrich the cultures of a multi- ethnic population. It is based on information drawn from government reports, legislation, statements, development plans and so on. I a m especially grateful to T. Wanjala and J. J. Karanja of the Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services for their help in supplying m e with a great deal of data as well as some secretarial services; and some of their views on cultural matters have been incorporated in the study. My thanks go also to government agencies in other ministries w h o also gave assistance. I a m thankful to M. N. Icharia for the photographs which he generously provided. I a m grateful to m y colleagues in the University of Nairobi w h o m I consulted at various times during the study, and I should like to express m y special gratitude to Miss Mehrun Ramji, Secretary, Department of Sociology, for editing and typing the final copy of the manuscript. She worked very hard, sometimes at odd hours, to ensure its completion in time. I a m most grateful for her untiring and enthusiastic collaboration.

Comments have been expressed as objectively as possible and are personal to the author. It is hoped that the study is a faithful interpretation of Kenya’s cultural policy, administration and goals. Finally, my special gratitude goes to my wife, Cecelia S. Ndeti, for her help and encouragement.

9

Background

Organization and environment

Both in area and population Kenya is one of the larger members of the Organization of African Unity. Its area, 582,646 km2, includes 13,396 kma of water surface, mainly located in the western half of the country. There are several small lakes along the Rift Valley system in addition to Lake Rudolf and Lake Victoria, of whose area 3,831 km2 are in Kenya. The coast measures 402 km. Sudan and Ethiopia lie to the north, Uganda to the west, the United Republic of Tanzania to the south, and Somalia and the Indian Ocean to the east; the boundaries were established by European colonial powers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Kenya is bisected by the equator into two almost equal halves, and divided administratively into eight provinces: Nairobi (682 Ism2); Western (8,360 km2); Central (13,176 km2); Nyanza (16,162 km2); Coast (83,603 km2); North-Eastern (126,902 km2); Eastern (159,891 km2); and Rift Valley (173,868 kma). The population is n o w estimated at 12 million.

Taking into account climate, soils, vegetation and topography, Kenya can be divided into five geo-ecological regions: The coastal region shows considerable variation in soils and vegetation. It is

mostly low-lying, ranging from under 30 m to over 150 m above sea level. The mean annual temperature is 26.670 C and the mean annual rainfall varies from 508 mm to 1,016 mm. During the rainy months (generally March to May) temperatures go down. Centuries of human occupation have reduced forest areas considerably. Contacts with the outside world have existed for m a n y centuries (charcoal has been exported to western Asia from time immemorial) and have sometimes resulted in a depletion of natural, cultural and h u m a n resources (see below).

A plateau foreland occupies the area between the coastal belt and the volcanic highland to the centre and west. Remnants of ancient rocks and hills mark the retreating edge of the continent, for example the

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Background

Taita, Kasigau and Ukambani hills. Altitude ranges between 300 m and 1,500 m above sea level. The mean annual rainfall varies from 508 mm to 762 mm (with the higher parts getting as much as 1,016 mm). Evaporation is very high. Vegetation ranges from desert grass-bush to scattered-tree grassland in the higher plateau areas, and supports a large variety of wildlife. It is here that the Tsavo and Amboseli national parks are located. The economy is agricultural and pastoral; links with the coast have always depended on trade, especially in ivory and wildlife products.

Semi-arid and arid areas occupy the north and north-east (as well as some parts of the Rift Valley in the south). High temperatures give a potential evaporation rate in excess of 2,400 mm per annum. A sparse nomadic population includes a variety of physical types. The ‘true desert’ is found in the north (Lake Rudolf) and along the Ethiopian border. Cultural and linguistic afbities are shared with ethnic groups in the two regions already discussed as well as with people in southern Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia.

T h e Rift and associated highlands occupy the central west of the country, and are topographically complex (volcanic landscapes, lakes, residual cones, minor-fault systems, volcanic outpourings). The altitude varies from 1,219 m around Lake Baringo to over 4,000 m (Mount Kenya). The highlands are drained westwards by several rivers into Lake Victoria, major source of the Nile; they are also drained eastwards by several rivers which flow into the Indian Ocean. Temperature varies with the altitude, the mean annual temperature ranging from 12.780 C to 26.67oC according to area. Annual rainfall ranges from 508 mm to 1,524 mm. The highland soils provide the basis for the prosperous state of farming in Kenya, and support some of its highest rural population densities. This region was known as ‘white highlands’ before independence because the European white settlers occupied it and transformed it with the help of African labour; previously, it had been occupied by Africans w h o practised intensive agriculture and large-scale ranching. The struggle for the resources of this area helped to stimulate African nationalism.

The Lake Victoria basin has two major plateaux which slope mainly west and are separated by a fault. Altitudes vary from under 1,219 m to over 1,828 m above sea level. The mean annual temperature ranges from 1OoC to 32.33oC. It is one of the wettest regions, with an annual rainfall ranging from 889 mm to 1,778 mm. Several rivers (Kuja, Sondu, Nyando, Nzoia and Soi) drain into Lake Victoria. Floods occur from time to time. In addition to the very large sugar-growing schemes, irrigation schemes have been started for other crops. Some of the rural areas have very high population densities. In cultural and linguistic terms the region represents the point of contact between Bantu and Nilotic speakers. It has rather complex patterns of socialinstitutions.

11

Background

Natural resourcm

Natural resources include forests, water, wildlife, fisheries and minerals. Roughly two-thirds of the total land area is arid or semi-arid and is classified as low-potential range land suitable only for pastoral farming. Most of the population is concentrated in less than one-third of the total land area, mainly in the lake, highland and coastal regions, which are also the areas of high rainfall and forests. Forestry resources and a high agricultural potential must, however, bear high population densities whose subsistence depends on agriculture. Forests conserve and regulate water supply by protecting the catchments, and this in turn influences the distribution of wildlife resources and affects agricultural management. The importance of resources is thus fundamental. But the fact that forests and agriculture compete for land raises serious issues in resource planning, and the dependence on agriculture m a y compromise the development of other natural resources.

Rainfall is adequate in only a small part of Kenya. The government has recognized the need for the coherent long-term development of water resources, with due regard to various requirements, for example, hydro- electric power, health, drinking water, sewage disposal, industry, and an equitable balance between rural and urban areas. The Water Resource Authority and the Water Apportionment Board have been established to deal with these problems on all levels, and to produce a master plan for water utilization. In view of the current drought in West Africa and elsewhere, it m a y not be long before w e have a Ministry of Water Develop- ment. Reorganization of water resources on a country-wide basis m a y have serious consequences for Kenya’s cultural heterogeneity; irrigation, for instance, could lead to the dispersion of some ethnic groups. D u e consideration will be given to such social and cultural issues whenever innovations are introduced.

Wildlife resources are probably Kenya’s largest foreign exchange earner. Four per cent of the total land area is devoted to national parks and game reserves. Recently there has been criticism of the foreign control, and the undue emphasis on developing tourism and its infrastructure at the expense of rural development. This matter will not be discussed here except to mention that, in densely populated areas, wildlife has lost out to agriculture. In other cases, people have lost out to wildlife, as in the recent case of the Maasai pastoral groups around Amboseli G a m e Reserve, some of whose grazing land has been annexed by the Amboseli National Park. This of course represents a further problem in resource planning and allocation.

Fishery resources, fortunately, do not seem to cause any problems of this kind. Activities have traditionally been concentrated in the lake basin and the coastal regions. There are malnutrition problems among peoples w h o do not eat fish. Government policy aims at the conservation

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Background

and controlled exploitation of both fresh-water and marine fisheries-an almost untapped, renewable resource with a vast potential for nutritional improvement and commercial development that could expand by anything from 50 per cent to 300 per cent of current production.

Mineral resources have been the subject of considerable debate. In the past agriculture was considered the most important economic activity, and the colonial government did very little to develop mining However, although 75 per cent of the country has been subjected to preliminary geological mapping, no commercially important mineral deposits have been discovered. At present only magadi soda, gold and diatomite make any significant contribution to the economy. Recently lead, silver and zinc have been found in the coast region and fluorspar in the Kerio valley, and foreign companies have been commissioned to prospect for oil in the northern region. The arid transitional zone stretching across Africa has been subjected to all kinds of exploration-even by an American Skylab. The discovery of oil in this area or the successful harnessing of solar energy as a w a y of coping with the world energy crisis could radically affect Kenya’s socio-political and economic system and cultural heterogeneity.

Kenya’s natural resources must be employed in conjunction with the country’s cultural heterogeneity to produce a coherent and unified cultural policy; h o w this can be done will depend on h o w w e interpret ultimate social goals. The ideas of African socialism as originally formulated m a y have to be revised. The consequences can be disastrous or fruitful, depending on Kenya’s ability to reconcile ultimate social aims with harsh realities. This problem lies at the core of cultural policy.

Human re’e8ources

Kenya is well known for the discovery of pre-historic artefacts and h u m a n remains. The studies of Leakey, Sonia Cole and other experts have established archaeological stages corresponding to the various climatic eras and Kenya’s variety of altitudes and climate made it ideal for the preservation of fossil materials.

The Old Stone Age (2.6 million to 60,000 years ago) is represented in several sites in northern Kenya, where the oldest human remains were found (in Lothagam, west of Lake Rudolf). These remains are believed to belong to the pre-tool-making period, since no tools are associated with them. The oldest tools are associated with Kobi Hora, north of Lake Rudolf. These crudely fashioned choppers, chopping tools and flakes of black lava, have been dated back 2.6 million years. Sites of the same period are found in the Lake Victoria, highland and Rift Valley regions. Olorgesailie and Kariandusi have been excavated and honoured as national shrines and open-air museums. The Middle Stone Age (50,000 to 9,000 years B.C.) witnessed the development of the b o w and arrow. Gamble Cave 11, Prospect

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Background

Farm, Nderit Drift, demonstrated the introduction of blade technology. Typical pottery, stone and bone technology include obsidian blades, burins, side scrapers, sinew frayers, bone harpoons and pottery. The Middle Stone Age sites have been located only in the Lake Victoria, Rift Valley and highland regions. Late Stone Age remains (10,000 to 3,000 years B.C.) have been found in Naivasha-Nakuru and the surrounding foothills. The significant development during this period is the presence of tall people with Cushitic head and nasal features. The Neolithic sites (1000 B.C. to A.D. 1000) are also located in the Rift Valley and the western highlands. The significant development was the domestication of plants and animals; wooden vessels, seed beds, bones of domesticated cattle, grinding stones and pestles, polished stone axes, cremation burials are also associated with the period. During the Iron Age (c. A.D. 200), many parts of Kenya were probably settled. Remains include iron slag, bellows, pottery, beads, and skeletons of cattle, sheep and goats. According to some archaeologists, agriculture and iron-making were introduced by Bantu-speaking peoples.

The coastal region has been in contact with Middle Eastern and Indian Ocean communities for many centuries. Islam arrived about three centuries after the birth of Mohammed. Contacts with East and West gradually produced the type represented by the present Swahili inhabitants. Arabs and western Asians brought goods from China and Persia. They were succeeded by Europeans-mainly Portuguese at first. Architectural monuments along the coast reflect African influences on the invaders and vice versa, for example the Gedi and Fort Jesus monuments. Some Eurocentric archaelogists have tried to belittle the African contribution, but evidence is increasingly forthcoming to show the predominance of African motifs and influences in many of these monuments.

Pre-colonial era

Pre-colonial socio-cultural and linguistic patterns reflect the ways in which the inhabitants adapted to meet the challenge of their varied environment. Broadly speaking, they belong to three main language families that are found in other parts of Africa-the Khoisan (‘click’) language family is the only one not represented. Language classification, based partly on sound, meaning and internal pattern, can help to establish genetic relationships also between communities. Linguistic divisions do not imply intrinsic differences or imply superiority or inferiority of any cultural group.

The Nilo-Saharan language family is used by the Nilotes-the people from the Nile basin and neighbouring areas-who are classified as follows: the western Nilotes are represented by the Lu0 group; the eastern Nilotee by the Teso, Turkana, Maasai, Njemps, Samburu and Karamojong groups;

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Background

.--

t ' Turkana

\ Boran '.

\ 1 Karapokot \ \

Rendille

mPokot

,/ Marakwet / a Samburn

1 /

/ / Tugen e Meru ( #Abaluhyia \ a Keiyo

Xandi

I Fig. 1. Distribution of main ethno-cultural groups in Kenya as defined in the 1969 census, taken from Kenya surveys

and the southern Nilotes by the Omotik, Kalenjin-Pokot, Marakwet, Tugen, Nandi, Sebei, Ogiek, Terik and Kipsigis groups.

The Niger-Congo language family are Bantu, and have a c o m m o n morphemic structure (-ntu) in their family names. According to one theory, the pre-historic Bantus originated in the Niger-Congo basins and developed iron technology and agriculture. The Niger-Congo family is classified as

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Background

.El G I

ila

I +++ +++ +++

+++ +++ +++

Background

follows: the western Bantu are represented by the Abaluhyia, Gusii, Kuria, Kabras and Suba groups; the central Bantu by the Kikuyu, Meru and K a m b a groups; and the eastern coastal Bantu by the Taita, Taveta, Mijikenda, Pokomo, Swahili and Malakote groups.

A third division, the Cushites (from the ancient Kush) trace their language to African and Asiatic origins, and can be subdivided as follows: the eastern Cushites consist of the Galla, Somali, Shangila, Elmolo, Rendille and Burji groups; and the southern Cushites of the Dahalo and Mukogodo groups.

These three families are only the main ethnic groups. There are also m a n y sub-ethnic groups in the major categories, for example the Abaluhyia has about thirteen sub-groups, the Meru nine, the Kalenjin eleven and the Galla seven. All these sub-groups show a great deal of dialectical similarity.

The linguistic divisions reflect the richness of Kenya’s cultural heritage, and each makes its own contribution. These complementary differences are reflected in socio-cultural patterns (see Table 1).

