culturally responsive pedagogy: teaching like our students' lives matter (innovation and...

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE

PEDAGOGY:

TEACHING LIKE

OUR STUDENTS’ LIVES MATTER

INNOVATION AND LEADERSHIP IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

TEACHING VOLUME 4

CULTURALLYRESPONSIVE

PEDAGOGY: TEACHINGLIKE OUR STUDENTS’

LIVES MATTER

SHERYL V. TAYLORUniversity of Colorado Denver

DONNA M. SOBELUniversity of Colorado Denver

United Kingdom – North America – JapanIndia – Malaysia – China

Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2011

Copyright r 2011 Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Reprints and permission service

Contact: [email protected]

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any

form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise

without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting

restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA

by The Copyright Clearance Center. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of

information contained in the text, illustrations or advertisements. The opinions

expressed in these chapters are not necessarily those of the Editor or the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-78052-030-8

ISSN: 2041-272X (Series)

Emerald Group PublishingLimited, Howard House,Environmental ManagementSystem has been certified byISOQAR to ISO 14001:2004standards

Awarded in recognition ofEmerald’s productiondepartment’s adherence toquality systems and processeswhen preparing scholarlyjournals for print

CONTENTS

PREFACE vii

FOREWORD ix

PART ONE: CONCEPTUALIZING CULTURALLYRESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

CHAPTER ONE CURRENT CHALLENGESAND FRAMEWORKS

3

CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKSAND RESEARCH

27

CHAPTER THREE CONTEXTUALIZING STUDENTACHIEVEMENT ANDTEACHER EDUCATION

41

PART TWO: PERSPECTIVES AND SUPPORTS

CHAPTER FOUR CULTURALLY RESPONSIVEPEDAGOGY: THE STANCEFROM PROFESSIONALORGANIZATIONS

67

CHAPTER FIVE CULTURALLY RESPONSIVEPEDAGOGY: NATIONAL ANDSTATE-LEVELS

83

CHAPTER SIX CULTURALLY RESPONSIVEPEDAGOGY: EFFECTIVETEACHING

95

v

CHAPTER SEVEN CULTURALLY RESPONSIVEPEDAGOGY: DISTRICT ANDSCHOOL LEVELS

119

PART THREE: CLASSROOMS IMPLEMENTINGCULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

CHAPTER EIGHT GRADE 3 LITERACY LESSONWITH A CULTURALLYRESPONSIVE FOCUS

133

CHAPTER NINE GRADE 5 MATHEMATICSLESSON WITH ACULTURALLY RESPONSIVEFOCUS

157

CHAPTER TEN GRADE 9 SCIENCE LESSONWITH A CULTURALLYRESPONSIVE FOCUS

173

PART FOUR: SUPPORTING TEACHERS’ GROWTH INCULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

CHAPTER ELEVEN MENTORING ANDSUPPORTING CULTURALLYRESPONSIVE TEACHINGPRACTICES

189

REFERENCES 209

APPENDICES 225

CONTENTSvi

PREFACE

This book is the result of many years of combined teaching experience withinU.S. public schools, Mexican public and private schools, and U.S. universitysettings by both authors. Yet the impetus for this work began during a facultyretreat, when the authors were encouraged to discuss a research topic ofinterest with a fellow faculty member whomwe did not knowwell at that timeand who was from a specialization area different from our own. We recalllooking around for a discussion partner and finding ourselves sitting acrossthe table from each other! At the time, we were new assistant professorsembarking on the journey of tenure, and as we began sharing ideas, weimmediately saw commonalities in our interests. We both were keenlyinterested in examining ways that students with a diversity of linguistic,cultural, and ability backgrounds could be meaningfully included in publicschools and general education classrooms.As teacher educators, wewere bothparticularly interested in teachers’ cognition and behaviors relevant to theirpreparation to work with a student population coming from a broad culturaldiversity of backgrounds and abilities. After brainstorming on several ways toresearch these areas, Sobel remarked that those initial plans for a study laid thegroundwork for a collaborative writing project. Taylor quickly responded,‘‘Actually, I think we have the makings for a long-term research agenda thatwill include a series of studies for a longitudinal investigation.’’ That afternoonin the mid-1990s signaled the start of a valued personal friendship as well asour mutually beneficial and trusted professional collaboration.

Wewrote thisbook toprovidea seamlessharmonybetween the theoretical andresearch foundation of culturally responsive pedagogy coupled with practicalapplications of this pedagogy. In part, the book is motivated by our desire toattend to our teacher education students’ questions about how to ‘‘do’’ culturallyresponsivepedagogy.Understanding that culturally responsivepedagogycannotbe simplified as a set of tools or teachingmethods, our hope is that this bookwillprovide a complex and comprehensivemix of theory, research, and a conceptualframework for reflecting on culturally responsive to students. That said, we donot anticipate that this book will offer final answers to current questions beingasked. Instead, we look forward to this book generating discussion, criticalthinking, and further examinations on the part of practitioners, teachereducators, administrators, professional staff developers, and researchers.

vii

Three years have passed since we first received an email inquiry from theseries editor, Martha Pennington, introducing herself and asking aboutour interest in submitting a manuscript for consideration as a book thatcould contribute to the Innovation and Leadership in English LanguageTeaching series. We seized upon the opportunity for a chance to participate inthis stimulating global discussion and we are profoundly grateful for theacceptance of our work as well as the keen insightsMartha has provided us inour first book project. We extend our sincere and heartfelt thanks to Marthafor her patience, guidance, and humor.We are quite sure that the phrase, ‘‘Thedevil is the details’’ was created for an editor and professional author suchasMartha, whose dedicated editorial skills have been indispensable to us. Shehas been our ‘‘guardian angel’’ as we journeyed through the process of writingthis book. We are appreciative for Martha’s never-tiring encouragement thatour work needed to be shared with international audiences in the field ofEnglish language teaching, innovation, and leadership.

We also wish to thank and acknowledge the principals who allowed usentry into their schools and the educators who have welcomed us into theirclassrooms and allowed us to conduct our research. The teachers graciouslyagreed to our multiple observations in their classrooms and took time toreflect with us about their daily practice. To those novice and veteran teacherswho allowed us to photograph their classrooms, to observe countless hours,and to involve them in interviews and discussions, we owe you an immensedebt of gratitude. We are deeply appreciative of the permission you grantedus to spend time in your classrooms and use the photographs taken in thoseteaching and learning contexts.

In addition, we each individually wish to acknowledge some specialpeople in our lives:

I wish to acknowledge Grace, Rick, Sara, Greg, Dan, my step-mom-Barb, my Dad, and

my Mom, who have taught me so much about life, love, forgiveness, and crossing

cultural boundaries large and small. And to Neal, who lives in our hearts always. This

book is for each of you.

– Sheryl V. Taylor

I’m one of the lucky ones in life. That is why my first individual acknowledgement goes

to my husband Alan, our son David, and our daughter Meg, who are the inspiration in

everything I do and every choice I make. I also want to acknowledge and dedicate this

book to the students and educators in public schools whose lives give me insight and

encouragement. Every time I walk into a school, I’m reminded of what really matters

and how fortunate I am to learn from so many gifted educators who strive daily to

include students in ways that genuinely support, respect and create a sense of belonging.

– Donna M. Sobel

viii PREFACE

FOREWORD

AIMS OF THIS BOOK

This book addresses the gnawing question frequently voiced by preserviceand experienced teachers alike who assert, ‘‘I want to be effective in myteaching of culturally and linguistically diverse students; I want to beinclusive of all learners. I’m committed to a culturally responsive pedagogy,but how do I start? Could you just show me how to do it?’’ Such assertionsreveal a simplified view of culturally responsive pedagogy as a teachingmethod or a defined set of practices, which it is not. On the other hand,we commend these teachers for recognizing the broad heterogeneity they cananticipate in today’s classrooms, which include students with a wide diversityof language, culture, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic resources, ability levels,and life experiences. This book is also for teachers who contend, ‘‘I teachliteracy and language to English language learners (ELL students); there’snot time to consider culture.’’ Or, perhaps like us, you have also heardteachers say, ‘‘I teach math; I don’t need to be concerned with culture! That isfor social studies teachers.’’ Regardless of their content area, teachers areconduits of culture. When culture is coupled with pedagogy, the resultinvolves a complex and comprehensive mix of knowledge and skills forteachers to use to engage a diverse student population. Howard (2010)clarifies that culturally responsive teaching is situated in a framework thatrecognizes the rich and varied cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills thatstudents from diverse groups bring to schools, and seeks to develop dynamicteaching practices, multicultural content, multiple means of assessment, anda philosophical view of teaching that is dedicated to nurturing studentacademic, social, emotional, cultural psychological, and physiological wellbeing (pp. 67–68).

Grounded in sociocultural learning theory, culturally responsive teachingis a contextual and situational process for both learners and teachers.At its core, it represents a professional philosophy that is based on ateacher’s fundamental commitment to students’ success—all students—including students who are from a diversity of languages, cultures, racial/ethnic backgrounds, religions, economic resources, interests, abilities, and

ix

life experiences as well as students who are members of the society’s‘‘mainstream’’ cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic group or groups.

Teachers who are committed to culturally responsive pedagogy recognizethe structural inequalities in society that are reflected in its schools andacknowledge that schools have a history of failing to serve students whoare outside of the ‘‘mainstream’’ culture. In the case of teachers committedto culturally responsive teaching who are members of the ‘‘mainstream’’culture in their society, they recognize the sociopolitical nature of educationwhich includes the role their own cultural background and privilege playin their work as a professional educator. Moreover, they comprehend theharmful devastation that results from deficit-based explanations of thedisparate educational outcomes by a diverse student population.

For those teachers who are new to culturally responsive pedagogy or to theconcept of culture being central to learning, language, literacy, and teaching,they will find a solid blend of theory, research, and practical informationhere. Many teachers stand by the view that ‘‘good teaching, is goodteaching,’’ yet our individual beliefs about what is ‘‘good’’ in teaching andlearning are culturally influenced. Beliefs about what is ‘‘good’’ will varyacross cultural groups. Education is a sociocultural activity grounded insociopolitical contexts with teaching and learning as situational, contextual,and personal processes. Removing teaching and learning from their contextsdoes not offer a realistic view of education. When we decontextualizeteaching and learning, we risk disregarding and dismissing students’ broadcultural backgrounds and life experiences. And, when we do this, we riskminimizing students’ chances to achieve their potential.