The cultural groups selected represent some 60 per cent of the total population and so are representative of socio-cultural patterns. The terms employed are used with the following meanings.

Hierarchical social organization: presence of a centralized authority (for example chieftaincy) in the tribal structures-lacking in all the groups in this sample.

Segmentary egalitarianism: very strong kinship ties (clan or lineage). These often exist when there is no centralized political authority, and they accordingly represent a non-hierarchical form of social order or organization. They are also fostered by other social forces that w e cannot go into here, except to say that the ties allow an ethnic group to accommodate their expansion and localization to the existing ecological and technological constraints, and are c o m m o n to all the cited groups.

The family type (extended, polygamous, monogamous): the basic unit of social organization, as the cell is in biological systems. The extended family includes people of various generations and ages, and is very c o m m o n in Africa. The older generation pass on their cultural heritage and wisdom to the young. Polygamy is c o m m o n in all the cultures. Its biological and social aspects affect fertility control; and it m a y also be related to ranking in the social organization and position in the extended family. Monogamy is also c o m m o n in all cultural groups, however, and is an expression of fundamental individual rights that were highly treasured in all Kenyan cultures.

Ecological adaptation: this refers to the ways in which people cope with the challenges of their environment. Most depended on agriculture, some were nomads or depended on pastoral occupations. Rainfall is un- certain in m a n y parts of Kenya, and has sometimes tempted farmers to rely too exclusively on livestock, but a more varied type of agriculture is probably the best guarantee against climatic and other hazards. Since

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Background

independence, agriculture has, by and large, adopted this more varied pattern. Some groups have modernized quite well. Very few people n o w hunt for a living. Fishing is largely confined to lake and coastal areas.

Age sets: tribal initiation, when the neophyte is given n e w responsibilities and privileges that are considered crucial to the group’s existence.

Linguistic diffusion: this follows from interchanges of ideas, technology, cultural values and linguistic features-best typified by the Kiswahili in pre-colonial Kenya and is n o w being reinforced by the mass media and a common education system.

Folk socialization: this is brought about in m a n y ways, including the patterns of birth rates, naming systems, differential treatment of male and female infants at birth, folklore and mythology, nutritional techniques, initiation rites and so on. These c o m m o n heritages of pre-colonial societies provide a very strong basis for cultural policy, and recur in all groups.

Gerontocracy (rule by elders) : c o m m o n throughout Kenya. The elders in pre-colonial times had m a n y roles (custodians of folk wisdom, judges of truth, guardians of religious value and so on), contributed greatly to their communities, and were consequently revered.

These and other behaviour patterns form part of a c o m m o n heritage which effectively counteracted the linguistic divisions mentioned earlier. In other words, language differences do not imply fundamental cultural dissimilarities. Pre-colonial Kenya contained some thirty-six different ethnic groups. Without going into a detailed description it can be said, however, that the basic social organization was €or all practical purposes the same. W h a t is held in c o m m o n is more important than the differences that have been exploited by certain scholars, politicians and others, and represent a source of richness which policy-makers (and the makers of cultural policy in particular) must continue to foster and develop. Taken from the 1969 census, the main African ethno-linguistic groups are made up as follows: 7,096,000 Bantu forming 66.4 per cent of the African population; 3,238,000 Nilotes, 30.1 per cent; and 338,000 Cushites, 3.1 per cent.

Colonial input and consequences

These figures do not include another set of people, those responsible for the colonial input (technological and scientific especially) in the process of cultural and social change.

Kenya came into the British sphere of influence in 1902. The whole region, then known as the British East Africa Protectorate, was administered by career diplomats and private companies based in Zanzibar. The protectorate was regarded as a strategic base safeguarding British colonial interests in South Africa and the Indian Ocean and operating as a check on German colonial expansion. Administrative headquarters in Mombasa was moved up-country in 1907. The railway from Mombasa to the lake

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Background

area got a lot of support from the United Kingdom out of sympathy for Christians in Uganda w h o were in conflict with Moslems.

Railway construction caused labour problems. It was very unlikely that labour would be available since the railway would encroach on ethnic territorial rights and did in fact give rise to m a n y conflicts with different ethnic groups. Indian coolies were brought in as indentured labour instead-the hst to come to Kenya, with the option of remaining after- wards and becoming Kenyans, or returning home.

The railway fostered a desire for development-in the first place with a view to making the railway economically self-supporting. White settlers arrived and, for the next sixty years, became the most powerful economic and political element in the country. All forms of concessions were made to encourage them to settle in Kenya: free land on 99- to 999-year leases in the best agricultural territory; bank loans at very low rates of interest; heavily subsidized and segregated education; special privileges in m a n y social welfare services, and so on. Indians and Africans, on the other hand, were limited as to the amount of land they could own. Control was extended to the growing of cash crops such as tea, coffee, pyrethrum or cotton; Africans were not allowed even to o w n graded cattle.

Under these early colonial policies, political and industrial power, as well as agriculture, was in the hands of the settlers, whilst their values were emulated and admired by Africans and Indians alike. Nearly all commercial activity was taken over by the Indians. The Africans provided labour for Indian commerce and European large-scale farming. It was they w h o got the worst deal in exchange for their toil.

Serious tensions developed between the three communities. In 1908 Indians were claiming the annexation of Kenya to the Indian sub-continent, and its recognition as a province of India. This movement, led by Jevanjee, got a great deal of support both in India and the United Kingdom, since the role of immigrants was recognized by the colonial hierarchy in both countries. Theoretically, at that time, one immigrant community could not be dominant over the other.

The conflicts continued until 1923, the year of the Devonshire Declar- ation which stated that in the event of a conflict of interests between Africans and immigrants, African interests should prevail. The real purpose was to prevent a conflict from giving new ideas to the Africans; it was presumed that it would take several centuries before Africans could rule themselves.

The colonial power forgot, however, that, once introduced, such innovations as formal education, science and technology, urbanization, industrialization (on whatever scale), different world views, ideologies, value systems, and so on, prove difficult to contain. Introduced under very difficult conditions and on a limited scale, they nevertheless taught Africans to challenge all aspects of the activities of the immigrants. By 1922, Africans were rioting against the conditions of colonial oppression

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Background

and, between 1900 and 1940, practically all ethnic groups had formed some form of association to protect themselves against colonial encroachment. Such names as Harry Thuku, Jomo Kenyatta, Muindi Mbingu and Koinange became legendary and, by 1944, Africans had organized themselves as a national political force. The return of ‘Mzee’ Kenyatta in 1945 provided a tremendous impetus. Europeans had been represented in the colonial Legislative Council almost from the beginning. Indian represen- tation was limited but sizeable. Not until 1940 was Eliud Mathu nominated to the council to represent all the Africans.

The two world wars accelerated African social and political history. M a n y Kenyans went abroad to fight, as they were told, for democracy. W h e n they came back they found the democracy they had fought for abroad was non-existent at home, They had been promised all kinds of advantages, loans to start businesses, compensation, employment, and so on, while the gimmick of nominating Mathu to the Legislative Council had helped to create an illusion of representative government. The promises were all forgotten. Even more taxes were imposed. Sometimes cattle were expropriated as a form of tax.

These events, combined with the charismatic and powerful leadership of the late forties, culminated in the violent African nationalism of M a u Mau. Initially, this revolution was dismissed by the colonial authorities as a native movement resorting to ‘old tribal barbaric customs’ to counter the ‘impact of Western civilization’. As it turned out, the movement was very well organized, proficient in such military tactics as camouflage, underground intelligence and sharp-shooting, and incredible personal courage was displayed. This is one case where African traditional values provided the fighting ideology for m e n w h o had fought in the two world wars. The bond which the traditional African values generated in this dark period of Kenya’s history can give a tremendous backing to our cultural policy; for M a u M a u and other earlier African movements were inspired by a collective sense of loyalty towards the land and people of Kenya.

Militant nationalism led by m e n of powerful intelligence and inspired by African cultural values ultimately gained independence in 1963. In 1945, Kenyatta returned from the United Kingdom, and in seven years the entire country was involved in the war of liberation. The first representative African members of the Legislative Council were elected in 1956. Seven years later came Uhuru (freedom).

The country has since forged ahead and, within ten years of independence, development has advanced more than during the sixty-three years of colonial rule. Unlike other countries that became independent around the same time, Kenya inherited a very difficult situation. The n e w government had to restore the international confidence which the colonial government had destroyed by the propaganda published about nationalist activities. Moreover, w e inherited a pro-Western government whose cultural

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Background

and socio-economic institutions were subject to racial segregation-essen- tially controlled by Mzungu (whites) and Muindi (Indians). Obviously, an independent African government could not tolerate this situation, but could do nothing about it without stepping on the toes of vested interests-and that implied the kind of social, political and economic upheavals which characterized newly independent countries in the early sixties, provoked by the former colonial powers in a come-back effort. Anyway, concerted effort and honest courage, inspired by intelligent and concerned leadership, have enabled the country to weather the storm and lay the foundations for future development; and confidence has been very effectively restored.

AU this has been done at a price. W e have made some concessions. Our shilling was tagged to a fluctuating dollar. Economic controls have been introduced slowly-but effectively. Only n o w are w e Africanizing colonial institutions (for example changing names, modifying the educational system). The significance of cultural values in planning and development is being given due recognition. These are some of the issues which should have been given more weight in national planning right from the beginning. One thing that can be said is that they are now being discussed among policy-makers and, in some cases, positive action has been taken.

All the factors mentioned earlier (regional environment, natural and human resources, human evolution, pre-colonial patterns, colonial input and consequences, post-independence development) must be taken into account in a coherent cultural policy which will give us a sense of unity in achieving our purpose or destiny as a nation. Man’s Grst origins can be traced to Kenya, if w e are to accept certain theories of human history and evolution. A unique heritage in natural and human resources and a most heterogeneous history provide the background to the country’s national cultural policy.

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Wha t are the major cultural resources of Kenya? The answer wiU provide a guide in assessing cultural needs, possible ways of increasing or improving these resources, weaknesses that planners must reckon with, and the existing institutions and agencies.

Illiteracy and literacy

Illiteracy has become a subject of considerable debate in recent years. Unesco and various national agencies set up to eradicate illiteracy are beginning to fear that their efforts are being more than offset by extremely rapid rates of population growth. Illiteracy perpetuates ignorance and hampers intelligence, a scourge that is on a par with other afflictions of man-disease, poverty, hunger, war, want. A nation with 80 per cent of its population illiterate finds that it cannot cope with modern science and technology on a diet of stories, parables and folklore. Literacy is not a luxury, but a necessity for survival in a competitive world. Technical knowledge often needs formalized techniques of transmission, and literacy is an indispensable prerequisite. It is equally essential for active participation in cultural life-literature, drama, music, philosophy, poetry, architecture.

It is necessary to be clear about a few points, however. First, illiteracy cannot be equated with ignorance. It is possible EO

create and reason without knowing h o w to read or write. History affords m a n y examples. The general level of literacy in m a n y ancient civilizations (for example Egyptian, Mayan, Aztec, Greek, Roman, Zimbabwe, Ghanaian, Malian) was probably much lower than in m a n y modern developing countries. The Egyptians admittedly developed hieroglyphics, but the Mayans and Aztecs apparently had no developed system of writing, nor did the civilizations of Ghana, Mali, Zimbabwe and others. Great as Greek

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civilization was, over 90 per cent of Greeks apparently remained illiterate. Cultural and scientific thinking were passed on orally through the myth- ologies that inspired their cosmogony, astronomy, science, theology, drama and literature. Their sensitivity to oral tradition helped preserve their knowledge until their system of writing became adequate to record it. In Kenya too a large portion of the population still depends on oral tradition to transmit a cultural heritage from one generation to another.

Oral tradition is based on actual experiences and human relations. As an aspect of culture literacy is only a recent phenomenon, and for m a n y centuries culture in Kenya and elsewhere was preserved very well without it. The elders were the custodians w h o transmitted and controlled. They were sceptical about the possibility of teaching the young, assuming that they could really acquire only a limited understanding of adult life; theor- etical or philosophical knowledge could be appreciated only by those w h o had a certain amount of practical knowledge and experience of life.

Age groupings and institutions in m a n y Kenyan cultures reflect the idea of gradual progress in acquiring practical, ethical and philosophical knowledge, for example hostility between age groups (the kihihi concept in Kikuyu) and different ways of greeting (Maasai touch the head of a young person instead of shaking hands; in shikamoo (Kiswahili) and wakyia (Kikamba) the young defer to elders and elders speak down to youth). Thus the greater education and knowledge of adults provides one natural order of hierarchy. Kenya is not alone in this. It will be remembered that Socrates was accused of corrupting youth by talking to them of problems outside their scope, and was condemned to death. In later years Plato himself stated that people should not study philosophy until they were 45. Perhaps the saying that life begins at 40 has the same underlying idea-no use trying until you have had a considerable experience of life.

Formalized primary, secondary and university education is a relatively novel and recent idea, whose consequences have yet to be determined. The current revolt of youth against the establishment shows that it is by no means accepted as being self-evidently valid.

Kenya fully recognizes the importance of oral tradition-all the more important because 90 per cent of the population is rural, devoted to the traditional drama, folk opera, music and poetry. At the same time the educational system must be developed as a necessary component of social welfare. The 1970-74 Development Plan states the objectives as follows:l

The government has declared in Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 and in its National Social Welfare Policy, that it is its firm objective to improve the general well- being of the people. This is in recognition of the truism that economic development cannot be divorced from the social advancement of the people. Such a

1. Republic of Kenya, Development Plan 19700-1974, p. 527, paragraphs 20.17, 20.18, Nairobi, 1969.

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policy compels greater involvement by the State in promoting the welfare of the individual. It makes the government the major instrument through which the basic social services and social security of the people are guaranteed. Emphasis will be placed on those welfare activities which contribute to, and are a necessary prerequisite of greater economic progress. Certain services have no immediate economic implication, but their neglect has severe effects on the well-being of the whole nation. With these two aims in mind the underlying principle of all social welfare programmes will be that of prevention: preventing emergence of social problems which lead to human wastage and national decline.