This book is intended as a guide and practical discussion for K-12 teacherswho are involved in general education, including the teaching of Englishlanguage learners; teacher educators; and administrators who wish to deepentheir own understandings and support teachers’ professional developmentabout the foundations and applications of a culturally responsive pedagogyin multilingual, multicultural, inclusive classrooms. Although they may nothave a clear path for the journey, these individuals understand that schoolstoday need teachers who can teach ‘‘to and through the strengths of thesestudents’’ (Gay, 2010a, p. 31). Schools need teachers who can create andmanage rigorous learning environments that maximize learners’ opportu-nities to learn. That is, schools need teachers who can make school learningrelevant and effective for all learners by using students’ cultural knowledge,frames of reference, life experiences, language experiences, and languagevarieties as resources.

FOREWORDx

The aims of this book are to:

� Provide a practical overview of theoretical underpinnings of culturallyresponsive pedagogy.� Establish a rationale for the importance of this pedagogy using the currentsociocultural context of schools and report on students’ performance inschools.� Review the research regarding the preparation of teachers for multi-cultural, multilingual, inclusive school contexts, that is, the extent towhich teacher education programs are preparing teachers to work inschools with diverse student populations.� Describe the current professional directives, supports, and teachingstandards in place to guide teachers’ knowledge and skills to effectivelyteach a diverse student population that includes English language learners.� Highlight classrooms where teachers have effectively operationalized theircommitment, knowledge, and skills of a culturally responsive pedagogy inmultilingual, multicultural, inclusive classrooms.� Incorporate findings from our classroom-based research, including exem-plars addressed successfully by teachers committed to culturally responsivepedagogy for teaching a diverse student population. These exemplarsare organized around the 12 components of: classroom environment orenvironmental print, grouping strategies, instructional materials, instruc-tional adaptations, distribution of attention, evidence of student under-standing, classroom behavior, teacher’s personal/professional growth, andteacher’s interactions with students’ families and community.� Provide practical supports for professional development and mentoring ofteachers to implement a culturally responsive pedagogy, including anobservation protocol that can be used by teachers, teacher educators,administrators, or staff developers.

Components of this book are conceptual and practical, and they build onthe work of several scholars and practitioners who have been committed toequity in education and creating schools that effectively meet the needs of allstudents regardless of their cultural, racial/ethnic, linguistic, religious,ability, socioeconomic or gender backgrounds (e.g., Banks, 2007; Garcia,2002; Gay, 2010b; Hollins & Guzman, 2005; Howard, 2010; Irvine, 2003;Ladson-Billings, 1995; Nieto, 2002; Sleeter, 2001; Sleeter & Grant, 2003).In this book we also share data from studies we have conducted during thepast 10 years that document: (1) preservice teachers’ cognition andbehaviors relevant to their preparation to work with a diverse student

Foreword xi

population; (2) preservice teachers’ self study of their beliefs and classroompractices relevant to using broad cultural diversity as a resource whenworking with a diverse student population; (3) teacher preparation in aprofessional development school model; and (4) experienced teachers’cognition and behaviors associated with high-quality teaching in schoolswith diverse student populations. These studies were situated in classroomcontexts with students from a range of cultural, racial/ethnic, linguistic,religious, ability levels, socioeconomic backgrounds, and life experiences.This book also incorporates perspectives from sociocultural theory andcritical pedagogy, two theoretical frameworks that provide key structuresfor this effort concerned with culture, language, race/ethnicity, andsocioeconomic status in educational contexts.

OUR ORIENTATIONS

We have written this book from three perspectives that have shaped ourefforts; first, as European American researchers and teacher educators;second, as European American professional educators committed toteaching in multicultural, multilingual, inclusive classroom contexts; andthird, as European American women engaged in the multicultural dialogueand committed to social change and transformation. We both entered therealm of teacher education research after having taught in U.S. publicschools in Midwestern and Western states (Sobel & Taylor), and in Mexicanpublic and private schools (Taylor). We have done our best to keep onefoot firmly ‘‘rooted’’ in public school classrooms as we consider theclassroom learners to be the ultimate stakeholders that influence our work.We view the critical dialogue and candid examination of structural inequity,White privilege, and idealized perspectives of meritocracy to be essentialand ongoing. Joining our students who are preservice and inservice teachersin the hard work is one aspect of our positions we embrace. We cannotdialogue and then dismiss the urgency of this work and be genuinelyinvolved in our teaching and research. We acknowledge that teachereducation persists in a predominance of European American studentsand instructors. We therefore advocate for students, families, teachers, andcommunities of diverse backgrounds to demand the right to be acknowl-edged and educated for ‘‘who they are’’ rather than abandoning theiridentity to be replaced with Eurocentric cultural norms and expectations inorder to access a high-quality education and opportunities (Gay, 2010a).

FOREWORDxii

Who are we? What brought us to this journey? Here’s a bit of our stories.As a European American female raised in a very large, working class IrishCatholic family, I (Sobel) am aware of and appreciative of my rich culturalheritage. Many of my early family traditions were connected to events at theneighboring church; however, experiences celebrating large family gather-ings after mass on Sundays have been replaced by a Passover Seder after Iembraced many Jewish customs from my husband’s upbringing. Concertedefforts at blending our lives have provided ongoing life lessons.

Pondering what influenced my choice of a career working with individualswith disabilities, I’m reminded of a story that my mother recalled for me. Asthe story goes, I was 11 years old and had just returned home after joining aneighborhood friend and her father on a visit to an elderly relative in afacility for the mentally ill. My mother asked how the trip went and how I feltabout what I saw. Supposedly, I looked her in the eye and said, ‘‘It is a sad,sad place, but at least I know what I’ll do when I grow up. I don’t know how,but I have to help think of better ways to help people live.’’ With that aimcemented in my being, I’ve been committed to working in communities,public schools, and higher education settings to improve inclusive education.My early experiences working in state mental institutions taught me somedismal and profound lessons about unfair, inhumane practices. Over andagain, I saw that people were warehoused and were most often cared forby inexperienced and underpaid, though well-meaning, staff. As I beganworking in urban public schools, the disparities of educational services forstudents from diverse backgrounds and with diverse needs became glaringlyapparent. I see educators today struggle in their efforts to meet the needsof culturally and linguistically diverse urban learners, as evidenced by theachievement and graduation gaps, and other indicators of school success.I have come to more strongly believe that efforts must be made to alignthe theoretical basis of evolving understandings of the disproportionalityproblem with realistic work. Indeed, supporting all educators to teachstudents from diverse backgrounds and with diverse academic needs is oneof the most compelling challenges facing teacher educators today. Thissituation calls for a correspondingly urgent need to attend to school practicesthat will support educators in minimizing the effects of disabilities while alsoreducing the risk status of students in vulnerable groups.

It’s a long journey coming to terms with one’s identity and hopefully itis never-ending. This book is an important part of that journey for me(Taylor). Broad cultural diversity is something I became aware of at an earlyage. Having grown up in East Saint Louis, Illinois, where the diversity ofthe population was vast—with a large population of African Americans,

Foreword xiii

German Americans, Italian Americans, Armenians, Orthodox Jews,Catholics, and Protestant Christians—issues of racial/ethnic, cultural, andreligious diversity have been ‘‘hitting me in the face’’ since I was a kid. Atthe time, I did not always know how to make sense of this diversity, but Iunderstood that it caused contention for others—in particular, the adults inmy life. Intrigued by the different points of view, religious routines, andcultural practices of childhood friends, I looked for opportunities to enterinto different frames of reference. In high school, a two-week language studyin an industrial city in Northern Mexico with the Spanish Club igniteda keen interest in language and culture. After that trip, my plan becameto return to Mexico to live and work. While my experiences there werelimited to several three- and six-month teaching assignments over severalyears, living and working in Mexico put me in situations where Iparticipated as a cultural and linguistic minority on a regular basis. Therewere numerous times I misread cultural nuances, misunderstood how tonegotiate social and political structures, and desperately wanted to explainthat I really was intelligent despite having limited proficiency in Spanish.Daily I gained an understanding of living outside of the mainstream and notfitting in due to my native language and physical appearance. The culturalcapital I had did not jive with what was valued in the majority culture ofMexico. I had female work friends whose parents were cautious aboutletting their daughters befriend an ‘‘Americana.’’ However, none of theseexperiences prepared me for the harsh reality I met when I traveled tosouthern Mexico near the border of Guatemala, where there had beenpolitical uprisings. The public disdain for American influences was obviousin the graffiti and in the reactions of people on the street. I was not welcomebecause of how I looked and the country I represented.

When I began working in urban schools and rural school districts withurban issues, it did not take long for the inequities in educational structuresand resources to become obvious to me. Simultaneously, the efforts ofcommitted teachers and deeply hopeful parents to support their studentstowards educational success often fell short as a result of historicallyembedded biases that existed in the school community or a mismatch. Amismatch existed between the cultural capital held by students and thecultural capital valued in the school context. Whether I was teaching childrenfrom migrant farm families or urban middle school youth or immigrant/refugee teenagers whose parents enrolled them into an affluent high schoolwith the goal of achieving admission into a top-notch university, the risk ofmarginalization and ease of overlooking students’ linguistic and broad

FOREWORDxiv

cultural funds of knowledge (Moll, 2004) were impossible for me to overlook.These experiences have fueled my commitment to work collaboratively witheducators and community members to improve educational opportunities forall learners—in particular, students from diverse backgrounds includingEnglish language learners.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Language is reflective of the current priorities in education and presentsociopolitical contexts of education. Just as society, politics, and economicsevolve, so does the language we use. Terminology is particularly importantrelevant to how schools are addressing the broad cultural diversity repre-sented in the student and teacher populations. We think it is important toidentify key concepts and terminology that are integral to this book. In thissection, we clarify definitions and explain our thinking with respect todecisions we made about terminology.