The elimination of illiteracy will enable everyone without undue handicap to participate fully in national development in all its aspects. Meanwhile the policy recognizes the importance of functional literacy to the national economy and in achieving this aim, and says so in the 1974-78 Development Plan. Work-oriented literacy fosters self-improvement through productive work, and covers all types of skills; programmes m a y include such items as seminars for business managers, civil leaders, politicians or writers, and are concerned more with the ability to do than with the ability to read and write.

Programmes of adult education are too diverse for supervision by a single ministry or agency. The Ministries of Agriculture, Health, Infor- mation, Cooperatives and Social Services; the University of Nairobi; voluntary agencies such as the National Christian Council of Kenya, the Kenya Literacy Centre, Maendeleo y a Wanawake, and so on, all run some form of adult education. However, the Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services co-ordinates and advises on all matters related to education (see Table 2).

The ‘production unit’ mentioned in the table will be concerned mainly with the collection of oral traditions and the spread of cultural and developmental ideas. The government plans to spend more on education in the less-developed areas.

TABLE 2 Projected expenditure (E(K)) on adult education, 1973-78

Purpose

Honoraria for teachers 29,000 39,000 49,000 61,000 72,000 250,000 Training of teachers 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 15,000 Grants for formal evening classes 6,000 10,000 12,000 16,000 21,000 65,000

Production unit1 - 18,000 4,000 4,000 4,500 30,500 30,000 40,000 45,000 45,000 50,000 210,000 Grants

TOTAL 67,000 109,500 113,000 129,500 151,500 570,500 _ _ _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

1. For further explanation see text. Source: Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services.

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Mass media

The first daily newspaper (East African Standard) was founded in 1902, mainly to inform the white settlers and the colonized Kenyans about the activities of the colonial government. The Kenya Broadcasting Services (KBS) had a similar purpose. W h e n broadcasting time was stepped up during the M a u M a u rebellion, the main languages of Kenya were introduced in programmes intended to persuade the population to have nothing to do with the freedom fighters. Television did not start until after independence and, like press and radio, helps to broaden awareness of the changes that are now taking place.

The government considers the mass media and communication in general as a basic element in Kenya’s modernization and development, since this demands the full participation of all sectors of the population, and information has to flow from decision-makers to the people. The responsibility of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting is clearly stated in the 1970-74 Development Plan9

The Government of Kenya is convinced that rapid economic growth and the modernization of the nation cannot be fully achieved without effective and comprehensive systems of communication designed to awaken the entire population to the need for change. In order to achieve this end there is a need to increase facilities for the free flow of information and ideas which will help to produce an informed and action-oriented citizenry.

The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting is charged with the responsibility of informing and educating the people of Kenya, and providing a varied and suitable range of entertainment through both radio and television. It must also provide an efficient information service which can both gather and dissemi- nate news information throughout the nation. Visual, written and spoken media must be used to the full if these responsibilities are to be properly discharged.

The ministry informs through two services: (a) the Information Depart- ment; and (b) the Voice of Kenya.

INFORMATION DEPARTMENT

The Information Department has four sections: the Press Office; Publi- cations; Provincial Information; and Administration.

The Press Office (one of the busiest sections) supplies news items, features and photographs to local and foreign newpapers, and collects information through Kenya News Agency (KNA) reporters throughout the republic w h o are linked by teleprinters to the Nairobi head office.

1. Development Plan, 1970-1974, op. cit., p. 540.

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Although KNA has arrangements with Reuter, Tass, Agence France Press and other international news agencies, its primary purpose is to feed Voice of Kenya radio and television. The Press Office publishes a fortnightly newsletter to inform Kenyan students studying abroad of activities at home, and Kenya ProJile for distribution to visitors to Kenya.

The Publications section produces various periodicals, leaflets, posters and brochures on Kenya’s way of life. Kenya Yetu (Our Kenya), with a circulation of 100,000, is its major publication, with illustrated articles on development and culture. Serikali Yetu (Our Government), a monthly with a circulation of 15,000, reports on the activities of the government. Ad hoc publications include presidential speeches and Jifunze Uraia (Teach Yourself Citizenship). Inside Kenya, a quality quarterly in English, is distributed free in embassies abroad but sold in Kenya. It is very controversial and covers m a n y aspects of life in Kenya. Kenya Sports Review, a quarterly with a circulation of 3,000, portrays sport as a natural asset because of the international fame w o n by Kenyan athletes (see below,

Provincial information: all provinces except North East are linked to head office by teleprinter. The provincial offices gather information and relay information on official policies and activities to the provinces. Provin- cial information is published in Swahili or English.

The Administration section is a kind of specialized information agency which co-ordinates with the Provincial Commissioner, the presidential representative w h o provides policy guidelines on all sensitive or political issues.

p. 37).

THE VOICE OF K E N Y A

The Voice of Kenya has two sections, radio and television. Radio is the most important of the mass media, reaching more people than any other (through an estimated 800,000 radios). If six people listen to each radio, the potential number of listeners is 4.8 million, approximately 40 per cent of the total population. It is estimated at least 2.8 million people listen daily.

Programmes are broadcast in several local languages and in English. There are three major services: The General Service (in English) includes news, foreign music and special

cultural programmes. It links Kenya with the outside world and caters to some extent for local expatriates w h o do not speak Swahili. Nearly 25 per cent of the General Service material comes from overseas-mainly from the British Broadcasting Corporation and the Voice of America.

The National Service broadcasts in Swahili. There is some overlap with the General Service, especially on news; the National Service tends to concentrate on the local affairs and news from the provinces. Special events m a y be broadcast in alternative versions to cater for different audiences.

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TABLE 3 Programmes of the Voice of Kenya on the General Service

Subject Hours Subject Hours

Adult education 4/week News w a y Farming l/week Features W a y + Children 3f/week 3 Saturdays + Music Tlday + 43 Sundays

Source:

11 Saturdays

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Kenya: an mciol Handbook.

The Vernacular Service broadcasts in Kenya’s fourteen vernacular languages (representing over 90 per cent of the population). Each local language is on the air for one hour during week-days. Programmes are wholly produced locally. They discuss national, provincial and district development topics and harambee (self-help) projects which supplement the governmental effort.

Educational radio includes correspondence courses for teachers and school programmes,

Easy access, the variety of languages, the attention to international and national angles, and school broadcasting make radio the most potent instrument of communication in Kenya. Table 3 gives a typical breakdown of programmes.

Television, by contrast, is rather restricted. Sets are still too expensive. The total number of sets is estimated at 32,000, of which 900 are publicly owned by social welfare centres. Assuming seventy-five viewers per publicly owned set and seven for the remainder, there are approximately 285,200 viewers.

Apart from the cost, most programmes come from abroad and are in English. This cuts out a large number of potential listeners, since only about 2 per cent of Kenyans understand English well enough to follow a television programme.

Television was initially confined to Nairobi and its neighbourhood and has only recently been extended to Mombasa.

In spite of these practical drawbacks, television has a growing influence and covers a fairly wide range (see Table 4).

TABLE 4 A typical week’s programmes on television

Subject Hours Subject Hours

Documentary 2 Education 2 Children 5P Sports 2f Music 6 Films 7 News and current affairs 12 Source: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Kenya: an QtEciul Handbook.

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Children’s, film, music, news and current affairs programmes dominate. Current affairs include such things as agricultural shows, sports, compe- titions, traditional dance sessions and presidential speeches. Music m a y be foreign or African. Films were at first mainly British and American, but local theatres and drama have recently become very popular. Local plays take themes from African life.

Africanization met some opposition from the expatriate community, and programmes have had other and rather severe critics, including the President. Television programmes must foster African identity and person- ality, and project African rather than the Western values of British or American films. Under inter-African exchanges arranged by the ministry, documentary films from other African countries (for example Dunia Juma hili) are n o w shown weekly. African life is portrayed in the Mzee Pede and M a m a To$, Tamaa, Mutiso, Kipanga and other programmes which are now screened in Swahili. Swahili programmes account for 176 hours per week and English for 204 hours. A Voice of Kenya film unit caters for rural areas and also produces newsreels and documentaries.

NEWSPAPERS

Kenya has a very powerful press and is proud of the freedom newspapers enjoy. Unlike m a n y African countries, there is no official government paper; all the daily newspapers are privately owned and in most cases report government policies fairly (see Table 5).

The East African Standard is a Lonrho subsidiary with a ‘business fist’ philosophy. Its reporting, of very high quality, concentrates on commercial activities and the paper’s attitude to government development policies is sober. Daily Nation is owned by E. A. Newspapers (Nation Series) Ltd, and has the widest circulation. Reporting is balanced, with occasionally

TABLE 5 Some newspapers and magazines published in Kenya

Name Circulation Frequency Owner Founded

East African Standard 35,000 Daily Private 1902 Daily Nation 57,972 Daily Private 1961 Taifa Leo 23,122 Daily Private 1960 Africa Samachar 16,000 Weekly Private 1956 Baraza 50,000 Weekly Private 1939 Sunday Post 22,500 Weekly Private 1936 Taifa Kenya 59,000 Weekly Private 1958 Lengo 23,000 Monthly Private 1964 Target 17,000 Monthly Private 1964 Kenya Mirror 19,000 Monthly Private 1968 Joe - Monthly Private 1973 Source: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Kenya: an f&$ccial Handbook (except for Joe).

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a very strong line on allegations of public corruption. Tava Leo, the Swahili daily, is owned by E. A. Standard Ltd, and is the only daily widely read by the ordinary African population and regularly reporting on their style of life. African Samachar is a Gujarati weekly, bought mostly by the Asian community, and owned by United Africa Press Ltd. Bazaza, owned by E. A. Newspapers Ltd, is one of the oldest Swahili newspapers in Kenya, reporting weekly on events for Africans who have not got access to Taifa Leo. Sunday Post, owned by Sunday Post Ltd, is one of the oldest weeklies. It has improved remarkably in recent years, becoming a controversial paper that does not shirk sensitive issues. Taifa Kenya, owned by E. A. News- papers Ltd, is a Swahili weekly. Lengo and Target, owned by E. A. Venture Co., have been very critical on some aspects of government policy, much concerned with the moral aspects of social, cultural, political and economic developments.

These are a sample of the papers which, each in its own way, keep the population informed. The lack of a government paper tends to cause confusion when contradictory reports appear in the privately owned newspapers. The government should perhaps seriously consider having its own paper. The others, mostly privately and foreign owned, are less interested in such aspects as cultural development which do not ‘sell’ easily as news. There is also an in-built risk to a country in having only foreign-owned mass media to guide and inform its citizens, for he who controls the mass media to a large extent also controls the nation. Kenya welcomes foreign investment, but just as the country owns radio and television, it should also own at least one newspaper which will give the information straight. It would be one way of cutting short the rumours which have assailed the government and its structures in recent times. This would not in any way impair the freedom of press, but simply establish an official government source. The government now has its official handbook; the same underlying logic should apply to the establishment of an official government newspaper. Private papers can provide the critical counterpart. The public can make up its mind, weighing one bias, where it exists, against its opposite.

Cultural Centre and National Theatre

Theatre and drama are very much a part of village life and take place, perhaps under a tree (for example the Muugumo theatre among the central Bantu), in the form of storytelling, singing, worshipping, folk narrations and so on. The theatre may have a specific physical form, for example the Akamba theatre (Kituto) has a specified open space where dances and acrobatics were regularly performed. This is also true of the Giriama, Kikuyu, Maasai, Luo, Abaluhyia, Meru and other groups. Theatre is thus a familiar feature of Kenya’s traditional societies. Themes include warfare, animal movements, spearing the dragon-enemy, magic lore, dancing for

29


spirits (kazambi or voodoo) and festivities connected with initiation rites, the passage from one age group to another, and some aspects of traditional self-help are also associated with theatre.

Theatre in the modern European sense was introduced in 1947 by Mr Frost, a British Council representative, who came out to set up a Cultural Centre and National Theatre. H e got in touch with various groups likely to be interested who were enthusiastic but could make only a limited contribution. The colonial government also donated some money, and a grant of S(K)SO,OOO was made by the British Treasury. In 1949 a charter was drawn up with a view to establishing a multi-purpose centre that would be open to all citizens.

A cultural centre for the use and enjoyment of the citizens of the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya, without distinction of race and creed, and to provide for the performance of music, drama and dancing for the exhibition of works of art and craft, and for the holding of meetings for discussion on matters of historical, scientific or educational importance.

The charter was replaced in 1950 by an ordinance with the same stated objectives. Although the theatre was to be non-racial, very little was done in practice to encourage the African component, as will be evident from a list showing the constituent membership as of 1 April 1964: British Council; British Red Cross (Kenya Branch); East African Conservatoire of Music; Kenya B o y Scouts Association; Kenya Girl Guides Association; Kenya Prisoners’ Aid Association; Makerere-Extra-Mural Department; Outward Bound Trust; St John’s Ambulance Association; Social Services League; United Kenya Club. The African was evidently on the receiving end only: he could participate only by learning and adopting European cultural values and forgetting about his own. This became even clearer in later years when attempts were made to appoint an African director of the centre.

Another membership (apart from the constituent membership) was also exclusively European: miance Française; British Legion; Camera Club; Chapter of Architects; City Players; East Africa Institute of Architects; East Africa Jewish Guild; East Africa Theatre Guild; East Africa Women’s League; Film Society of East Africa; Guild of Stagemen; Inner Wheel; Kenya Arts Society; Kenya Floral Arrangement Club; Kenya Horticul- tural Society; Mountain Club of Kenya; Nairobi Amateur Dramatic Society; Nairobi Musical Society; Nairobi Round Table; Nakuru Players; Photographic Society of Kenya; Railway Players; Royal Overseas League; The Theatre Group.

There was also an (exclusively Asian) affiliated membership: H. H. Aga- khan Ismailia Provincial Council; Bhagini Samaj; Kenya Eastern Arts; City Arts Society; Oriental Art Circle; Sangeet Niketan; Bangalee Overseas Association; Vedic Cultural Society; Teacher Training College D r a m a

30


Society. A circular indicated that ‘the Nairobi Orchestra is composed at the present time of European and Asian musicians, but is certainly open for African membership’. It further states that the Kenya D r a m a Society is ‘basically an African group’, but it is not listed among the 1964 constituent membership.

Despite the charter and the ordinance, it is thus clear that the Cultural Centre was not really intended for the Africans. Its secondary purpose, however, was to acquaint them with the ‘superior cultural traditions’ of West and East.

The East African Conservatoire of Music provides another glaring example of this attitude. Reviewing its activities, one of the directors said:

.

Once the East African Conservatoire was established in 1944 it was regarded-not unreasonably-as a wildly optimistic venture doomed to failure. Work began in derelict wooden huts with no more than a dozen students receiving instructions from three teachers whose presence in the country had been brought about by the exigencies of military service. Today-20 years later-the Conservatoire has staff of 24 teachers and an average of 375 students of all races. From the time of its opening, the Conservatoire and its work have been at the service of all races. This is something which is rightly taken for granted in 1963, but in 1944 it seemed to be adventurous and far-sighted. The participation of African students has to a great extent been made possible by annual bursaries which have been awarded for many years by the British Council and the results have been very worth while. Twelve years ago the Conservatoire activity was greatly enhanced by the inauguration of a ballet class under the direction of Madam Vera Zerkovitz, and three years ago the School of Classical Indian Music, directed by Mrs Sheila Markanday (B.MUSC., Bombay) also came under the Conservatoire’s wing. Another feature of the Conservatoire work has been the presentation of visiting artists at frequent concerts to the local audience-many celebrated ones have thus been heard in East Africa.

The founders of the conservatoire obviously never intended to include the African, who could neither understand nor appreciate the intricacies of the culture involved. The ballet reflects the same cultural superiority. With all due respect to the ballet, it is difficult to understand why, for nearly thirty years, an East African Conservatoire of Music has been unable to incorporate African dances and music. The conservatoire saw fit to promote classical Indian music and sponsor artists from other countries but took no notice of the local culture. Even its African students had no option but to study Western music.

The Bomas of Kenya, a folklore mission group at Nairobi, have shown the tremendous possibilities of African music (see p. 39 below); so has the work of Afro-Americans. The B o m a s of Kenya have shown that young people anywhere in Kenya can perform dances from all the ethnic groups in the country. That alone helps to promote Kenyan music and dancing

31


and, thereby, social and cultural transformation. And instead of being located permanently in Nairobi and performing only for the wealthy, the Bomas of Kenya stage some of their shows at provincial cultural festivals.

Kenya appreciates past efforts, but does not believe in the perpetuation of foreign cultures at the expense of its own. A National Council of Arts and Culture has recently been set up to advise the government on ways of implementing cultural policy and, in particular, on ‘the realization of national unity and cohesion and the creation of national pride and sense of identity among Kenyans’. This vital task cannot be entrusted to voluntary agencies. It will mean taking over activities which were formerly guided in accordance with an outside perspective. However, good financial backing is promised in setting up the necessary institutions in Nairobi and throughout the country (see Table 7).

The Cultural Centre was for m a n y years the focus for cultural activities, including the Kenya Musical Festival.

The Donovan Maule Theatre stages plays throughout the year, but both plays and players are very much London-centred. The National Theatre caters for amateur groups, and also arranges musical and orchestral events. Night clubs in the major hotels in Nairobi usually rely on international dance troupes and artists, mainly for tourists, but occasionally feature modern African music. Local music is also played in juke boxes in African bars and restaurants.

Cinema

Film showing can be considered under three categories. First, films publicly shown in thirty-eight cinemas and large halls:

English-language films for an audience of over 3 million, and Asian- made films for something over 2 million. The semi-State-owned Kenya Film Corporation was set up by the government to take over film distribution about four years ago after long and acrimonious discussions with the am suppliers. Previously, the cinemas had been showing all kinds of films made in the Western world. Apart from being very violent and thus promoting violence, some of these were of very poor quality, and the prices were exorbitant. The government took over the distribution and censoring of films. The suppliers objected that the government was becoming totalitarian by interfering with the individual’s choice of what to see or what not to see in films. But the government firmly believes that films have been effective in promoting crime, violence, disrespect of all forms, dissent, and are agents of cultural imperialism, and that it was doing its duty as custodian of decency, order and unity in opposing cultural imperialism. The censorship measures are very strictly enforced.

Second, mobile-unit shows are arranged in rural areas by private companies, but are shown free of charge, the government paying some

32


of the costs involved. Part of the cost is also met by including commercials in some of the films.

Third, there are the films shown by the Kenya Film Society, which was founded in 1966 to foster film as art and as an effective medium of education and information. The society sponsors film festivals, usually in the form of a season of films from a particular country. Membership is open to anyone over 18 years of age. The films are screened in the National Theatre.

The showing of these foreign films tends to underline the lack of film production in Kenya itself, despite its scenic possibilities. Even if the country cannot spare the resources to develop a film industry, foreign film-makers could be invited. One Swahili film called Mlewi, made in Kenya, was highly successful and should encourage efforts on similar lines to produce more. The only alternative is being always on the receiving end and contributing nothing in return, aping others and totally lacking in creativity. The university has shown no interest in establishing a Department of African Creative Arts. The work of well-known writers in the university, such as Okot p'Bitek and Ngugi w a Thiongo, could be made known to the people in the form of Swahili plays. The technical aspects of film-making could be taught by the departments of architecture and ar~s, as a preliminary step towards encouraging the establishment of a film industry.

Museums

The history of museums in Kenya goes back to the early part of this century when some amateur naturalists formed the East African and Uganda Natural History Society. An interest in natural history is easily aroused by the rich flora and fauna of East Africa. The museum grew rapidly in size and reputation, and started to attract eminent naturalists from all over the world. Under Governor Robert Coryndon the musuem began to receive subsidies. Famous names associated with research in the museum include A. Loveridge, V. G. L. van Someren, C. Webb, P. Bally and J. WiUiam. It was perhaps made known best of all by the works of Dr L. S. B. Leakey, Curator for m a n y years, on h u m a n evolution. The collections include mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibia, fishes, molluscs and insects, and archaeological, ethnographic and palaeontological materials; and there is a snake park and national herbarium.

The role of museums is recognized in the 1970-74 Development Plan9

The museums have a double obligation to the nation. They must present to the public a variety of educational opportunities, and they must also engage

1. Development Plan, 1970-1974, op. cit., p. 544-5.

33


in scientific research which will support their educational programme . . . the national museum intends to pursue its educational objectives on all fronts. The display of exhibits and the dissemination of information to schools, colleges, and the general public will be enhanced through the development of a central museum school and education centre, through the operation of a mobile unit which will travel to rural areas, through the promotion of local museum clubs, and through aid to the development of Provincial Museums. In order to carry out these objectives it is intended to develop close collaboration with other educational centres, and in particular with the University College, Nairobi.

This quotation does not refer to the training of Kenyan personnel. Museums are research centres which attract eminent scientists from abroad. This has been particularly true of Kenya, where a lot of the research done has been sponsored by outside bodies. For some strange reason, the results of such research never seem to be used by Kenyans, or to be even known to our schools, research institutes or the university. Material derived from the museums has formed the basis for textbooks in other countries, but never in Kenya itself, where the fame even of Leakey is very little known. It would seem that decisions regarding Kenyan studies are often made without consulting anyone in Kenya. For example, 10,000 years B.C. seems to have been tacitly accepted as a date-line dividing all archaeological and palaeontological research rights between Leakey and the British Institute of Archaeology. Maybe this was decided in colonial days.

It is not always remembered that a museum can have a certain industrial importance: the casting of rare and other items (already being done to some extent in the museum), the export of biological specimens on slides or in taxidermic form, and of live specimens. The skills learned in preparing such material could be applied elsewhere in the economy.

There is serious concern about the depletion of Kenyan artefacts by private foreign collectors. Unless drastic measures are taken to halt this trafic, our successors m a y have to go to Europe or the Americas to study the cultures of people living in Kenya. Posterity will not easily forgive us. The Institute of African Studies, set up in 1965, was to have undertaken ethnographic and cultural salvage on a large scale in co-operation with the Department of Antiquities, but has in fact done little in this respect, and still does not have a full-time Kenyan director. Local artists make copies for sale in the museum, but it is difficult to be certain that all of the objects sold are copies.

Present arrangements leave a lot to be desired in regard to museums, archaeological monuments, handicrafts, antiquities, the animal heritage, and important cultural and historical materials and documents. They should come under a separate ministry, or perhaps under a broadened Department of Culture in the Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services. The university, the Institute of African Studies and some departments in the faculties of arts, science and architecture could provide a nucleus

34


of the personnel needed. The training of local personnel is crucial to the success of our museums; the present predominance of expatriate staff in the museums and in other cultural spheres should be reduced considerably and strict measures should be taken to control the export of cultural objects (perhaps under the supervision of the Department of Antiquities). Other- wise the government m a y find itself, like m a n y developing countries, having to pay millions of pounds if it wants to repatriate cultural treasures and restore them to the national heritage.

Libraries

The National Library Service was set up in 1965 to promote, establish, equip, maintain and develop libraries in Kenya. Libraries encourage reading which, as an activity, can be entertaining, useful and creative. A library accordingly can be in a recreation centre and provide facilities for reading and studying. Branch libraries have been established in Kisumu and Embu, and Kakamega and Nyeri have library services which are located in temporary buildings. Mobile services operate from Nairobi to Kajiado, Athi River, Machakos, Ngong, Ruiru and Gatundu.

S t a h g has been a problem in libraries also and, by the end of the 1970-74 Development Plan, it is estimated that they will have recruited only half of the staff needed.

An efficient library service can make a substantial contribution to social and economic development. ‘Knowledge is power.’ The amounts spent by other countries can serve as an example. The construction of a National Library headquarters, which is nearing completion, can be taken as evidence of the government’s intentions.

Elemente of cultural policy

A government paper circulated in 1972 stated:

Government has an obligation to ensure that valuable cultural assets are not irretrievably lost and that the resources of the past are protected and preserved in order that the people may keep in sight their rich heritage and maintain those ties with it which are meaningful in the contemporary world. . . . The main objective of government cultural policy is therefore clear. It is the realization of national unity and cohesion and the creation of national pride and sense of identity among our people. Apart from the need to protect and preserve valuable assets, the part played by culture in national consolidation is recognized as one of fundamental significance since culture is the symbol of nationhood, the grass- roots from which people spring.

35


These views can be put in practical form in the following list of objectives of cultural policy: T o promote self-awareness and the development of human values; To promote cultural solidarity and a sense of c o m m o n destiny in Kenya’s

T o bridge the development gap and other differences between rural and

To enable everyone to participate freely in the cultural life of Kenyan

To ensure that quality in cultural terms is not unduly subordinated to quan-

To reconcile Kenya’s cultural heterogeneity with modern scientific views; T o facilitate contacts between intellectuals and the c o m m o n people; T o provide art patronage without tribal chauvinism or authoritarian

T o help people to appreciate the creative works of Kenyan artists; To link Kenyan culture effectively with Kenya’s socio-economic devel-

T o involve national cultural values in all aspects of national development; T o provide adequate institutions and services for the propagation of

T o construct a culture which will work with universal humanism and

heterogeneous population;

urban areas;

communities;

titative considerations;

dictation;

opment;

culture and all forms of creative art;

contribute to it.

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Cultural programmes m a y be run directly by the government, by private agencies, or by the government in conjunction with private or international organizations.

A good example of multilateral effort was in 1968-69 when Unesco arranged to pay for a director of the National Theatre in the Culture Centre-which is partly private and partly government owned.

sport

A pleasant and varied climate throughout the year enables Kenyans to practise all kinds of sport. Athletics is one of Kenya’s strongest points, with such athletes as Kipchoge Keino, Benjamin Jipcho, Julius Sang and Charles Asati. Kenya is regarded as the top African nation in certain forms of athletics, and has outstanding performances to its credit in the Olympic Games. Despite these feats, government support for sport has always been limited. Instead, private companies help to finance trials which give our sportsmen a chance to face competition and get some practice. Keino, w h o put Kenya into the world class, had to turn professional-where another country might have erected a monument to him, or at least given him a position where his talents could provide a sowrce of national inspi- ration. Recently, several important people collected the money to send a Kenyan team to N e w Zealand for the Commonwealth Games. The Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services also helped.

The East African Safari is a world-famous international motor rally held since 1953 during the long Easter weekend. Some years it takes place in torrential rain. Mast entries are private, but manufacturers also sponsor drivers to test the durability and sturdiness of n e w makes. It is too expensive for most Kenyans or East Africans, although in recent years some companies have supported African drivers. Government support has been moral rather

37


than material. The rally generates a lot of goodwill for East African countries generally.

Fishing, golf, hockey and riding are practised, mostly by expatriates, and with little or no government financial backing apart from some tax reliefs.

Soccer is very popular. The government makes limited grants for tours to other countries. Kenya competes in the East African Challenge Cup Soccer Championship (in company with Uganda, Tanzania and Zanzibar); in the All-Africa soccer tournament; and occasionally with countries outside Africa. However, the Football Association of Kenya has not succeeded in providing the kind of national leadership that might have w o n moral and financial support from the government. It is rather sad, for example, that Voice of Kenya television has to buy foreign films on soccer tour- naments which local effort could provide cheaper-and might at the same time attract budding soccer stars w h o could end the colonial mentality which believes that any foreign team is necessarily better.