Culture

We begin with the definition of culture derived from anthropologicalunderstandings; culture is the complex whole that consists of the knowledge,beliefs, morals, habits, customs, art, law, and other capabilities we acquireas members of a society (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1963). That is, cultureis multifaceted, dynamic, shared, learned, and can be transmitted fromgeneration to generation or group to group. Culture reveals an inter-connectedness of key elements and responses to fundamental changes in theconditions and circumstances of life.

Nieto (2002) defined culture as ‘‘the ever-changing values, traditions, socialandpolitical relationships, andworldview created, shared, and transformed bya group of people bound together by a combination of factors that can includea common history, geographic location, language, social class and religion’’(p. 48).Furthermore, culture indicates adynamic systemof social values, cognitivecodes, behavioral standards, worldviews, and beliefs used to give order andmeaning to one’s life (Delgado-Gaitan & Trueba, 1991). As we consider culturein relation to the context of schools, it is important to note that culture issituated within and influenced by sociopolitical, historical, and economiccontexts, which are in turn influenced by factors of power and privilege. Cultureis central to teaching and learning, schooling, and formal education.

Foreword xv

English Language Learners

There are a variety of terms used in the field of education to describe studentswho are learning English as an additional language. One commonly used termis Limited English Proficient (LEP) students. This term—used in the federallegislation and relevant official documents—generally refers to young studentsat the beginner to intermediate level. Throughout this book, we refer tothose students who are learning English in addition to their native languageas English language learners or ELL students. We concur with Uribe andNathenson-Mejia’s (2008) stance that referring to students using acronyms—such as ELLs or LEPs—seems dehumanizing, so we will always refer tostudents or learners as such andonly useELL as amodifier of student. At times,we will use the acronym ELL alone to stand for English language learning andthe acronym ELT as an abbreviation of English language teaching.

In the field of education, other terms are used in relation to students learningEnglish, including English as an additional language (EAL), English as a secondlanguage (ESL or L2 English), Linguistically diverse education (LDE), Englishlanguage acquisition (ELA), and English language development (ELD). Eachof these terms is also commonly used to refer to curriculum and materialsdesigned specifically for students learning English as an additional language.

When we consider English language learners, we recognize that there isbroad diversity within this group. For example, some ELL students arelearning English as a foreign language in a context where a language otherthan English is the majority language of society. For these students, they mayshare the mainstream culture and language of the society. Others are learningEnglish as an additional or second language, thereby adding English to theirlinguistic repertoire. In this case, ELL students may be recent immigrantshaving arrived in a country where English is the majority language. Or theymay have been born in a country where English is the predominant languageand raised in a household with a primary language different from English,similar to the situation of many immigrants in the United States. Their homemay integrate a blend of languages and varieties of one language. For theseindividuals, their cultural perspectives may be a blend of their family’sprimary culture and society’s mainstream culture.

Race/Ethnicity

Throughout the book, we have attempted to be consistent in our referenceto racial/ethnic groups of peoples. Also, we have purposely avoidedidentifying groups of people solely by skin tone, but instead have used terms

FOREWORDxvi

to designate broad ethnic background. We recognize that using a label tocategorize groups of people risks reducing the breadth and depth of diversitywithin one’s particular ethnic background; however, there are times when inorder to report demographic data we have needed to identify specific groupsof people. For example, terms we have used include African American, AsianAmerican, and Native American. When reporting census data, we used theterm Hispanic, a term used by the U.S. government, although we have apreference for the term Latino to refer to people of Latin American andCaribbean heritage. We also generally use the term European Americanrather than White, to avoid labeling by skin tone, for those people whorepresent the majority population in U.S. society. Albeit a small feature,we concur with Nieto and Bode’s (2011) stance to emphasize the culturalbackground of the group of people who have a tendency to not think ofthemselves as having a culture. Yet, as noted by Nieto and Bode, just likeall terms, European American (or European American Caucasian) hasshortcomings as well since it can serve as a ‘‘catch-all’’ for individuals whosebackground may be a mixture of a great many ethnic backgrounds.

When we consider race relevant to culture and cultural differences, we areworking from the standpoint that race and racial differences are sociallyconstructed. Understanding that racial differences are mainly constructed bythe larger society, we believe it is important to remember that it is not racethat makes a difference in people’s attitudes, behaviors, and values. Ratherwhat makes a difference in people’s perspectives is how particular racialgroups are valued or devalued by society (Nieto, 2002). Furthermore, werecognize that when considering race in the context of education andschooling, there is a risk of allowing the singular focus of race to overshadowthe effects of issues like poor conditions, unqualified teachers, or minimaleducational resources in the school context. When students do not achieveacademically, it may not simply be because of cultural dissonance betweenthe students’ primary culture and the school culture. Such issues are criticalto comprehend because it is not only the devaluing of students and theircultural differences that can put students at risk. Deplorable physicalconditions, poor resources and equipment, or a predominance of inexper-ienced teachers can also be what places students at risk.

Diverse Student Population

We generally use terms related to specific ethnic backgrounds or refer tostudents who are from a diversity of languages, cultures, racial/ethnicbackgrounds, religions, economic resources, interests, abilities, and life

Foreword xvii

experiences. When we needed to use an overarching term, we tend to use theterm, diverse student population. Another overarching term we occasionallyemploy is students of diverse backgrounds and abilities. We prefer to avoidthe term minority students for the reason that it can be and has been used toimply a lesser status. Additionally, these terms tend to be employed not torepresent numerical minorities in society, but rather to highlight students aspart of a non-White racial category or as racial minorities.

Preservice Teachers

We use the term preservice teachers to refer to those teachers who are workingtowards attaining a teaching license whether they are involved in a traditionalBaccalaureate program, an alternative ‘‘teacher in residence’’ program, or apost-Baccalaureate licensure program. While we consistently make use of theterm, preservice teacher, these individuals are also commonly referred to asteacher candidates or teacher interns in the professional literature.

Inservice Teachers

The term inservice teachers refers to licensed, experienced teachers who maycontinue their professional development or teacher education by participat-ing in university graduate courses, masters level graduate programs, orcontinuing education workshops.

Teacher Education

Teacher education is employed by us broadly to refer to university-basedteacher preparation programs as well as graduate programs that focus onthe professional learning and advancement of experienced teachers. Whenrelevant, we specify whether we are referring to initial teacher licensureprograms at the baccalaureate level, initial teacher licensure programswith a professional development school (PDS) model, or Master of Arts inTeaching (MAT) programs. The PDS model offers preservice teachersextended residencies in schools with expert clinical teachers.

FOREWORDxviii

Inclusive

The term inclusive as defined by Merriam-Webster means ‘‘open toeveryone; not limited to certain people’’ when used as an adjective beforea noun. We use the term inclusive in reference to culturally responsivepedagogy, education, and schools which are broadly grounded in ideals fora democratic and equitable society that includes students’ full participationin the education process (Dewey, 1933). With respect to a diverse studentpopulation, we advocate for students’ access to a curriculum that is relevantand to instruction that accommodates their learning interests, abilities,and needs. We build on Banks’ (2007) concept of content integration,whereby curriculum includes and addresses content from a variety ofcultures, groups, and perspectives; a curriculum that is representative of acomprehensive society and its authentic history. We suggest instructionalplanning and practices in line with pedagogy that is inclusive and equitable(Banks, 2007) in order to facilitate the academic achievement of all students.

The term inclusive education is an element of U.S. schooling dating backto the 1974 mandates of Public Law (P.L.) 94-142, now the Individuals withDisabilities Education Action (IDEA). Critical language in the law calls forthe supplementary aids and services needed to effectively include studentswith varying abilities. Falvey and Givner (2005) explain that inclusionbenefits not only students with disabilities, but also all students, educators,parents, and community members. However, even with attempts tooperationally define inclusive education, it remains an elusive term. Thatconfusion stems from assumptions associated with inclusive education—that it is a program or a particular classroom in a school or that it is aninstructional accommodation. The essential supposition, however, is thatinclusion is a way of life—a way of working, studying, and living together—that is based on a genuine belief that each individual is supported, respected,valued, and belongs.

Disproportionality

The term disproportionality refers to the overrepresentation or dispropor-tionate number of learners from culturally and linguistically diverse back-grounds in special education programs (Artiles & Ortiz, 2002). In the U.S.context, there are existing policies, laws, and judicial decisions designedto ensure that students of diverse backgrounds and abilities receive anappropriate education. These laws exist to protect the rights of learners

Foreword xix

from culturally, racial/ethnic, and linguistically diverse backgrounds and toensure that individuals receive special education services only when these areneeded. Yet, in theUnited States, ethnically and linguistically diverse studentscontinue to be overrepresented in special education programs and under-represented in gifted education (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010).

Global Context

While we have attempted to provide a global or international perspectiverelevant to the ways schools are addressing broad cultural diversity, weacknowledge that the available data were limited to a few countries, most ofwhich are part of Western cultural societies and where English is thedominant language. We recognize that many of the countries from whichdata sources in educational studies are drawn have a heritage in Europeantraditions of scholarship (e.g., in North America, the United Kingdom,Australia, and New Zealand) and so do not provide a truly internationalperspective. Despite this limitation, there are valuable insights to be gainedfrom the scholarship conducted in countries beyond the United States thatalso have highly diverse societies and populations.

United States Context

We purposefully refer to our country as the United States, not as America.The term America or the Americas refers to not only the United States butall of North, Central, and South America. When referring to U.S. citizens,we have intentionally not used the term Americans since this usage isinaccurate and even offensive to those individuals living in Central andSouth America as well as in North America (Canadians) who also considerthemselves to be Americans.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

This book is divided into 11 chapters. Chapter One provides a three-partoverview that addresses: (a) current shifting demographics both globally and inthe context of the United States; (b) challenges resulting from the changingsocietal and school contexts; and (c) broad directives and frameworks forpreparing and retaining high-quality teachers to work effectively with a diversestudent population that includes English language learners. Chapter Two

FOREWORDxx

provides an overview of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks ofculturally responsive teaching. Chapter Three establishes a rationale forculturally responsive pedagogy using an examination of students’ performancein schools and studies of teachers’ preparation to effectively teach a diversestudent population in multicultural, multilingual, inclusive school contexts.Chapter Four offers a descriptive overview of broad professional directives,supports, and teaching standards currently in place in international profes-sional organizations to guide teachers’ knowledge and skills to effectivelyteach a diverse student population that included English language learners.Then in Chapter Five we narrow our view to a U.S.-based context and weaddress national directives and state-level teaching priorities and standards togain an understanding of guidelines and supports to guide teachers at theselevels. In Chapter Six, we discuss culturally responsive pedagogy as effectiveteaching. We propose the questions, ‘‘Will I know it if I see it?’’ and ‘‘Can I doit?’’ Given that culturally responsive teaching is not a simple set of practicesor materials, what are ways to approach it from the teacher’s perspective?We address essential elements that factor into the implementation of culturallyresponsive pedagogy. Integrating results from our classroom-based research,we provide an organizational framework we have developed for contem-plating and planning culturally responsive pedagogy. Components includedin the organizational framework are highlighted and further explained in thesubsequent classroom scenarios. In Chapter Seven we provide an overview ofdistrict and school contexts—two large-scale districts where there is anemphasis onnarrowing the achievement gap and ensuring that all ELL studentsachieve high academic standards in an environment that values linguistic andcultural diversity. Describing two composite school district contexts allows usto provide a backdrop for the classroom scenarios that follow. In ChaptersEight, Nine, and Ten, we take readers on a ‘‘tour’’ through three classroominstructional scenarios in two composite schools each located in a distinctU.S.-based school district. The classroom scenarios take place in classroomswhere teachers have operationalized their commitment to a culturallyresponsive pedagogy by developing relevant knowledge and skills in thestudents and themselves. The classroom instructional scenarios include a 3rdgrade literacy lesson, a 5th grade mathematics lesson, and a 9th grade sciencelesson. As a final topic, Chapter Eleven addresses practical guidelines andsupports for professional development andmentoring of teachers to implementa culturally responsive pedagogy. In that chapter, we also describe anobservation tool that can be used by teachers, teacher educators, oradministrators for reflecting on one’s application of a culturally responsivepedagogy.

Foreword xxi

PART ONE

CONCEPTUALIZING CULTURALLY

RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

Photo 1. Tree of life and roots of our ancestors.

CHAPTER ONE

CURRENT CHALLENGES

AND FRAMEWORKS

INTRODUCTION

This book explores ways teachers can make content meaningful andprovide effective, inclusive instruction for all students especially studentswho are from a diversity of languages, cultures, racial/ethnic backgrounds,religions, economic resources, interests, abilities, and life experiences. Wegive added attention here to those students of diverse backgrounds who arealso ELL students. When teachers understand that learning and teachingare culturally and linguistically impacted, they recognize that instruction ismore effective when the learner’s broad cultural backgrounds, racial/ethnicidentity, and life experiences are integrated within the curriculum. Teacherswho make themselves aware of the learners’ backgrounds and lifeexperiences are better prepared to adapt instruction in responsive waysand demonstrate that they can teach like their students’ lives really domatter.

Chapter One provides a broad overview of key concepts and challengesfacing teachers, administrators, and teacher educators relevant to a diversestudent population. To begin with, we address the changing demographicsfor school-age learners, teachers, and preservice teachers. Next we present abrief summary of structures provided by international professionalorganizations intended to guide teachers’ professional activities, followedby a focused view of policy directives and professional teaching standardshighlighted in the U.S. context. We conclude the chapter with acomprehensive summary of the conceptual framework of culturallyresponsive teaching.

3

A CHANGING WORLD FOR EDUCATION

In a variety of global contexts today, migration—due to globalization—hasresulted in students from many countries of origin settling into local schools.In 2009, more then 3% of the world’s population, which is slightly morethan 190 million people, lived in a country different from their country ofbirth (Zhao, 2010). Globalization has contributed to transformations andexpansions in our travel and migration, our communication and businessnegotiations, and our political and cultural interactions. Such expansion isdue to the growth of international trade, advances in transportation, andcommunication technologies, including the broadening use of the Internetduring the past several decades (Miniwatts Marketing Group, 2010). As aresult of globalization, educational systems are challenged to provideteachers who are equipped to prepare learners to be ready to live in a globalsociety (Garcia, Arias, Murri, & Serna, 2010; Graddol, 2006).

Whereas education was once ‘‘the traditionally local social institution,’’the educational system now faces significant strains to teach and preparestudents for the society they will face as adults (Zhao, 2010, p. 423). Acrossthe United Kingdom, Australia, United Arab Emirates, the United States,and points beyond, school classrooms consist of students from a diversity oflanguages, cultures, racial/ethnic backgrounds, religions, economicresources, interests, abilities, and life experiences. Even countries thattraditionally were not destination points of migration have begun to see aninflux of immigrant children in their schools because of their parents’movement. During the mid-2000s, in the United Kingdom, approximately9% of the student population consisted of immigrants who are in need ofEnglish language instruction; and, in England, the percentage of minorityethnic children averaged 12.5% in primary and secondary schools(McEachron & Bhatti, 2005). In Australia, 25% of the population was bornoutside of Australia and 15% speak a language other than English at home(Dinham, 2008). Schools are welcoming children from homes acrossAustralia, where more than 10 different languages besides English arecommonly spoken (Dinham, 2008). In the United Arab Emirates, slightlymore than 80% of the population consists of expatriates (Habboush, 2010).In the United States, students from diverse cultural, linguistic, and racial/ethnic backgrounds comprise 30% of the K-12 school-age population,representing a substantial increase in the percentage of public school studentsin U.S. schools (Gay, 2010a; National Center for Education Statistics, 2007).

As institutions within a global society, schools are expected to take thelead in socializing students and helping them to gain the knowledge and

TEACHING LIKE OUR STUDENTS’ LIVES MATTER4

skills they need to be successful in life. To teach children from diversebackgrounds effectively, schools need teachers who understand the impactof students’ home and community cultures on their educational experienceand who have the skills to interact with students from a range ofbackgrounds. Thus, the sociocultural lens which teachers bring to theclassroom is an important factor in ensuring effective teaching and learningfor a diverse population of students. For many teachers, the ways theyteach, learn, communicate, and interact link directly to lessons and valuesexperienced in their primary culture. Moreover, teachers’ cultural perspec-tives and belief systems have a significant impact on their instructionaldelivery and decisions (Knopp & Smith, 2005). In short, teachers aresocial and cultural transmitters. On the other hand, learners also arriveat school with their own cultural perspective in place. For some learners,school culture can be so different from their home and primary cultures thatlearning at school is challenging at best and alienating or exclusionary atworst.

In the U.S. educational context, Gay (2010b) asserts that ‘‘Eurocentricorientations and emphases are more inappropriate now than ever before forstudents from culturally, racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds’’(p. 143). While European Americans continue to prevail as preservice andinservice teachers, the students in public schools represent a wide range ofdiverse cultural, racial/ethnic, and linguistic backgrounds. Given the currentdemographics, many students in U.S. schools have been raised with values,expectations, and habits of learning that follow diverse cultural norms,hence they experience school in markedly different ways from their teachers(Banks et al., 2005).

While the teaching profession includes some educators from a range ofcultural and linguistic backgrounds, reports reveal a highly homogeneousteaching pool. From a global perspective, a striking cultural mismatchbetween teachers and the school-age population exists. For example, whilereports from England indicate a national goal of having a teaching forcethat represents the social and ethnic composition of the students, trendsfrom the mid-2000s show that this was not the case. In 2006, the proportionof teachers in England who were classified as ‘‘non-minority White’’ washigher than 95%, and minority ethnic teachers were underrepresented incomparison to the school-age population (Greater London Authority,2006). In Australia, teacher demographics revealed that females made upnearly 80% of primary teachers and 55% of secondary teachers, while ashortage was reported for teachers of languages other than English(Dinham, 2008).

Current Challenges and Frameworks 5

In the U.S. context, the core population of classroom teachers andpreservice teachers continues to consist of individuals who share the culture,language, and socioeconomic backgrounds of their country’s mainstreamculture (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010). In 2006, 85% of U.S. public schoolteachers were European American Caucasian, primarily of the middle class,and 75% female. In contrast, only 7.8% of U.S. public school teachers wereAfrican American, 5.7% Latino, 1.6% Asian American, and .8% NativeAmerican (National Center for Education Statistics, 2010). Several studiesreveal that preservice teachers in this mainly homogeneous group havenegative attitudes towards individuals from diverse cultural, linguistic, andracial/ethnic backgrounds (Case & Hemmings, 2005; Good & Brophy,2003). On the contrary, in today’s context, schools and students needteachers who accept cultural diversity as a positive attribute and a valuableresource in the teaching and learning processes. Schools need teachers whounderstand the key role of culture in teaching and learning. They needteachers who can effectively use ‘‘the cultural knowledge, prior experiences,frames of reference and performance styles of students to make learningencounters [more] relevant and effective for them’’ (Gay, 2010a, p. 29).Schools need teachers who have embraced and mastered the pedagogy ofcultural responsiveness.

Foundational to a culturally responsive pedagogy implemented byteachers who have English language learners (ELL students) in theirclassrooms is the teacher’s ability to recognize and draw on students’ nativelanguages and cultures (Banks et al., 2005). An important starting point forteachers is to understand the value of all languages and realize that astudent’s native language provides a useful base and tool for accessing thenew language being added to the learner’s linguistic repertoire. Coupledwith knowledge about language development and acquisition, effectiveteaching practices characterized by culturally responsive and appropriateinstruction can support teachers’ effective work with ELL students. Withthe number of school-age children who speak languages other than Englishgrowing, the need is great to ensure that teachers gain the knowledge andskills to be responsive to all students in their classrooms.