Sport as a whole will remain amateur unless the government adopts a strong policy line. Well-organized sport can be big business, as American and European experience shows. Sport should come under the heading of education in the university and the teacher-training colleges. For its cultural value, and as potentially big business, Kenya should exploit the possibilities of its exceptionally favourable climate and transform its potential in sport into profitable reality.

Agricultural shows

With government support, agricultural shows are arranged in every province once a year by the Agricultural Society of Kenya (ASK), mainly to encourage increased production. The shows have been expanded considerably in scope; the one in Nairobi, for instance, attracts exhibits from several countries, with displays of manufactured goods, commercial design, works of art, films, traditional dances, parachuting, research and so on at Jamhuri Park, which the government donated for the annual show. All the shows mix business with cultural festivities. It is fun for everyone and an occasion to show off the latest fashions.

The administrative and financial structure represents a joint effort by the private sector and government. The present director of the society is an assistant minister of agriculture. The government contributes to the transport and maintenance of dance groups w h o come from the provinces to Nairobi, where the show is always opened by the President of the republic. All ministries are expected to indicate what they have achieved during the year, thus providing an opportunity to review developments and m a p out lines of action for the future. In the provinces, the shows are opened by representatives of the President.

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The government has a printing press for its o w n reports and papers, and occasionally prints the proceedings of seminars which it has sponsored. Teaching materials for schools and universities are published by private companies or foundations. The East African Literature Bureau publishes books on all sorts of developmental problems in the East African countries; it is supported by the East African Community of which Kenya is a member. The East African Publishing House covers literature, medicine, law, physical and social sciences, etc., and has published some of the best-known works of East African literature. Both the ‘Bureau’ and the ‘House’ publish in local languages-most important in Kenya where over 90 per cent of the population is rural and its culture is predominantly oral. The government gives financial support directly and through ministries, museums, the university, the Institute of African Studies, and so on.

Traditional dances

The colonial government did all it could to kill African dances, which the missionaries identified with Satan and regarded as pagan traditions that were a moral and ethical danger and, moreover, diverted people from working. Prohibitions were incorporated in legislation. One of the h s t persons to fall from colonial and missionary grace was J o m o Kenyatta, n o w President of the republic, who had strong convictions regarding the value of an African way of life and African customs. Since independence, the government has given moral and financial support, and the Kenya Institute of Education, the Institute of African Studies and other agencies have been doing a lot of research on traditional music and dances. Some of the materials collected have been used in the teaching of music in schools, and at the Music Festival held every year in the National Theatre in July.

The Ministry of Tourism and Wild Life and the Tourist Development Corporation established the group Bomas of Kenya (see p. 31 above) (Bomas is a village in a suburb of Nairobi) in order to have a dance troupe which can perform all the dances of Kenya. The government has contributed m a n y thousands of pounds in training and maintenance costs, and in providing buildings and an amphitheatre which can seat several thousand people.

Weekly Voice of Kenya television programmes called Yaliyotokea (What has Happened) and Jiburudisheni (Relaxation) cover current events and traditional and modern African music and dance, and European and Indian music, while a weekly comedy feature, Kiuunja Mbavu (Rib- breaker), is a very authentic and popular series which exploits comic situations created by forces of change in our society.

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Museums

Archaeological monuments, for example Gedi and Fort Jesus in the coastal region, have been intensively investigated by archaeological expeditions mainly from the United Kingdom. S o m e restorations have been undertaken. H u m a n evolution has been the subject of considerable research by the Leakey family and other archaeologists and palaeontologists, and research grants have been m a d e by various international societies. Some of the prehistoric sites have become open museums or national shrines. The wealth of flora and fauna in Kenya has resulted in the National Museum in Nairobi becoming one of the best research centres of its kind in the world, and has attracted aid from various international organizations, including the Ford Foundation and Unesco. The importance of museums is recognized in the 1970-74 Development P l a d

The Government in recognition of the service the museum renders has supported the activities of the Museum Trustees in carrying out this obligation by providing Grants-in-Aid covering over 80 per cent of financial requirements. The Trustees have embarked on a major drive to raise funds for capital expansion both locally and abroad and it is intended that this drive, coupled with measures to increase local income, will provide a large part of the funds necessary to expand the museums and also pay a large share of the recurrent costs. . . . The administration of the museum, historical museums and prehistoric site museums, as well as the mobile unit, the educational centres, and the projected provincial museums will be the responsibility of the Museum Trustees through an Administrative Director. The Museum Trustees, who form a statutory body, will maintain general responsibility for all programmes and are subject to the general policy guidance of the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR). The scientific programmes of the museums will, however, require direction from qualified scientists who will act as Depart- mental Heads or Research Directors under the Administrative Director. These allocations of responsibility are currently being effected by the transfer to the Museum Trustees of responsibility for Fort Jesus and prehistoric sites of Gedi, Olorgesailie, Kariandusi and Hyrax Hill. It is anticipated that as more scientific research is carried out, further site museums will be developed in conjunction with important discoveries. It will be necessary to develop such museums as need dictates, but it is not possible to predict the numbers or locations of such discoveries.

The administrative director thus has extremely important responsibilities. H e is the link between the trustees and the basic museum research. T h e trustees are government representatives who m a y not be familiar with the intricacies of research or museum affairs, whereas the administrative director is at the centre of all such activities, and could, in principle,

1. Development Plan, 1970-1974, op. cit., p. 544-5.

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TABLE 6 Development programme: the national museums of Kenya (qK))

Section 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 Total

M a m m a l and ornithological

Site development plan Mobile museum unit Mammals and conservation

Shop and cafeteria Modernization of site

Entomological research

Education centre Ethnographic gallery Science and technology

research

gallery

museums

facilities

hall

TOTAL

4,500 - - 4,500 900

3,500

- 900

3,500

30,000 -

10,000 - 40,000 4,000

- 4,000

925 1,375 2,300

500 3,000

500 3,000 8,000

- - 3,500

- - 4,500

18,000 15,000 33,000 - - 13,500 9,425 39,275 22,500 15,000 99,700

Source: Development Plan, 1970-74, op. cit.

manipulate museum policy and research to suit his o w n ideas. H e must, accordingly, be a m a n of unquestionable character with a sound knowledge of interdisciplinary research and museum technology. It might also be advisable to reorganize the present structure of museum administration, and appoint trustees w h o have had a training at university level in biological, social and physical sciences, humanities and museum technology. In that way, policy-makers would themselves be properly qualified to formulate national museum policy (see Table 6).

The projected development expenditure on culture (1973-78) is shown in Table 7.

Aid seems to depend broadly on the extent to which the facility aided serves a major sector of the public and has an effective administrative machinery to r u n it.

The national library service

As already indicated, a library service was set up by Act of Parliament in 1965, and the government provides hancial and administrative assistance for its development. The government has also sought external aid to supplement its o w n financial effort.

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Kenya Cultural Centre

The Cultural Centre (discussed previously in ‘Assessment of Cultural Needs’) consists of a number of buildings which include the National Theatre, office accommodation, practice rooms, a committee room and a small hall. The ofice accommodation is hired to the following organizations: British Council, Orient Art Circle, Outward Bound, the East African Conservatoire of Music, the East African Zonal O 5 c e for Lagos, Festival, National Theatre and D r a m a School. The centre was founded some twenty- five years ago, financed by a grant of g(K)50,000 and small amounts contributed through constituent memberships.

The second building phase was finished in 1960 with a contribution of g(K)6,000 from the conservatoire and the rest %(K)25,000 loaned by the Kenya Building Society, guranteed by the government and to be repaid in eighteen years). The City Council of Nairobi contributed g(K)2,000 initially, and has continued to waive the annual rent of E(K)650. The government makes an annual grant of E(K)6,000 to the centre.

As indicated earlier, Africans were excluded from constituent memberships by virtue of being Africans, so that there was no w a y in which the centre could project African culture. The administrative and financial structures of the centre have undergone various changes but always in favour of expatriate interests. For example, the governing council entered into an agreement with the British Council, the conservatoire and the Orient Art Circle in a tenant purchase scheme-for a property whose second phase was built with a loan guaranteed by the government. The site on which the centre is built was a free grant of public land.

The centre is still controlled and run by expatriates. The activities run by the constituent membership include art exhibitions, theatre, drama, entertainment, film shows, music, dancing, speeches and recitals. Occasion- ally, international artists passing through Nairobi are asked to perform. The centre has done little to promote national culture, and perhaps the government should turn it into a national centre for the propagation of that culture.

Art education is provided in primary and secondary schools and included in the curricula of teacher-training colleges. In the university various departments (arts, sociology, history, political science, philosophy, religious studies, linguistics, literature) incorporate a local content in their teaching and research programmes. The university’s Institute of African Studies, established in the middle sixties, was made responsible for research in musicology, linguistics, literature, history, social anthropology, traditional arts, crafts and belief systems, and invited to give a lead in cultural studies in all parts of the republic. Important work has been done on traditional musical instruments, such as the nyatiti, and recordings have been made of traditional music and dance. A large collection of ethnographic material, records of oral history, comparative studies of Kenyan

42


languages and paintings by Nnaggenda, one of the research artists in the institure, are n o w available. Support has been received from international bodies and philanthropic organizations.

Traditional crafts have been developed. Maendeleo ya Wanawake (an exclusively women’s organization) has opened a co-operative through which it produces and sells its o w n products: baskets, woven clothes, jewellery, articles decorated with beads, mats, batik, ropes and hats. A k a m b a wood carvings are sold in curio shops. Kisii soapstone and A k a m b a and Makonde wood sculptures find a ready market among tourists. Attempts have been made to organize the local artists in a co-operative, but this has proved impossible. Artists are proverbially individualistic, even when they know their work is being exploited by shopkeepers and middlemen. It is not uncommon for an artist to sell his work to the local curio shop for one-tenth of what he could get in the open tourist market. Painters are slightly better organized, and there are a few private galleries in Nairobi in which they can exhibit. Local artists have produced murals in some buildings in Nairobi.

National Council of Arts and Culture

All these activities imply a certain infrastructure, but it is characterized by extreme fragmentation and a complete lack of communication between its various components. This is partly explained by the diversity of the peoples of Kenya. The colonial legacy accentuated this fragmentation. Culture was administered in colonial days by the Chief Native Commis- sioner in c o m m o n with social welfare and community development. This administrative confusion continued even after independence. The first development plan (1964-69) had no culture component. The purpose of the culture programme included in the second plan (1970-74) was ‘realization of national unity, cohesion and creation of national pride and sense of identity among Kenyans’.

The second plan recognized that it is not enough just to make a state- ment, but still did not provide the necessary machinery. Finally, in 1972, the government decided to set up a national body to co-ordinate cultural activities. Proposals were set forth in a paper submitted by the Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services for a National Council of Arts and Culture:

As far as possible, the activities of voluntary agencies involved in cultural matters should be coordinated through a central organisation whose aim be to enhance Kenya’s national pride, sense of belonging and identity among its people, and the preservation and advancement of the national culture. This is well reorganized in the Plan. It is therefore proposed to set up a Kenya National Council of Arts and Culture to perform this function. In particular the responsibility of the Council will be to sponsor cultural activities in and outside Kenya,

43


including the organisation of cultural festivals and exhibitions at National, Provincial and District levels. The Council wiu be expected to advise the govem- ment on cultural policy, to sponsor or organise training courses on cultural matters, including traditional music and folklore, drama and fine art. It will do this in conjunction with the Ministry of Education and other relevant organ- isations, such as National Music Festival Committee and the East African Conservatoire of Music. Generally it will be the responsibility of the Council to promote public interest in cultural arts and see that cultural affairs are accorded sufficient prominence in national plans for social and economic advancement.

Each province is represented on the council together with the university, the Kenya Cultural Centre, and so on. It is hoped that a department of culture will be set up within the ministry to centralize cultural affairs. The role of civil servants is minimized although some ex-officials are helping. The following long-term programme is due for completion before the end of the third development plan (1974-78): 1. Strengthening the council’s work programme and starting branches in

each province to ensure success in: (a) Organizing and developing cultural groups for music and dance,

(b) Organizing training courses on comparative traditional and modern

(c) Organizing district, provincial and national festivals and sponsoring

(d) Advising the government on cultural policy; (e) Studying and recommending modifications to the Kenya Culture

2. Establishing a national culture centre in Nairobi and one provincial cultural centre in each province, each incorporating a suitably equipped theatre and cafetaria.

3. Providing cultural mobile units for rural areas pending the construction of the provincial cultural centres and, once these centres are in operation, providing a mobile theatre unit to service districts.

The council will be financed by grants, admission fees, and private donations. Technical assistance from friendly countries is expected to be the main source of cultural development finance.

The council will initially be served by officials of the Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services but will later recruit professionals special- izing in African music, drama and the arts.

The council will work in close collaboration with the Institute of African Studies, which will be represented on the council. The proposed administrative and financial arrangements are given in Table 7.

The involved administrative and financial aspects of culture reflect the diversity of Kenya’s cultural history. The government’s decision to appoint the National Council and its enthusiasm for cultural revival

drama and art;

music, drama, fine art and so on;

cultural activities outside Kenya;

Centre Act.

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TABLE 7 Projected recurrent expenditure on culture, 1973-78 (i(K))

Purpose 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 T&& Personal emoluments Accommodation allowances Training Grants to Culture Centre Grants to National

Council of Culture International cultural festivals

National cultural festivals Vehicles and equipment Operational expenses Other expenses

TOTAL

4,809 1,000 9,000 15,000

2,500

10,000 2,000 20,000 16,000 80,309 -

9,501 1,500 10,000 15,000

3,000

10,000 15,000 4,000 21,000 17,000

16,933 2,000 12,000 15,000

3,500

10,000 20,000 4,000 22,000 18,000

106,001 123,433

Source: Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services.