THE DEMOGRAPHICS OF U.S. EDUCATIONAL

CONTEXTS

Given that schools globally are welcoming a number of students who bringwith them diverse racial/ethnic, cultural, linguistic, and academic


experiences as well as varied life experiences, the contexts of schools areshifting dramatically. This is particularly true in the United States, wherean estimated 1.04 million individuals immigrate to the country yearly(National Center for Education Statistics, 2007). One out of every fivechildren ages 5 to 17 years old in the United States has a foreign-bornparent (Capps et al., 2005). In addition to those immigrants arriving in theUnited States with legal documentation, a large yet undetermined numberof undocumented immigrants enter the country annually. As continuedimmigration of racial/ethnic minorities is apparent, it is predicted that 50%of the U.S. population will be made up of racial/ethnic minorities by theyear 2050 (Banks, 2006; Nieto, 2007). Looking beyond immigrationactivity, the U.S. demographic data confirm that 70% of the studentpopulation consists of students of color in the 20 largest U.S. schooldistricts, and by 2025, 40% of the U.S. school-age population will bestudents of color (Irvine, 2001). Currently in the United States, nearly fivemillion ELL students attend school. By the year 2025, one in every fourstudents will initially be classified as an ELL student (Diaz-Rico & Weed,2010). As a reflection on academic diversity, it can be noted that in theUnited States some ethnic groups are overrepresented in special educationprograms and alarmingly underrepresented in programs for giftedlearners—a disparity which has resulted in careful review of assessmentand placement of diverse student population (Burnette, 2000; Diaz-Rico &Weed, 2010). Recent reports indicate that approximately 95% of 6- to21-year-old students with disabilities were served in regular schools; 3%were served in a separate school for students with disabilities; and 1% wereplaced in regular private schools by their parents (National Center ofEducational Statistics, 2010).Migration brings children from a variety of countries to local schools. In

the early- to mid-2000s, the majority of ELL students in the United Statesarrived from Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America (about 77%during the 2000–2001 school year) with another 10% each from East Asiaand Europe (Capps et al., 2005). Another 6% came from Indochina andthe same percentage from West Asia, and about 3% came from the formerSoviet Union and Africa each (Hopstock & Stephenson, 2003). Prior tothe late 1990s, the western United States had a large concentration ofELL students. However, between the years 1990 and 2000, newpopulations of students arrived in the central and eastern parts of thecountry, as North Carolina, Georgia, Nebraska, Arkansas, and SouthDakota experienced more than a 100% increase in the number of childrenof immigrant families attending pre-K through 5th grade in their public


schools (Capps et al., 2005). In sum the new ‘‘norm’’ of the U.S. educationalcontext is a school-age population that represents broadly diversecultural, racial/ethnic, linguistic, and ability backgrounds with studentsfrom a wide range of countries of origin (Commins & Miramontes, 2006;Gay, 2010b).

What do the demographics of ELL students mean relevant to the contextof school classrooms? In the United States in 2007, one out of every sixschool-age children was reported as having a home language other thanEnglish (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 2007).While more than half of these children were reported as not yet havingsufficient proficiency in English to be successful academically in traditionalall-English language classrooms (National Clearinghouse for EnglishLanguage Acquisition, 2007), Garcia et al. (2010) cautioned that ELLstudents and children from immigrant families are not necessarilysynonymous populations. For example, in 2000, the U.S. Census reportedthat 74% of the school-age children from immigrant families spoke Englishproficiently or exclusively. Looking to 2025, one in every four students inU.S. schools will be initially classified as an English language learner,thereby intensifying the challenge facing teachers who will be responsible fordeveloping students’ English skills during their K-12 school years (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010).

At the same time that the school-age population is diversifying, aspreviously mentioned, the demographics of the teaching population is staticin the U.S. context and globally. In the U.S. public schools, the disparitybetween student and teacher racial/ethnic backgrounds is indicative of theoverall ethnic gap in the country. In the early- to mid-2000s, national trendsindicated that well over 86% of the current teaching force was Caucasian,European-American, monolingual, and female (Darling-Hammond,French, & Garcia-Lopez, 2002), with the remaining proportion beingapproximately 7.8% African American, 5.7% Hispanic, 1.6% AsianAmerican, and 8% Native American (National Center for EducationStatistics, 2003). Banks (2006) predicts that this trend will continue for sometime due to the enrollment of primarily European American Caucasian,female teachers being prepared in teacher education programs. The realityin today’s schools—within the United States and globally, in urban andsuburban settings—is that teachers face the strong probability of greeting aclassroom of students with whom they have little in common regardinglanguage, culture, racial/ethnic background, religion, socioeconomicresources, and life experiences.


STANDARDS AND STRUCTURES FOR SUPPORTING

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS WITH ALL STUDENTS

A re-occurring question echoes from experienced teachers, preserviceteachers, and administrators alike, ‘‘Good teaching is good teaching. Isn’tgood teaching enough?’’ According to teachers’ feedback ‘‘good teaching’’ isdecidedly not enough to understand and address the needs of all students. Inthe U.S. educational context, many teachers reported feeling ill-equipped towork with diverse student populations (Futrell, Gomez, & Bedden, 2003).Teachers reported that they struggle to meet students’ needs relevant todifferences in culture, language, ability, and family makeup (Nieto, 2007).Some novice teachers pinpointed their lack of skills in addressing differenceand cross-cultural teaching issues as the source of their struggles in theclassroom (Darling-Hammond, 2010). This concern extends beyond theU.S. context to England and Australia, where the teacher workforce alsoexpressed a feeling of insufficient preparation to support a diverse studentpopulation (Dinham, 2008). The overall diversification of the studentpopulation in schools calls for an urgent response from teacher educatorsand professional developers to ensure that teachers are empowered to meetthe sociocultural learning needs of the ethnically diverse student population(Banks, 2006; Banks et al. 2005). What structures are in place to guideteachers’ practice towards being responsive to students’ broad culturalbackgrounds and life experience, in particular, those students who areEnglish language learners?

Currently, many professional education organizations, both global and inthe United States, have adopted standards for preparing and retaining high-quality teachers to work effectively with students from a diversity ofbackgrounds. Taking a global perspective first, the Teachers of English toSpeakers of Other Languages (TESOL) and International ReadingAssociation each provide guidelines for engaging teachers in instructionalpractices that demonstrate a valuing of cultural diversity, which includeslanguage, racial/ethnic background, religion, ability, gender, and socio-economic status. Chapter Four provides a thorough overview of the stancetaken by several major professional educational organizations aboutsupporting teachers to respond to students’ diverse backgrounds. Presently,we will focus on the TESOL standards relevant to teachers addressingstudents’ primary culture and language. The TESOL organization,incorporated in 1966, holds as its mission that of developing andmaintaining professional expertise in English language teaching and


learning for speakers of other languages around the world. TESOL isaffiliated with more than 100 associations worldwide, including locations inAsia, Eurasia, Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, and NorthAmerica, with a global membership of more than 52,000 professionals.

In 1999, TESOL published performance-based standards for educators ofELL students (grades P-12). Revised in 2001 and approved by the NationalCouncil for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), the TESOLstandards (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, 2010)address the need for consistency in the United States regarding how teachersare prepared to teach English to students who are speakers of otherlanguages within P-12 schools. Divided into five domains, the TESOLteaching standards address language, culture, instruction, assessment, andprofessionalism. In order for teachers of ELL students to implementeffective instruction, they must understand that:

1. Language is systematic including the processes of first languagedevelopment and second language acquisition;

2. Effective instruction is culturally appropriate instruction, and inter-relationships between language, culture, and race can result in potentialcultural conflicts between school and home, including negative effects ofracism and stereotyping on teaching and learning;

3. Assessment of ELL students, including factors that distinguish betweenthe student’s language proficiency and her/his competence of the contentmatter;

4. Effective instruction of ELL students, which involves planning andimplementing instruction and using technology and other resourceseffectively when teaching content and language objectives;

5. Professionalism is centrally linked with the teacher’s ability todemonstrate expertise in the above four domains. (Teachers of Englishto Speakers of Other Languages, 2010).

In the changing U.S. context, the Obama Blueprint for Reform (2010),which revised the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB Act, 2001) establishedby former President George W. Bush, presented a vision for a federal rolein education that included a priority of supporting and strengtheningprograms for ELL students and renovated the pending reauthorization ofthe Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA, 2001). The blueprintbuilt on four key priorities, one of which included ‘‘Equity andOpportunity for All Students: Meeting the Needs of English Learners andOther Diverse Learners,’’ taking a broader view than the TESOLStandards. Situating responsibility within U.S. schools for meeting the


educational needs of a diverse student population, the blueprint commits toensuring that all students have the opportunity to succeed in college and acareer. Specific to ELL students, the blueprint proposal is committed tosupporting and strengthening programs that implement effective languageinstruction for them, but stopped short of articulating specific teacherqualifications or teaching practices effective with ELL students. Theproposal also acknowledged that ‘‘regular’’ classroom or general educationteachers lack the professional development needed for effectively teachingELL students. In fact, school districts projected a shortage of nearly 56,000qualified English language teachers for the years 2009 through 2014(Honawar, 2009).

Previous U.S. requirements articulated in the No Child Left Behind Act(2001) mandated an equal educational opportunity for all students asarticulated in Brown versus the Board of Education in 1954 and in theIndividuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA, 2004).The No Child Left Behind Act (2001), which was a reauthorization of the1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, stated that teachers of ELLstudents must:

� be fluent in English;� be highly qualified in the subjects they teach;� understand how students acquire a second language; and� understand how to provide instruction that accelerates the acquisition oflanguage, literacy, and diverse content knowledge.

About the same time that the international TESOL organization revisedthe performance-based standards for teachers of ELL students, in the U.S.context the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education(NCATE) adopted new standards, which continue to be revised every sevenyears in the Professional Standards for the Accreditation of Schools,Colleges and Departments of Education (NCATE, 2007). NCATE providesa performance-based accreditation system used by colleges of education inthe United States to ensure that teacher candidates know their subject andhow to teach it effectively. A nonprofit, nongovernmental organization,founded in 1954, NCATE consists of more than 30 national associationsthat contribute towards the standards, policies, and procedures. The U.S.Department of Education recognizes NCATE as a professional accreditingbody for colleges and universities that prepare teachers and otherprofessional personnel for work in elementary and secondary schools. Asof 2009, 25 states adopted or adapted NCATE unit standards as the state


unit standards which influence teacher preparation in 48 states, the Districtof Columbia, and Puerto Rico.

The NCATE standards for teacher learning and professional develop-ment are centered around inquiry focused on P-12 student needs. Tightlyconnected and often overlapping, the five standards address the character-istics of pre-service teachers’ learning experiences illustrated in professionaldevelopment schools and teacher education programs. These standardsinclude:

1. A learning community that is inclusive of student and teacher, learner-centered, and supports the integrated learning and development ofpreservice teachers through inquiry-based practice.

2. Accountability and quality assurance, so that all preservice teachers andstakeholders involved are accountable to themselves and to the public forupholding professional standards for teaching and learning; and allpreservice teachers define clear criteria and collaboratively developassessments, collect information, and use results to systematicallyexamine their practices and establish outcome goals.

3. Collaboration, in which all preservice teachers and stakeholders involvedmove from independent to interdependent then use the results of theirshared work to improve outcomes.

4. Equity and diversity, such that all preservice teachers and stakeholdersdevelop and demonstrate knowledge, skills, and dispositions resulting inlearning for all P–12 students; and all preservice teachers andstakeholders develop and demonstrate equitable learning outcomes forall involved, in particular, for diverse participants and diverse learningcommunities.

5. Structures, resources, and roles are used to support the learning anddevelopment of all teacher candidates and stakeholders; and adjustmentsare made as needed to create new roles and modify existing roles(NCATE, 2007).

Not long after the revision of the NCATE standards, controversy eruptedabout Standard 4, which addresses equity, diversity, and equitable learningoutcomes, with specific debate focused on the role and definition ofdispositions in teacher education (Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb, 2007). Ofparticular concern was the phrase included in the glossary definition,‘‘Dispositions are guided by beliefs and attitudes related to values such ascaring, fairness, honesty, responsibility, and social justice’’ (NCATE, 2006,p. 53). Arguments raged for and against the role of dispositions, theinclusion of dispositions in the standards, and the topic of social justice


relevant to teachers’ dispositions. Opponents argued that there is not a bodyof evidence linking dispositions to teacher effectiveness. Opponents claimedthat a disposition standard for social justice could be used to rejectapplicants based on ideological beliefs in conflict with the university’s schoolof education. Supporters, on the other hand, asserted that teachers’dispositions are crucial to effective teaching. They charged that teacherswith knowledge and skill also must have the disposition to act on theirknowledge and skill when teaching learners, in particular, learners of diversebackgrounds (Wilkerson, 2006). Proponents argued that the moraldimension of teaching directly links to the need to inquire about a teacher’sdisposition to teach all learners fairly and equitably (Villegas, 2007).Ultimately, it became clear that all involved in the debate about dispositionsfound common ground in their agreement that teacher education programsneed to prepare teachers who can effectively teach all learners fairly andequitably.

In what ways has teacher education adapted in order to prepare teachersto teach all students, in particular, students from diverse backgrounds andabilities, including ELL students? In Chapter Three, we provide a conciseoverview of the research on teacher education to prepare teachers toeffectively teach and interact with a diverse student population. Forpurposes of overview here, in the U.S. context, many schools of educationused the standards movement to transform and redesign their programs. Inthe early- to mid-1990s, teacher education curricula in the United Stateswere revised to include ‘‘stand alone’’ courses to support interculturalteaching competence or redesigned to include course content and fieldexperiences to support teachers’ development of sociocultural consciousness(Sleeter, 2001). During this time, numerous teacher education programs alsomerged general education and special education programs. By the early-2000s, teacher education programs widely emphasized the goal of ‘‘socialjustice teacher education’’—to the point that most U.S. teacher educationprograms claimed to have a program that prepared teachers for socialjustice (Zeichner, 2006).

Despite the promising changes put into place by teacher educationprograms, the goal of preparing teachers to effectively teach all studentscontinues to remain illusive. In early 2010, the inaugural issue for a neweditorial team of the U.S.-based Journal of Teacher Education (JTE),asserted that ‘‘Teacher education has been struggling with the centralchallenge of preparing and retaining sufficient numbers of high-qualityteachers who can work effectively with students from diverse cultural andracial backgrounds’’ (Wang, Spalding, Odell, Klecka, & Lin, 2010, p. 3).


The need for teachers who can provide a diverse student population witheffective instruction persists, and so does the commitment to make sure thisoccurs. In the same commentary, the JTE editors further maintained that,‘‘It is vitally important for teacher educators to help teacher educationstudents [preservice teachers] develop a deeper understanding of the priorknowledge of students from diverse backgrounds as well as how they learn’’(p. 9). There is no question of the profession’s goal, but clearly the task ofpreparing teachers for a diverse student population is an arduous andelusive one.

On the global front, recent changes have been made in teacher educationin response to current contexts and the cultural incongruence between theglobal teaching population and the population of school-age learners.Similar to the demands in the United States, there is a pressing need globallyfor teachers to interact effectively with students and their parents who speaka different language and have different value systems, cultural norms, andreligious beliefs. According to Futrell (2010), many countries outside of theUnited States have begun to restructure their teacher education programs tobetter prepare teachers for the current context and demands. For example,as previously noted, efforts are underway in London to increase the numberof teachers from diverse backgrounds. Additionally, teacher educationreform has been launched to ensure that all of London’s teachers areequipped with the skills to teach diverse student populations. Redesign ofteacher education addressed in the Bologna Accord articulated that teachersmust now have the equivalent of a master’s degree for initial certification ‘‘inhand’’ by 2010 (Walther & Boetticher, 2008) and demonstrate the ability touse technology to enrich the teaching and learning in their classrooms. InFinland, which is known for having one of the outstanding educationalsystems in the world, the teacher education curriculum has been redesignedto focus on communication and language, pedagogical studies, academicdisciplines, research studies, and technology studies. Additionally, theredesign includes specific content to ensure that teachers gained knowledgeabout changes new to Finnish society (Niemi & Jakku-Sihvonen, 2006).

What do we know about teachers’ readiness to teach a diverse studentpopulation with diverse needs, and ELL students in particular? Teachersself-report an uncertainty and discomfort in teaching students from diversecultural backgrounds. Furthermore, in a survey completed by Villa andThousand (2005), researchers reported that nearly 80% of the teacherssurveyed stated they did not feel adequately prepared to meet academic andbehavioral needs of a diverse student population. Irvine (2009) maintainedthat while many teachers have a cursory understanding of culturally relevant


pedagogy and a desire to see it succeed in their classrooms, their efforts tomeaningfully bridge cultural gaps fall short. Also alarming are findings thatEuropean-American preservice teachers admit to having limited knowledgeof historical contributions made by individuals whose backgrounds differfrom those of the dominant, mainstream U.S. culture (Taylor & Sobel,2001). What’s more, teacher education researchers report a growing body ofevidence that teachers hold negative perceptions towards the students theyteach who are of diverse cultural backgrounds (Gay, 2010a) and deficit-based explanations of students of color and low-income students (Howard,2010). We further report on teachers’ attitudes and beliefs in Chapter Three.

With respect to English language learner students, reports indicate thatthe majority of teachers who work with students learning English as anadditional language have had limited or no professional development forteaching them, thereby substantiating teachers’ views about being ill-prepared to teach ELL students (Gandara, Maxwell-Jolly, & Driscoll, 2005;NCES, 2002). Tellez and Waxman (2006) reported that almost 50% of theteachers in the United States who teach ELL students lack preparation inhow to teach them. Given these reports, it is not surprising that there is ascarcity of teachers prepared to respond to the needs of ELL students(Wong-Fillmore & Snow, 2002). This shortage includes general educationteachers instructing in ‘‘mainstream’’ classrooms who have had little or nopreparation for supporting ELL students to successfully learn content whilealso learning English (Lucas, Villegas, & Freedson-Gonzalez, 2008). Thisdisparity is not surprising, considering that only about 16% of theinstitutions of higher education require that general education elementaryand secondary teachers be prepared to teach ELL students (Antunez &Menken, 2001).

Besides a large percentage of the teaching pool missing extensiveprofessional preparation in linguistics and cross-cultural issues, teachers donot share common cultural and life experiences with the diverse studentpopulation. Moreover, there is growing evidence that teachers have negativebiases and deficit views towards students whose cultural, racial/ethnicbackgrounds, and life realities are different from their own (Nieto, 2005;Walker-Dalhouse &Dalhouse, 2006; Trent, Kea, & Oh, 2008). An increasingbody of research during the past 15 years shows that preservice teachers enterteacher education programs believing that cultural diversity is a problem to beovercome and that students of color are deficient in some fundamental way. Astudy by Schultz, Neyhart, and Reck (1996) revealed that preservice teachersexpect students of color to have low ability and a limited potential for success.Not surprising, many of these teachers report that they would prefer to teach


in suburban settings in classrooms with students who are White, middle-classyouth (Terrill & Mark, 2000; Zeichner & Hoeft, 1996). Such limitations inteachers’ backgrounds, coupled with their biases and negative attitudes aboutstudents’ potential and ability, can poison teachers’ expectations of students’ability. Teachers’ views can have long-lasting negative effects on students’self-concepts and futures (Villegas, 2007). These discrepancies raise seriousconcerns about the quality of services teachers are able to provide studentsfrom diverse backgrounds and students with diverse needs including ELLstudents.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF CULTURALLY

RESPONSIVE TEACHING

Culturally responsive pedagogy, inspired by principles of social justice andadvocates of multiculturalism, is generally defined as ‘‘using the culturalknowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles ofethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant toand effective for them’’ (Gay, 2010a, p. 31). This instructional practice ofculturally responsive pedagogy—often used interchangeably with culturallyrelevant pedagogy and culturally compatible teaching—involves teachersresponding to students by including elements of the students’ culture and lifeexperiences in their implementation of curriculum and instruction. Inessence, teachers find meaningful ways to make the curriculum relevant tothe learner. ‘‘Culturally responsive pedagogy is situated in a framework thatrecognizes the rich and varied cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills thatstudents from diverse groups bring to schools’’ (Howard, 2010, pp. 67–68).At its core, culturally responsive pedagogy includes the ways teachersthoughtfully and carefully design instruction and act in their classrooms,lessons, and behaviors in order to recognize the uniqueness of majority andminority students with the goal of preparing students to live in a world ofincreasing diversity (Cartledge, Gardner, & Ford, 2009). Yet responsiveteaching is not intended only for students of diverse backgrounds and needs.Culturally responsive pedagogy exemplifies a commitment to reach alllearners, including those from varied cultural, racial/ethnic, linguistic,religious, ability, and socioeconomic backgrounds as well as those studentswho are of Western, European-American backgrounds raised in themainstream U.S. English-speaking culture.