29,206 2,500 14,000 15,000

4,000

10,000 20,000 6,000 20,000 19,000 139,706

39,631 3,000 15,000 15,000

4,500

10,000 20,000 10,000 32,000 20,000 169,131

100,080 10,000 60,000 75,000

17,500

40,000 85,000 26,000 115,000 90,000 618,580

generally have been widely welcomed, and especially by the mass media; and the Utamadhuni w a Kiafrika (African cultural heritage) has been given a tremendous impetus, especially through the efforts of the President of the republic. One of the things he has demonstrated beyond the shadow of doubt is that all Kenyans, irrespective of age, colour, creed, education, sex, economic and social status, can dance and sing.

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Unlike m a n y other developing countries, Kenya has several levels of cultural history, some of it going back as far as 2,000 years ago, back to the origins of some of the oldest towns in the world. Colonial and oral records on the other hand are relatively recent. The cultural heritage is thus diverse in time and space, a product of the ancient and modern worlds, covering the material culture of the indigenous peoples.

Effects of Westernization and modernization

The discussion of cultural protection must include the question of the expatriation of cultural property, and the effects of modernization on the quality of life-the loss of much of the traditional values of the people.

These values are intimately bound up with local social systems, and cover every aspect of life: history, flora and fauna, folklore, folk tales, opera, aphorisms, proverbs, dances, music, songs, instruments, decorative arts, jewellery, belief systems, literature, philosophy, theology, science, medicine, painting, sculpture, architecture and languages. These cannot be covered in the conventional legislative measures normally taken to protect a cultural heritage.

To prevent the illegal export of cultural property, most countries have legislation which makes such export illegal and punishable. In Kenya, this means tightening up the laws, acts or ordinances in question. Effective legislation n o w will save the country from having to pay exorbitant prices to buy back artefacts which should never have been allowed to leave the country in the first place. The example of other countries-Egypt, for example-is an object lesson in what happens when countries fail to take the necessary precautions.

The second problem is to prevent the gradual disappearance of traditional cultures if no curb is placed on westernization. Western culture

46


tends to inhibit or suppress the development of less well-organized cultures. Our traditional dances are being commercialized, and hence falsified, to please tourists or misguided people at home. Education is failing to give an adequate place to Kenyan cultural values. Straightening of hair, use of make-up, western dress (mini-skirts, tight trousers, unisex clothes) conflict with basic African values and images, and are regarded in some quarters as evidence of a crisis of identity and a lack of Kenyan and African pride.

Again, modern African music is displaced by Western pop. M a n y Kenyans can play the musical instruments of the West but do not know even the names of their own. It seems to be easier for young Kenyans to learn English, French, German, Italian, or any other foreign tongue, in our schools than it is to learn local languages. They are told they should learn international languages so as to be able to communicate with the world at large, and participate in the advantages of modern science and technology.

While these views m a y have some validity, the truth of the matter is that very few Kenyans have any opportunity to speak these languages with native speakers, and the number of Kenyans w h o go abroad is extremely limited. Kiswahili and the local languages are more effective ‘civilizing forces’ than any foreign languages in current use. It is impossible to mobilize the nation culturally if w e still continue to use English (a minority language) as the o5cial medium. The fact that the development plans continue to be published in English means in fact that most of the people do not know the government’s plans and intentions. It means that expatriates will continue to dominate m a n y aspects of development. It means that it will be m a n y years before Kenyans can study modern science and technology in their normal medium of communication.

Accordingly, the gap between the experts and the ordinary people will continue to widen and this must be avoided at any cost. Any language can be made to cope with science and abstract thought and provide logical coherence, as shown by Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and n o w Hebrew. The myth of non-scientific languages which can reflect primitive ideas or only underdeveloped concepts is obviously racist, a product of neo-cultural and linguistic imperialism. Kenya must take stern measures to correct this illusion. After all, Chinese acupuncture was until recently considered as quackery by Western medicine; n o w it is being used to overcome intractable surgical problems in Western medicine.

There has always been a conflict between traditional and modern medicine in urban areas in Kenya. Our traditional doctors have been labelled witch-doctors, wizards, hustlers and extortionists. Modern doctors w h o recognize their ability describe them as good ‘professional friends’ but feel they should deal only with psychiatric problems. But why in fact do over 90 per cent of Kenyans still go for treatment to their traditional doctors, while some of those w h o attend modern health services also

47


occasionally visit their traditional doctors as well. There seems to be an urgent need to re-examine folk medicine. The Chinese did so, and found certain limitations and a number of strengths-surely a valid w a y of contributing to the scientific and technological advancement of modern man.

Let us take another aspect of the subject. In colonial days, East Africa as a whole was regarded as a cultural desert. For some mysterious reason western and southern Africa produced artists and literary figures, but eastern Africa remained culturally dormant, with no outstanding writers or artists. However, since independence w e have p’Biteks, Ngugis, Nyereres, Mbitis, Mazruis, Manguas, Tabans and numerous scientific works by local writers. A proliferation of novels, plays, poetry and stories seems to reflect a breakdown of old cultural values and a n e w source of inspi- ration in protest. For some, M a u M a u became a source. The Song of Lawino was a translation from local oral literature. Political upheaval and colonial expulsion became literary subjects. Local theologies and philosophies provided sources for modern Kenyan philosophers and theologians. Music in urban areas draws also on post-independence developments.

It was political freedom which allowed Kenyans to adopt a creative approach to the problems of their country. This can be expected to continue. The Nkrumah principle of development probably does apply to Kenya, i.e. ‘seek ye the political kingdom and the rest shall be added unto thee’. Kenya’s burst of post-independence creativity is not unique, and had something of a parallel in the U.S.S.R. after the Bolshevik revolution. Moreover, a good deal of Russian music can be traced back directly to folk traditions. Kenya possesses similar treasures in latent form and could, for example, develop folk operas from traditional tales and music. The Voice of Kenya could do a great deal in this respect, in co-operation with the East African Conservatoire of Music and the university.

A traditional way of life is changing so fast that a great deal of it will disappear altogether unless something drastic is done. Story-telling as a formal recognized art is rapidly declining, and the oral tradition which kept the heritage alive for centuries is dying.

Archaeological and palaeontological monuments

Kenya has m a n y historical and archaeological monuments, especially in the coastal area, which has had long-standing relations with Arabs, Europeans, and communities in the Indian Ocean and western Asia. The written records of the coaàt go back over two thousand years, and fall into a number of categories.

First, there are the records left by Egyptian and Arab geographers; these refer to the area by several names including Punt, Zenj, Azania and even Ethiopia. The names Ethiopia and Zenj most likely covered the whole coastal region and not just the Kenyan part of it.

48

A stone sculpture by Nnaggenda, University of Nairobi. [Photo: M. N. Ichoria.]

A Girl with a Long Neck, a wooden sculpture by Nnaggenda, Institute of African Studies. [Photo: M. N. leharia.]

Couples in Green Garden, a painting by Nnaggenda. [Photo: M. N. Iceharia.]

Kikuyu warrior dance at the University of Nairobi Cultural Festival. [Photo: M. N. Icharia.]


Second, there are the descriptions left by merchants trading in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. East Africa exchanged ivory, iron, copper and other metals for ear-rings, bangles, swords, Islamic ware, Chinese porcelain, woven fabrics and coins.

Third, local records were written in Swahili and Arabic both using the Arabic script.

These contacts were mainly with Arabia and Asia. Contacts with the Portuguese have left various monuments in the coastal region and outlying islands. Fort Jesus, one of the best known, was built in 1593 in Mombasa’s natural harbour-a very important strategic point-to guard Portuguese interests in Mombasa, Malindi and the Indian Ocean against Arabs and Turks. The fort witnessed a series of occupations by contending forces-mainly Afro-Arabs, Arabs and Portuguese. M a n y lives were lost in building, defending and maintaining the fort. The British converted it into a prison on 1 July 1895. In 1958 a generous grant of E30,OOO from the Calauste Gulbenkian Foundation enabled it to be restored as a historical museum. Other monuments include the Cathedral of Nossa Senhora, the Pillar of Mbaraki, Vasco da Gama’s Pillar, Jamaic of Siyu and the Gedi ruins.

In addition, m a n y palaeontological sites have been excavated and have thrown light on human evolution.

Some of our historical monuments rank with those of India, Egypt, Greece, Italy and China. Coastal towns have records that go back 2,000 years. Unfortunately, one result of foreign excavations has been the loss to Kenya of items discovered. T o counteract this, protective measures were introduced. Cap. 314 (1948) gave protection to Fort Jesus, the ruins at Takaunga Creek, caves and rock shelters and other historic remains at Elmentaita, the old town of Patte and the Kanam-Kanjera fossil beds.

Legal protection and legal loop-holes

Cap. 215 (1934), revised in 1962, attempted to protect Stone Age and historical monuments. Much of the credit goes to people like Dr Leakey. The act is quite explicit?

This may be cited as the preservation of objects of archaeological and palaeontological interest Ordinance.

In this Ordinance except where the context otherwise requires: ‘Authority’ means a Provincial Commissioner or any person or body of persons

authorized by the Governor to perform the duties of an authority under this Ordinance;

‘Maintenance’ includes the fencing, covering in, repairing, restoring and

1. Cap. 215 (1934), Sect. 2, p. 3 4 .

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cleansing of a monument, and the doing of any act which m a y be necessary for the purposes of maintaining a monument or of securing convenient access thereto;

‘Monument’ means any object of archaeological or palaeontological interest, and any area of land in which any such object is believed to exist, which the governor has by notice in the Gazette, declared under section 6 of this Ordinance to be monument;

‘Object of Archaeological or Palaeontological Interest’ means any structure, erection, memorial tumulus, cairn, place of interment, pit-dwelling, trench, for- tification, irrigation work, mound, excavation, cave, rock, rock drawing, painting, sculpture, inscription, monolith or any remains thereof, fossil remains of m a n or animals or plants, or any bed or beds containing such fossil remains, or any object (or any remains thereof) which is or are of archaeological, anthropological, ethnological, prehistoric or historic interest and includes: (a) the site on which such object of archaeological or palaeontological interest was

discovered or exists; (b) such portion of land adjoining the said site as m a y be required for fencing or

covering in or otherwise preserving such objects of archaeological or palaeontological interest; and

(c) the means of access to and convenient inspection of such objects of archaeological and palaeontological interest.

Unfortunately, the categories of objects protected are too general and the legislation leaves many loop-holes, especially in regard to the precise sense of such expressions as ‘anthropological or ethnological interest’, while certain others (for example governor, provincial commissioner, Crown) have no meaning or different meanings in present-day Kenya. A coherent cultural policy implies the revision of such legislation. The most serious loop-hole is the one permitting the removal of cultural objects from Kenya?

1. No monument or object of archaeological or palaeontological interest may be removed from Kenya unless such removal has been authorized by a permit issued by the Minister.

2. Such permit shall, so far as practicable, be in Form C set out in the Schedule to this Ordinance.

3. The Minister may issue a permit subject to such terms and conditions which may include the surrender to the Crown of a portion of the monument or object of archaeological or palaeontological interest, as he may deem fit, or he m a y without assigning the reason refuse to issue a permit.

4. Where under subsection 3 of this section any portion of a monument or of an object of archaeological or palaeontological interest has been surrendered to the Crown, the Governor m a y deposit the portion so surrendered in any museum or similar institution in Kenya or elsewhere.

1. Cap. 215 (1934), Sect. 19.

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5. An application for a permit under this section shall be made in writing at least thirty days before the date of the proposed removal, and shall contain a full description of the monument or object of archaeological or palaeontological interest in respect of which the application is made.

6. Before issuing a permit under this section, the Ministry m a y cause an inspection to be made and may cause the monument or object of archaeological or palaeontological interest to be sealed.

7. No permit under this section shall authorize the removal from Kenya of any monument or object of archaeological or palaeontological interest except through a customs port of entry, and the permit shall be surrendered to a customs officer before export is effected, a customs officer shall detain any monument or object of archaeological or palaeontological interest until the permit has been surrendered, and any monument or object of archaeological or palaeontological interest m a y be confiscated and disposed of as the Governor m a y direct if the permit is not produced and surrendered within a reasonable period of time.

The act makes it too easy to export, whereas the removal should really be sanctioned in very limited circumstances only, for example fossil remains that require special dating techniques not available in Kenya. Such export would be temporary only. The most startling recommendation in the act is sub-section 4 which allows the governor to ‘deposit the portion so surrendered in any museum or similar institution in Kenya or elsewhere’. This loop-hole should be closed immediately.

The National Council of Arts and Culture will have to act quickly to rectify the present situation; it must promote the necessary legislation or revisions, and then ensure that this legislation is implemented. It should be informed about any excavations taking place, ‘and the Department of Antiquities should ensure that they are properly co-ordinated.

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As previously mentioned, Kenya is a country of cultural contradictions: ancientlmodern; rural/urban; capitalistlsocialist; underdeveloped/developed; colonial/non-colonial. All these factors have their effect on cultural policy. For example, the national élites (technocrats, bureaucrats and others) living in towns have the amenities and social services considered essential in modern living, but constitute only 10 per cent of the total population. They are 90 per cent literate (as compared to roughly 45 per cent in the rural areas); they are Westernized in thinking, style of life and general sense of values; they have a high degree of political and economic consciousness; greatly appreciate achievement; and are fairly materialistic in outlook. They consume over 30 per cent of the national resources and control approximately 45 per cent. They provide national leadership, and are the main recipients of national and international information. Taking the consumption ratio into account, their contribution to the gross national product is insignificant.

The majority rural component of the population feeds the nation and provides most of the exports. Manufacturing and mining are limited. The rural sector is also ethnically and linguistically diverse.

Again, the disparity of income distribution is alarming. Education and other social services are better and more developed in urban areas. Urbanism has its advantages-settled life, work routines, the idea of duty, and so on-but also involves juvenile delinquency, violent crimes, shanties, slums, unemployment, traffic congestion, housing shortages, sewage disposal problems, pollution, noise, prostitution and increased mental disorders. These social ills are m u c h less frequent by comparison in the rural sector. Cultural planning must try to undo these evils and provide better recreation and housing facilities, a pollution-free environment and job opportunities.