Grounded in sociocultural learning theory, culturally responsive peda-gogy is seen as a contextual and situational process for both the learner and


the teacher. Drawing heavily on the works of Vygotsky (1978), socioculturaltheory provides insights for how culture contributes to learning and humanbehavior. This theoretical perspective (1) views learning as a process ofappropriating tools for thinking; and (2) assumes that children’s develop-ment cannot be understood by solely observing the individual. Instead, wemust study the context of children’s participation in activities that involvecognitive and communicative functions. This situational and contextuallearning prompts our attention towards the cognitive and communicativeprocesses that occur in authentic situations and activities similar to thosethat learners experience and make sense of on a daily basis, such as problem-solving, expressing likes and dislikes, and making sense of new and existingknowledge (Brown, Collines, & Duguid, 1989). Pertinent factors such ascontext, setting, resources, participants, interactions, intercommunicationsall contribute towards one’s understanding of the learning and behavior. InChapter Two, we provide a thorough overview of sociocultural learningtheory and its underlying assumptions that reflect the theoretical, practical,and research knowledge on which this book is grounded.

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN EDUCATION

Several educational reforms served as precursors to culturally responsivepedagogy, one of which is social justice education. Not without controversiesrelevant to socially just teaching and teacher education, social justice is acentral element of a democracy and calls for all persons to be treatedequitably and with dignity. With its roots in the U.S. Civil RightsMovement and links to movements for freedom and democracy in countriesbeyond the United States, social justice education addresses social andstructural inequities in society and argues for a strong commitment todemocracy in education. Grounded in ideals asserted by Dewey (1933) andrevitalized by Freire’s work to build a democratic, participatory society,social justice education promotes respecting the students’ cultural knowl-edge and prior life experiences that they bring to the classroom (Freire,1970). Historically, elements such as race, ethnicity, social class, and genderhave been strong predictors of what benefits students may or may not gainfrom their experience in schools. Social justice education concentrates on theresources, or ‘‘funds of knowledge’’ (Moll, 1994), that individuals, families,and communities bring to daily life and social change. In school contexts,social justice education asserts that ‘‘schools provide equal access to andequal receipt of a quality education for all students’’ (Sirotnik, 1993, p. 130).


Advocates of social justice education are motivated to address the injusticescaused by society’s inequitable structures that limit people’s access to goodsand opportunities, including positive learning experiences and potentialacademic success (McLaren, 2003). Teaching inspired by social justice is anexpansive approach to education with the end goal being for all students toreach high levels of learning that will prepare them for full participation in ademocracy (Villegas, 2007).

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

Subsequent to Dewey’s (1933) ideals of democracy, educational reformsinitiated nearly 40 years ago attempted to influence teachers to be responsiveand respectful of students’ individual differences. While the terminology haschanged over the years and teaching approaches have evolved over time, allof these reforms share common goals and practices. In the early 1970s, aneducational emphasis on multiculturalism emerged. This transition initiateda departure from what Banks (1993) called an ‘‘assimilationist ideology’’which viewed good teaching as being effective with all types of studentsregardless of factors such as students’ race, social class, or ethnicity. Then astoday, many agreed that the view ‘‘good teaching is good teaching’’ presentsa color-blind approach to instruction. Such a view dismisses that a learner’sculture, language, ethnicity, race, religion, ability, gender, sexual orienta-tion, and social status influence the individual’s frame of reference as well asthe perceptions of others—including teachers—who interact with thatlearner. Teachers who support a color-blind approach claim that they‘‘don’t see color; they only see kids,’’ which again negates much of theindividual’s life experiences as a person of color. Moreover, color-blindteachers assert that they treat all learners the same, which often means thatstudents are treated as if they are (or should be) White and middle-class(Irvine, 2003). In Lorde’s (1982) noteworthy study, results showed thatindividuals who adopt color-blind perspective believe that if they ignorefeelings and actions of racism and discrimination, they will overcome them.Such alarming outcomes support the view that we overlook what we do notvalue or that with which we are uncomfortable. Or, to paraphrase: ‘‘Whatgoes unacknowledged ultimately becomes invisible’’ (Trent et al., 2008,p. 346). Given our current understanding of how culture affects learning andteaching, condoning such a view of invisibility would be unconscionable.

The shift towards multiculturalism questioned the appropriateness ofassimilation as the goal for every cultural group, and it linked race,


language, culture, gender, ability, and social class, with the goal of instillinga celebration of human diversity and equal opportunity for all learners.Advocates of multiculturalism articulated an approach called multiculturaleducation (Banks, 1993; Nieto, 1999; Sleeter & Grant, 2008; Suzuki, 1984),based on the rise in awareness of diversity and acceptance of multi-culturalism in the 1970s. Key goals of multicultural education include:

1. Help individuals gain greater self-understanding by viewing themselvesfrom the perspective of other cultures;

2. Provide students with cultural and ethnic alternatives;3. Provide all students with the skills, attitudes, and knowledge needed to

function within their ethnic culture, within the mainstream culture, andwithin and across other ethnic cultures;

4. Reduce the pain and discrimination that members of some ethnic andracial groups experience because of their unique racial, physical, andcultural characteristics; and

5. Help students to master essential reading, writing, and math skills.(Banks, 2007).

A reform effort designed to bring major changes to the education of allstudents, multicultural education outlined several key goals but did notassert a defined method or curriculum. Instead, it suggested organizingcurriculum and instruction around common themes to avoid a pre-packagedcurriculum or ‘‘one size fits all’’ program. These common themes includedan inclusive education of culturally different students that taught learnersabout cultural differences, cross-cultural understandings, and culturalpluralism with the aim of instilling a competency that allowed one tofunction comfortably across multiple cultural contexts. Banks (2007)described five dimensions of multicultural education, including contentintegration, knowledge construction, prejudice reduction, equity pedagogy, andempowering school culture and social structure. To effectively implementmulticultural education, a teacher must attend to each of the five dimensionsof multicultural education. In order to do so, teachers need to:

1. Use content and examples from a variety of cultures and diverse groupsto illustrate key concepts and skills;

2. Help students understand, investigate, and determine the ways implicitcultural assumptions influence how knowledge is constructed andarchived in history;

3. Prompt students to examine racial attitudes and perspectives with a goalof reducing their own tendency to prejudge;


4. Modify their teaching to include a variety of teaching styles that areconsistent with those styles used within various ethnic and culturalgroups;

5. Create a school culture that empowers students from diverse racial,ethnic, and cultural groups. (Banks, 2007).

An overarching goal of multicultural education is to help individuallearners gain a deeper self-awareness by viewing themselves from theperspective of other cultures (Banks, 2002). More recently, Sleeter andGrant (2008) expanded the conceptualization of multicultural educationtowards a vision of social justice, calling it education that is multicultural andsocial reconstructionist. This view of multicultural education builds onFreire’s work to emphasize the need to prepare future citizens to questionand reconstruct society so that it better serves the interests of all groupsthrough democratic decision-making, taking action to work towards socialand structural equality.

CULTURALLY RELEVANT PEDAGOGY

In Ladson-Billings’ (1994b/2009) book, The Dreamkeepers: SuccessfulTeachers of African American Children, the author advanced the conversa-tion about educating students who are culturally, ethnically, racially, andlinguistically diverse. She articulated her conceptualization of a culturallyrelevant pedagogy which supports African American students to chooseacademic excellence and still identify with African and African Americanculture. ‘‘Culturally relevant teaching uses student culture in order tomaintain it and to transcend the negative effects of the dominantculturey brought about, for example, by not seeing one’s history, culture,or background represented in the textbook or curriculum or by seeing thathistory, culture, or background distorted’’ (Ladson-Billings, 2009, p. 17).Grounded in critical theory, culturally relevant instruction assists with thedevelopment of a relevant Black personality and aims for African Americanstudents to choose academic excellence and effect change in society insteadof just trying to fit into society (McLaren, 1989). Teachers who adhere toculturally relevant pedagogy:

1. Capitalize on their students’ home and community culture;2. Empower students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by

using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes;


3. Urge collective action grounded in cultural understanding, experiences,and ways of knowing the world. (McLaren, 1989, pp. 117–118).

In Ladson-Billings’ (1994b) seminal three-year study, students’ standar-dized test scores alone were not the primary indicator of ‘‘good teaching.’’Instead the researcher began with principals and parents—whom shereferred to as the ‘‘consumers’’ in education. After asking principals andparents at one school to identify teachers who demonstrated effectiveteaching with African American students and met educational standards,Ladson-Billings then studied the instructional practices of this set of eightteachers. Not surprisingly, principals used test scores, student performanceand behavior, and student attendance and satisfaction as their selectioncriteria. Parents, on the other hand, focused on teachers who helped theirchildren excel at traditional academic tasks and who instilled a respect forand connection to home, primary culture, and community. The eightteachers comprised five African Americans and three European-AmericanCaucasians who were all female, with a range of teaching experiences from12 to 40 years. Of the eight teachers, six had a culture of reference as AfricanAmerican culture, one had a European-American culture of reference, andone had a bicultural orientation.