However, m a n y traditional customs continue among urbanized Kenyans. For example, most ethnic groups in urban Kenya form funeral associations

52


to bring back their dead to the countryside. Even when an individual is not a member of a funeral association it is the duty of his kinsmen to contribute to the repatriation of the body. Some of these associations have built up large capital resources which they invest in shops, restaurants, residential buildings, etc., using the profits to repatriate dead members and compensate the family of the deceased. Other ethnic associations provide socio-cultural and political welfare services (for example GEMA (Gekuyu, Embu, Meru Association), NAU (N e w A k a m b a Union), Lu0 Association).

In most urban areas in Kenya, it is claimed, residential zones are demarcated by ethnic considerations rather than by urban planners, and m a y even bear the name of the ethnic group concerned. These residential patterns encourage ethnic consciousness, as exemplified by their sports associations, club leagues, music groups and even handicraft industries. Religious sects also project ethnic consciousness.

Urban life is thus permeated by rural realities and Kenyans in towns m a y even be more conscious of their ethnic identity than those who remain in the countryside.

There are also cultural tensions between Africans and the immigrant minorities (Asian or European). For over seventy years colonial minorities dominated and introduced Indian and British ways of life which are still operative-including ideas about the family, marriage and religion propa- gated by missionaries. Measures inaugurated under the East African Order in Council of 1897 were intended to bring the basic social and cultural institutions of Kenya into line with those of India and Britain, for example those ‘which applied certain Indian and certain British Acts to the East Africa Protectorate . . . provided for the future application of other Indian Acts and subject thereto applied the c o m m o n law and statute of England in force at the commencement of the order’.l The British Secretary of State gave native (African) courts and the commissioner authority to ‘alter or modify the operation of any native law or custom in so far as m a y be necessary in the interests of humanity and justice’.2 The minorities established their own cultural institutions which catered exclusively for themselves. In some, a very few Africans were admitted. In most cases they were barred. In cases where the minority’s values were forced on Africans head-on collisions occurred, like the conflict between the Scot- tish missionaries and a Kikuyu custom mentioned in Kenyatta’s book. Measures taken against Akamba dances by the government in consultation with missionaries are referred to in Dr Stainer’s report (1936), and led to the Great A k a m b a March of 1938 headed by Muindi Mbingu. The colonial government heavily subsidized cultural facilities for the minority c o m m u - nities who, in view of their monopoly of political and economic power, also became absolutely dominant culturally.

1. East African Order in Council, p. 8, 1897. 2. ibid.

53


Culture and education

The ability of m a n to invent systems of symbolic communication (language) sets him apart from all other biological species whose communication has remained at the level of signals determined by their stage of biological development. Symbolic communication enables m a n to make abstract theories and hypotheses. It also gives him power to refine his memory mechanism through repetitive signs, symbols and gestures (environmental and morphological), sound systems and experiences. These provide a basis for oral tradition. Symbolic awareness seems to have been a prelude to the growth of individual and collective consciousness.

O n another level, a culture can be seen as a system of values, ethos, norms and rules which regulate behaviour in a society.

On yet another level, culture can be considered as an organizing principlekhich enables the members of a society to tackle rationally or logically the problems of their environment.

In this context, education becomes very important. While the family is the primary instrument at a lower level of human development, education tackles adolescent and adult cultural socialization at the next stage, provides the techniques for natural and spiritual survival, and facilitates cultural adaptability. This dimension of education has obvious implications in cultural planning. W h e n the foreigners came to this country they attempted to effect change through the children. This emphasis should pide our own cultural planners also, if Kenya is to be a nation with a genuine identity of its own. If so, the present system of education must be transformed, for it engenders foreign values and cultures at the expense of Kenya’s own ideas and cultures. The history, geography, social sciences and humanities taught from primary school to university pay little attention to national needs and ideals. In the secondary schools w e still teach the British, not the Kenyan, constitution. The final examinations for secondary and higher schools have been under the control of the University of Cambridge for many years. School and university dramas and plays are usually by British authors. Colonial history, literature and philosophy feature prominently in curricula.

Someone jokingly described education in Kenya as a system of unemployment, i.e. the government spends a lot of money promoting irrelevant skills-nearly one-third of the annual national budget.

Reports made to the Ministry of Education by British and other foreign experts have one basic defect: the experts are not responsible for putting their ideas or reforms into practice. For those responsible, however, the new measures suggested could result in changes in ranking order or loss of jobs; in such cases, implementation almost implies self- incrimination. This is perhaps the biggest obstacle to reform. W h a t do w e do with dead wood in many of our government institutions? If ‘you cannot teach an old dog new tricks’, new blood m a y be the only answer.

54


Apart from this internal weakness, there is still another problem. The expert is always a foreigner, basing his views on outside experience. But a system of education that suits West Africa m a y be completely wrong in East Africa, and one which is useful in the regions of high agricultural potential in Kenya may not be at all suitable in the arid areas. This is the basic weakness of planning for the people rather than planning with the people. People must be involved in all aspects of reforms if they are to be fruitful, and the social and cultural consequences of plans are just as important as the economic. It is doubtful whether any expert from outside can really advise the government on uraia (good citizenship and patriotism), spiritual and national consciousness, the cultural reforms necessary to further these ends.

The above would seem to suggest that radical rethinking on all forms of development plans and reforms is needed. Implementation should not depend on any particular ministry, person or expert, but on every individual citizen. Values, culture, pride, history and national objectives are all involved. The responsibility for implementation should no longer be dependent on any bureaucratic whims or any government agency; those who conceive and plan must also be responsible for implementation. The infrastructure already exists in the national university. No expert should be allowed to formulate any educational reforms unless he has the confidence of the national university, and the people. No reform should be considered unless it comes from the people’s wish or expressed desire. The Kenya Institute of Education should be part of the Faculty of Edu- cation and only nationals should work on curricular reforms. Experts could be recruited: the university, teacher-training colleges, teachers in primary and secondary schools, parents’ associations, and the administration (sub- chiefs, chiefs, district officers, district commissioners, in that order of importance). Further ideas could be obtained from students and pupils. Above all there should be full consultation and participation at all levels of the reforms.

These suggestions violate the usual expert’s idea of standards, which often in fact serve a neo-colonialist purpose by perpetuating irrelevant and static institutions in many developing countries. What standards can serve Kenya except her own? If it is the wish of Kenyans that their traditional dances, values, folk ways and morals should be covered in the school curriculum, then by all means let us incorporate them. A nation cannot develop culturally by imitating the values, religions or standards of its former colonizer. Standards are relative, in space and time, good as long as they are really applicable. Once we have set the base line of cultural development in our education the standards will come naturally. But w e must have our own standards first.

The basic weakness in our education is irrelevance. It lacks a full Kenyan component. Outside experts have continued to perpetuate the colonial myths in Kenyan education. The traditional arts, drama, music,

55


social and scientific ideas, sculpture and painting must be included at all levels from kindergarten to university. W e should not be ashamed of introducing any cultural form if it will further the national pride. W e have a great deal to learn from other countries who, after their revolutions, foupd themselves without a coherent cultural tradition. The U.S.S.R., China and the United States of America have felt this need at one time or another. Kenya has a rich cultural infrastructure which, if incorporated into the educational system, will raise the level of national consciousness. The efforts of mass media and the lead given by the President of the republic need to be reflected at all levels of the population. Public debates on the issues of cultural development would help. Local ideas could be applied in industry. Building firms should be encouraged to include locally produced art works. Murals, paintings and works of art should adorn our homes instead of European imitations. Athletic and musical festivals in secondary and higher schools should be widened in scope. A music festival which merely shows that Kenyans can sing European songs does not really reflect our national soul. Part of Kenya’s tradition m a y have a European complement, but foreign over-emphasis is a distortion of Kenya’s cultural identity. These ideas are a challenge to local writers, artists and thinkers. The government knows the problem, and it should establish effective machinery to advise on how best the above ideas can be translated into practical terms in our institutes of learning.

Music and dancing

Music is the richest cultural endowment Kenya possesses. There are traditional forms of music belonging to over thirty-six ethnic groups, in addition to musical forms from India and Europe. In several centres music is taught full-time. The East African Conservatoire of Music concentrates on classical European and Indian music. The traditional dance styles are being improved by using the latest choreographic techniques. The nucleus of a national dance troupe already exists. Young people from different ethnic groups are being trained to perform dances from all sections of the republic. Traditional dances are very much alive in the countryside, and there are numerous ethnic dance groups.

The President has untiringly encouraged the revival of traditional music and all other cultural modes of expression. A tradition is now also established in the primary and secondary schools, and groups from them perform before the President. These activities were not possible in colonial days and, for a long time, East Africa was considered the least endowed in musical genius of all African regions. Radio and television must be congratu- lated for the efforts that they have made to redress the balance. Traditional dances associated with the harambee philosophy of development have perhaps done more to create a sense of nationhood than any other factor in

56


modern Kenya. Numerous songs were composed after independence to exalt the national spirit, and the modern dances of urban areas have also done a great deal to promote national consciousness.

Music recording is n o w an important industry in Kenya. Some of our songs-for example Malaika (angel)-have found a world market. The modern urban music has exploited a great deal of the traditional per- cussions, rhythms and melodies. In some cases Western pop styles have been adopted. East African and Congolese music is very popular in night clubs.

The Ministry of Education has a section which deals with music in education, and the government have recently demanded that a greater place be accorded to African music in the curriculum (especially in teacher- training colleges). T w o members of the Institute of African Studies (a Nigerian and an Afro-American) have been doing research which should do a great deal to further rhythmic dance styles which have escaped the musical imagination of the rest of the world. The institute and Kenyatta University College are also involved in basic research in African music. The institute has obtained the latest recording equipment from the Federal Republic of Germany and music n o w is one of its strongest departments.

Painting and sculpture

Painting has a long tradition in secondary schools and is on the curriculum of the teacher-training colleges. The university had a Department of Fine Arts which has been transferred to Kenyatta University College and is now producing graduate teachers for schools. Painting has long been a popular pastime in towns. ‘Sunday painters’ have contributed in their o w n w a y to various traditions of paintings, including paintings of animals and exotic ethnic groups, landscapes and wildlife.

The interest in exotic ethnic groups has irritated m a n y Kenyan painters w h o see this as another hangover from colonial times, when the pre- occupation was with ‘primitive’ peoples and the African was depicted as lacking any sense of history, culture or the development of the people as a whole. They m a y catch the eye of tourists but say nothing of any interest about Kenya’s cultural history. The painters claim that it would be most misleading to hang such paintings in a national art gallery; those w h o hold a different view consider that they merely represent another of the diverse traditions of the republic.

The local painters are more diverse in their choice of themes. The works of Nnaggenda in the Institute of African Studies, for example, are not limited to paintings, as he is quite a prominent sculptor also, and some items are displayed in the university grounds. Elimo Njau, also based in Nairobi, has been a pioneer. The Pau ya Pau art gallery could be considered as the nucleus of a national gallery of African art and Africana. It is managed by Elimo Njau and has provided a base for local artists, as well

57


as opening a centre in Ridgeways (a suburb of Nairobi) where local people can learn various forms of artistic expression. Some foreign institutions (including the Gœthe Institute and the American Cultural Centre) arrange exhibitions for local artists (painting, clay sculpture, wood sculpture), poetry readings, and so on.

Works of art are n o w often commissioned for buildings by the government and companies-murals, paintings and tapestries reflecting local subjects. Materials are not confined to traditional media but m a y include anything from flamingo feathers and banana leaves to calabash surfaces. Working with banana leaves is probably the most important recent innovation.

Local sculpture has consisted mainly of modelling in wood, the best known being Akamba wood-carving (in W a m u n y u in Eastern Province and Kikomba in Nairobi itself). The A k a m b a sculptors carve all sorts of themes and objects. Clay sculpturing has become an important medium of expression. Stone sculpture (especially Kisii soapstone) has increased in importance lately. Professor Maloba’s works in stone and cement are perhaps the best known in East Africa, and include murals at the Central Bank, a very large Uhuru (freedom) monument in Kampala (Uganda), and large monuments in and around Nairobi. Nnaggenda, w h o is most versatile, makes sculpture in wood, metal and stone. H e is n o w working on a large project which, when completed, will be the most important collection of monuments ever done by an African sculptor in this region. H e is also engaged in trying to create a true Kenyan national gallery. Other artists w h o have earned international fame include Soi and others working with Elimo Njau at Ridgeways.

Kenya is lucky in being able to attract creative artists from East Africa and other parts of the world. They naturally differ in their opinions regarding the role and function of art in national development, but Kenya should make every effort to keep them. I believe it is not an overstatement to say that all the better-known artists in the region n o w reside in Kenya, and the importance of this cannot be over-emphasized. Kenya already has a major tourist attraction in its rich wildlife. Its general cultural heritage can be enriched by the presence of such artists, and the development of other cultural resources. The government has of course been doing something along these lines. W h a t is n o w needed is not so m u c h art education as an academic exercise, but living art in our towns, institutions, architecture, monuments, homes and schools.

Handicrafts

Handicrafts are sometimes classified as minor art, but their cultural and financial impact in Kenya is indisputable, and their production involves m a n y people in both rural and urban areas. Articles produced include

58


batiks, bangles, baskets, leather goods, woven goods, decorative works and jewellery.

The government set up the Maendeleo ya Wanawake co-operative to foster marketing, and the Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services has spared no effort in promoting handicraft production. Government support now extends to technical schools in villages.

Museums

The first museums date back to the beginning of this century, and museums have played a remarkable part in preserving our natural heritage. Compared to m a n y African countries, Kenya is rich in this respect, and there are frequent visitors from other parts of Africa to learn from our experience. Plans to expand museums are indicated in Table 8.

The aim of the government is to provide museums in every province and district. But museums will have to be educational as well as being show places for cultural or historical material. Circulars regarding the

TABLE 8 Allocations for projected museum development, 1973-78 (W))

Museum 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 T&!&, Natural Science Museum, Mombasa

Marine sciences Gedi extension Coast monuments General museum, Nyeri Historical museum, Nairobi

Science/Technolog y Museum, Nairobi

Institute of African Prehistory, Nairobi

Youth Centre for Sciences General museum, Nakuru Monument and prehistoric

site conservation General museum, Kisumu Education unit, Ritale Prehistoric site conservation, Western Province TOTAL

- - 10,000 4,000 - 15,000

- 150,000

5,000

3,000

-

- -

2,000

10,000 10,000 5,000 4,000 5,000

15,000

100,000

100,000

5,000

3,000 10,000

-

-

2,000 189,000 269,000

Source: Ministry of Cooperatives and Social Services.

20,000 10,000 5,000 4,000 5,000

5,000

50,000

- 10,000 5,000

3,000 5,000 3,000

2,000 127,000

20,000 10 O00

4,000 -

-

-

50,000

- 10,000 -

3,000 5,000 3,000

2,000 107,000

10,000 60,000 15 O00 45,000 - 20,000 4,000 20,000 - 10,000

- 35,000

50,000 250,000

- 2 5 O, O O O - 20,000 - 15,000

3,000 15,000 20,000

- 6,000

2,000 10,000 -- 84,000 776,000

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educational possibilities of museums have been sent to primary and secondary schools. Joint teaching by the university and museums includes archaeology courses for arts students. The British Institute of Archaeology in East Africa also collaborates with the museums. However, co-ordination is very limited. The university now plans to have its own archaeology museum for teaching purposes; this does not really make sense, since all these institutions are within a mile of each other. Proper co-ordination would eliminate duplication and help to keep research information and university teaching up to date.

The present museum entrance charges should be abolished as they have kept ordinary people out of the museums. Visits should not be limited only to those people who can afford to pay. Most museums elsewhere, far from charging, do everything possible to encourage visits.

Architecture

African designs and architecture have attracted a lot of attention locally and internationally in recent times. The Kenyatta Conference Centre was recently declared to be the most beautiful centre of its kind in the world. Houses and hotels throughout Kenya have adopted many features of local architecture and design. The government has also been very conscious of this matter.

Photography and film-making

Kenya has much photogenic scenery, and the camera is widely used to record local fauna and topography. Photographic exhibitions are held in many local galleries. The film industry is not very well developed, despite all the potential advantages, and the diversity of peoples, climate and scenery. The government is involved in negotiations with a view to developing a film industry which would both encourage and take advantage of local plays and dramas.

Technology and cultural development

Speculation about the nature of man and myths about his origin are found in all cultures, for example Adam and Eve and the disobedience in the Garden of Eden which led to their banishment and condemnation to a life of struggle for survival on earth. Work was a punishment for this original sin. This idea of man’s original existence in a paradise is reflected in the myths about the origins of Kikuyu, Akamba, Luo, Maasai and other peoples of Kenya. Modern science and technology strain to recover the omnipotence and omniscience of a golden age, the idea of which

60


underlay philosophical and theological thinking and dominated man’s history in all cultures until the advent of modern technology.

The latter offered redemption from ‘disagreeable and unwelcome labour’. Palaeoanthropology fostered this idea more than any other social science. Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Carlyle were the first writers to speak of m a n as basically a tool-making or tool-using animal. Henri Bergson, a French philosopher with a penetrating insight into organic evolution, also referred to this aspect. Kenya’s folklore is not lacking in references to materialistic considerations and technological acquisition. A Kiswahili proverb, for example, says mke ni nguo (feminine nature is brought out by style of clothing). A Kikamba exhortation declares kwenda mwana ni kumuimia (to show that you love your child, farm well and provide for it).

Leakey and others emphasize the effects of the discovery of fire on social and psychological evolution. Homo faber as the basic human definition leaves alotto bedesired, however, since studies by Goodall on the behaviour of other primates showed that m a n is not the only primate w h o uses tools. More- over, before using tools, m a n must have already developed powers of self- organization, rational direction, moral control, learning, control of excretory behaviour, the making of standard gestures and sounds which made personal communication possible and gradually formed a basis for the evolution of human culture. Besides, in addition to being a tool-user, m a n is also a ‘utensil- shopping, machine-fabricating, environment-prospecting, technologically ingenious animal’; he is ‘dream-haunted, ritual-enacting, symbol-creating, speech-maker, institution-conserving, myth-maker, god-seeking-animal, hero-worshipper, love-making, language-elaborator’ (Mumford, 1973). These qualities had to be there before technology could evolve.

Technology developed in order to elaborate on those qualities, basic in h u m a n nature. It involved specialization (division of labour), standard- ization (to make communication possible), and repetitive patterns of behaviour that are very well reflected in human language. But until the advent of modern technology cultural values always had control of technological advancement. This control has been lost. It is now technology which controls culture, and has more or less done so since the industrial revolution. N e w inventions and ideas were thought to hold the key to the future of man; science and technology would relieve m a n from the burden of work and establish his mastery over nature.

To some extent this dream has come true. Space and time are no longer barriers to communication on this planet. Science and medicine have accomplished miracles. M a n has even landed on the moon.

But the price has been heavy. Technology has created the most serious alienations m a n has ever experienced. There ia little real communication between the technologist and his society. Because technologists try to better material welfare, m a n has submitted to technology. The ordinary citizen does not seem to care any more what goes on in industries

61


or laboratories. H e has been assured that all is well and told not to worry-despite the problems which threaten his survival: the population explosion, energy crisis, the threat of nuclear war, the waste of non- renewable resources, environmental pollution and the general degradation of the planet.

Kenya in a sense is lucky because it can avoid this form of irrational development. An environment secretariat already exists and threats to the survival of our populations of wild animals serve as warning mechanisms. Kenya must develop industrially but not through the kind of technology that converts landscapes into urban concrete deserts and slums, or other similar aberrations. Our cultures are important after all, since they provide a spiritual buttress against poverty. So far, the level of communication between the technocrat and others is quite normal. No technological innovation should be forced on people until all of its consequences have been properly assessed. Those responsible for cultural planning must be quite clear on this point. If so, Kenya can hope to be strong enough to resist the kind of technological development which has been characteristic of so m a n y so-called advanced countries.

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Appendixes

E m b u drummers at the University of Nairobi Cultural Festival. [Photo: M. N. Icharia.]

Kenyatta Conference Centre: adaptation of traditional Musenge house in modern architecture. [Photo: M. N. Icharia.]

Appendix 1 Preservation of objects of archaeological and palaeontological interest

Subsidiary legislation: objects and areas of land declared to be monuments, and monuments and antiquities deemed to be monuments, under Section 6 (Cap. 215).

Coast Provinoe

MOMBASA DISTRICT Fort Jesus; Ruins of the cathedral of Nossa Senhora (Cap. 314 (1948)); The Pillar of Mbaraki; The old watch towers and ruins at the south-west end of the golf links; The ruined wall of a redoubt situated near the south-east end of the golf course.

K W A L E DISTRICT Ruins at Diani; Ruins at Tiwi; Ruins at Shirazi; Wall tower of Tumbe; The ruined mosque situated at the southern end of the Msambweni Gwirani Land

Unit on the left of the road to Mungi, approximately one mile from the sea front (L. N. 123/1958).

KILIFI DISTRICT

The ruins on the south side of the mouth of Takaunga Creek (Cap. 314 (1948),

The ruins at Mnarani; The ruins on the north bank of Mtwapa Creek; Vasco de Gama’s Pillar; The remains of the pillar at Mambrui;

Sub. Leg.);

65

Appendixes

The ruins of a fort or chapel abutting upon the Christian Cemetery in Malindi Township;

The ruins of the Juma Mosque and two pillars situated on a small eminence 200 yards to the south of the district office at Malindi;

The ruins covering the area of about ten acres at the seaward end of Kilepwa Island in Mida Creek, bounded on three sides by the sea and on the fourth by a line drawn across the narrowest part of the island (G. N. 1522/1954);

The Jamadari Mosque, Malindi Township Plot 617, in an area bounded on the west and south by lines drawn thirty feet from the present west and south walls of the mosque and on the north and east by the walls of the mosque (L. N. 16/1957);

An unnamed mosque, partly on Malindi Township Plot 646 and partly on Malindi Township Plot 645, in an area bounded by lines drawn thirty feet from the walls of the mosque;

The Sheikh Said Mosque and Tomb on unadjudicated claim (Watamu) 76, in an area bounded bylines drawn thirty feet from the walls of the mosque and tomb;

The Sheikh Othman Mosque on unadjudicated claim (Watamu) 1660 in an area bounded by lines drawn thirty feet from the walls of the mosque;

The ruined Jumaa of Mtwapa and surrounding tombs situated on the north side of Mtwapa Creek on freehold Plot L. R. 325/R, Section III, Mombasa Mainland North (L. N. 123/1958);

The ruined Jumaa la Mtwanam and the circular enclosure both situated on leasehold Plot L. R. 336, Section III, Mombasa Mainland North, and approximately one and a half miles north of Mtwapa Creek;

The tomb with the square plaque and inscription situated on leasehold Plot 313/R, Section III, Mombasa Mainland North, approximately one and a half miles north of Mtwapa Creek;

The ruined mosque with octagonal pillars and square niches in the frame of the Mihrab, situated on the north side of Takaungu Creek on freehold Plot 23 of Group V and adjacent to the road leading to the owner’s house;

The mosque known as Mgangani and nearby mounds of rubble on the north shore of Mida Creek in the Gedi Settlement Area at a distance of about one mile due south of the Mombasa-Malindi road (L. N. 293/1959);

L A M U DISTRICT

The old town of Patte (Cap. 314 (1948), Sub. Leg.); The metal ceremonial horn or trumpet; The ivory ceremonial horn or trumpet known as the Siwa of Pate (now preserved

in the district commissioner’s house at Lamu); The ruins covering the area of about twenty acres surrounded by the town wall,

and the pillar tomb outside known as Takwa, on Manda Island (G. N. 1522/ 1954);

The ruined town of Manda on Manda Island, covering an area of about ten acres bounded as follows (L. N. 217/1956): (a) on one side by the sea; (b) on two sides by the two creeks between which the town is situated; (c) on the fourth side by a line drawn outside, and 150 yards from, the foundation of the town wall;

66

Appendixes

The fluted pillar in the coconut plantation behind the Riadho Mosque at Lamu (L. N. 123/1958).

Mudirate Kitu-Mkanumbi The ruined mosque with the fluted mihrab at Luriwa, north-east of Mkanumbi.

Mudirate Faza The surviving town wall and bastions of Siyu; The ruined Jamia of Siyu; The domed tomb with round pillar, outside Lango la Shee at Siyu; The domed tomb on the east side of the Jumaa Mosque at Siyu; The castle of Siyu at the end of the creek outside the town; The ruined mosque at Faza known as Bwana Shali Patani; The surviving town wall and bastions of Patta; The ruined mosque at Patta known as Bwana Bakari; The ruined mosque at Patta known as Bwana Tamu; The small mosque on the left side of the track from Ras Mtangawanda at Patta.

Mudirate Kiunga Pillar tomb on a hill behind Ras Uwani about one mile north-west of Mvudeni

which is situated approximately midway between Mkonkoni and Rube; Pillar tomb half a mile west of Mambore which is situated between Kiunga and

Rube; The ruined town of Omwe, half a mile south of Mambore, which is situated

between Kiunga and Rube; The ruined mosque with trefoliate mihrab at Ishikani which is situated approxi-

mately six miles north of Kiunga; The ruined mosque with pointed mihrab at Ishikani which is situated approxi-

mately six miles north of Kiunga; The tall pillar inside the walls of Ishikani which is situated approximately six

miles north of Kiunga; The group of tombs including one large tomb with carved panels outside the

northern wall of the town of Ishikani, which is situated approximately six miles north of Kiunga;

The tomb with two headstones on the cliff south of the district office at Kiunga.

T A N A RIVER DISTRICT

The ruins covering an area of about sixty acres and surrounded by the town wall, known as Mgwana or Waungwaaa w a Mashaa and situated about two miles north of Kipini (G. N. 1347/1955);

The ruined and abandoned town of Shaka, three miles south-east of Kipini (L. N. 123/1958);

The ruined and abandoned town of Mwana, four miles north-east of Shaka and six miles east of Kipini;

Six large tombs on the easternmost projection of Ras Shaka, known a8 Ras ya Mwana Mwali Sabaa.

67

Appendixes

Rift Valley Province NAKURU DISTRICT

Caves and rock shelters and other prehistoric remains on Farm L. O. 1765 at Elmenteita (Cap. 314 (1948), Sub. Leg.);

The area of land of 33.7 acres, approximately described as follows: commencing at the south-western corner of L. R. 4729/R., which corner is on the south- eastern boundary of Nakuru municipality.

68

Appendix 2 Government ministries with culture component

Libraries

Ministry of Education

Minister

Museums National National Culture Theatre Archives Centre

I I I Kenya National Kenya Institute University Commission for of Education

I

festivals

Unesco I I

Art education School musical

I I l l Architecture Institute of Fine arts Adult and design African Studies and humanities education

69

Appendixes

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting

Minister

I I Radio Television

I I

l I I Music Poetry Films Plays Drama

l I

Ministry of Commerce and Industry

Minister

I l

I Village polytechnics Handicrafts

Office of the Attorney General

Attorney General

Preservation of objects of archaeological and paleontological Interest

I

Ministry of Tourism and Wild life

Minister

I l i _ _ ~ -~ I - -~

Game Lodges Hotels Bomas of Kenya

Ministry of Agriculture

Minister

Agricultural Extension services shows (functional literacy)

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[B. 101 SHC. 74/XXIX. 31/A

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