Ladson-Billings found that teachers who employ culturally relevantteachingmethods keep the classroom focused on instruction and use methodsthat suggest to students that they are capable of learning. ‘‘When students aretreated as competent, they are likely to demonstrate competence’’ (Ladson-Billings, 2009, p. 133). Teachers who support students to move from whatthey know towards what they need to know, provide instructional‘‘scaffolding’’ that allows students to build on their knowledge and lifeexperiences. Rather than ‘‘drill and kill,’’ the teachers find opportunities toextend students’ thinking and abilities. Moreover, these teachers were able toprovide culturally relevant instruction from the start because of the time theytook to get to know the students in the classroom and the subject matter theytaught. Teachers who know about the students and students who know aboutthe teacher develop a strong commitment to learning because of theircommitment to each other. Ladson-Billings (2009) contends that culturallyrelevant teaching is a pedagogy intended to empower students intellectually,socially, emotionally, and politically by using meaningful cultural referents todisclose knowledge, skills, and attitudes. While similarities certainly existbetween culturally relevant pedagogy and culturally responsive pedagogy,they are distinguished by the researcher’s specific focus. Ladson-Billings(2009) asserted the primary aim of culturally relevant teaching to be assisting


in the development of a ‘‘relevant black personality’’ that allows AfricanAmerican students to identify with African and African American culturewhile opting for academic excellence.

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

Situated within a sociocultural perspective, culturally responsive pedagogygrew out of the cultural difference paradigm, developed in the 1970s and1980s, as a critique of the cultural deficit paradigm. Deficit-based perspectivesfocus on students (1) being devoid of culture; (2) coming from a culture that isoppositional, meaning that educators grounded in the dominant ‘‘main-stream’’ culture perceive students from cultures outside of the mainstream tobe oppositional if they maintain cultural pluralism and reject culturalassimilation; (3) having a language that is a ‘‘deficient’’ variant of StandardEnglish; (4) not being suited for academic success or having a disdain for it;and/or (5) having parents who lack concern for their children’s academicachievement (Alim & Baugh, 2007; Howard, 2010; McWhorter, 2000; Ogbu,1987). Deficit-based perspectives often make it challenging for teachers to usestudents’ prior knowledge, cultural schemas, and life experiences that theybring as a source of strength and potential in the learning environment.Whenteachers take on a deficit-based perspective, they can easily perceive studentsas deficient and disadvantaged culturally (Milner, 2010). In the mid-1970s,Aragon (1973) presented a counterargument to this view, asserting that it wasteachers who were ‘‘culturally deprived’’ because they did not comprehend orvalue the culture of students whose primary cultures were different from theU.S. mainstream culture, and that therefore teacher limitations werenegatively impacting students’ achievement.

Contrary to the cultural deficit paradigm, culturally responsive pedagogyconcentrates on recognizing the knowledge, skills, and rich culturalexperiences that students from diverse backgrounds bring to school. It isa philosophical view of teaching grounded in nurturing students’ welfare,including their academic, psychological, social, emotional, and cultural well-being. Culturally responsive pedagogy focuses on developing vibrantteaching practices, multicultural content reflective of students’ cultural andlife experiences, and multiple approaches to assessment (Howard, 2010). Inthe first edition of her luminous book, Culturally Responsive Teaching:Theory, Research, and Practice (2000), Geneva Gay called into question theoverarching declaration that education has nothing to do with cultures andheritages. She asserted that the Eurocentric frameworks that shape school


practice are not appropriate for all students and reflect an attitude of‘‘cultural blindness’’ (p. 21). Gay defines culturally responsive teaching as‘‘using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, andperformance styles of culturally diverse students to make learningencounters more relevant to and effective for them’’ (Gay, 2010b, p. 31).She called for a pedagogy that would take curriculum and instruction andfilter the content and teaching strategies through all students’ culturalframes of reference in order to make both of these meaningful and relevantfor all students much like what has occurred long-term for European-American, English-speaking, middle-class students.

In what has become a seminal synthesis of the research on culturallyresponsive pedagogy (Gay, 2000, 2010a, 2010b), Geneva Gay centers herwork within the contextual and situational process of teaching. She assertsthat instruction is more effective when students’ and teachers’ priorexperiences, community settings, cultural backgrounds, and ethnic identitiesare considered and integrated in curriculum and instruction. Gayvehemently argues against the view many teachers hold that ‘‘good teachingtranscends place, people, time, and context’’ (Gay, 2010b, p. 23).Alternatively, Gay asserts that good teaching is intricately tied to the class,race, gender, ethnicity, and/or culture of teachers and students. She warnsagainst teachers’ tendency to declare that ‘‘respecting the individualdifferences of students is what really counts in effective teaching, not race,ethnicity, culture or gender’’ (Gay, 2010a, p. 24). While mutual respectbetween teacher and student is certainly important, Gay (2010b) states thata student’s individuality is deeply intertwined with her/his ethnicity andcultural socialization; and teachers need to understand both ethnicity andculture in order to avoid compromising the student’s individuality.Essentially, culturally responsive pedagogy avoids decontextualizing teach-ing and learning from the reality of the learner’s context, which includes thelearner’s ethnicity and culture. When we decontextualize teaching andlearning, we risk creating a schism between the learner’s backgroundknowledge and its potential connection to the content being taught whichresults in reducing the chance that students’ will achieve.

Villegas and Lucas (2002) advanced the conceptualization of culturallyresponsive pedagogy by describing features of culturally responsive teachersas teachers who:

1. Understand how learners construct knowledge and have the skills toassist learners to do this;

2. Take time to learn about the cultures and lives of their students;


3. Use their knowledge about students to design instruction that builds onstudents’ cultural perspectives and what students already know, thenexpand the content and learning to depths beyond the starting point;

4. Affirm students from diverse backgrounds and recognize differences asresources, not as problems to overcome;

5. Are socioculturally conscious, meaning they recognize that there aremultiple ways of perceiving reality;

6. See the self as responsible for and capable of bringing about educationalchange that will make schools more responsive to all students.

With nearly three decades of theoretical and empirical work on culturallyresponsive pedagogy, there exists a growing comprehensive and concreteknowledge base. Howard (2010) articulates five key principles grounding theresearch and theory of culturally responsive pedagogy:

1. A recognition of the complexity of culture and an acceptance andallowance by educators for students to use their personal culture toenhance their quest for educational excellence.

2. An authentic and culturally informed notion of care [emphasis inoriginal] for students, wherein their academic, social, emotional,psychological, and cultural well-being is supported and nurtured.

3. A critical consciousness and sociopolitical awareness that reflects anongoing commitment to challenge injustice and to disrupt inequities andoppression directed at any group of people.

4. Disruption and challenging of the idea that Eurocentric or middle-classforms of discourse, knowledge, language, culture, and historicalinterpretations are normative.

5. The eradication of deficit-based ideologies targeted to culturally diversestudents.

Embedded in culturally relevant teaching is the teacher’s goal andcommitment to actively improve the academic performance of all students.As such, culturally responsive pedagogy is not limited to teachers of color, amyth that persists among experienced and preservice teachers alike. Moreimportant than the teacher’s racial/ethnic background is the teacher’swillingness to deeply examine and get to know self and students, family, andcommunity. Also important is the teacher’s sincere belief in the student’sability to achieve academically and be successful. Equally important is theteachers’ knowledge of the subject content and skill set required fordelivering effective instruction that utilizes students’ cultural knowledge and


life schema, coupled with the teacher’s commitment to effectively teachingall students.

When teachers who are committed to culturally responsive pedagogyteach students who are English language learners, it is important forteachers to understand that students do not learn language in a vacuum, butrather by interacting with others (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010). Languagelearning occurs in social and cultural contexts. In fact, culture is integral tolanguage, literacy, learning, and communication. Teachers who arecommitted to culturally responsive pedagogy take time to learn about ELLstudents’ cultures and lives, and to use this knowledge to engage them inmeaningful learning. Building a healthy rapport with learners can assistteachers as they guide students towards successful school experiences.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we have addressed the overarching concepts and contextsrelevant to culturally responsive pedagogy and the related educationalmovements. Research shows that teachers play a central role in providingeffective practices that enhance achievement for students (Slavin, Karweit, &Madden, 1989) and influence students’ self-concept and attitude (Irvine, 2003).Moreover, research indicates that students from diverse backgrounds relysubstantially on their teachers.While teachers can increase their knowledge andskills of effective instruction for students of diverse backgrounds, if they holdnegative stereotypes about students or doubt their ability to achieve, theirknowledge is worthless. Culturally responsive teachers are committed torecognizing the knowledge, skills, and rich cultural experiences that studentsfrom diverse backgrounds bring to school and nurturing students’ welfare,including their academic, psychological, social, emotional, and cultural well-being. InChapter Twowe address the research and theoretical frameworks thatlay the groundwork for culturally responsive pedagogy.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

Select a school district and one school within the district as your focus.

1. Locate and examine demographic data for the student population in thedistrict. To what extent do the student demographics reflect the largercommunity demographics where the district is located?


2. Locate and examine demographic data for the student population at oneschool of interest. Compare and contrast the district demographics withthe demographics of the school’s student population. What trends do youobserve? To what extent do the school demographic data match thedistrict demographic data? Which demographic data are similar betweenthe district and school, and which are different? Develop a rationale forwhy the similarities and differences between district demographics andthe school demographics may exist.

3. Consider teacher demographics at the school context. Which demo-graphic factors do the teachers share in common with the students in thatschool? Which factors contrast between teachers and students?

4. Reflect on and list the funds of knowledge (Moll & Gonzalez, 1994) thatstudents in this classroom bring with them to the school context.Consider students’ life experiences and practices, areas of resilience,strengths, and broad abilities as you develop this list. In what ways mightstudents’ personal and cultural resources—in essence their funds ofknowledge—connect to curricular concepts and provide real-worldexamples of curricular concepts applied within their daily life?

5. Consider the behavioral and communication practices expected ofstudents attending this school of interest. How are students expected toenter the building? The classroom? How are students expected to passfrom class to class? What are the expectations around communicationand interpersonal interaction between students and teacher? How arestudents expected to ask questions, relay personal connections withcontent, and demonstrate their understandings in class? To what extentdo these school and classroom expectations reveal students’ strengths,broad abilities, and funds of knowledge experienced in their home anddaily lives?


CHAPTER TWO

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

AND RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

Global migration and globalization—as mentioned in Chapter One—havecontributed to a ‘‘demographic divide’’ (Gay & Howard, 2000) thatpresently exists between teacher and student populations in schools across avariety of geographic contexts. As schools welcome students from broadcultural diverse backgrounds, the characteristics of effective schoolingbeckon reexamination. Whether educators realize it or not, culture becomesan invisible road map that directs their personal and professional lives. Withmuch of the school-age population having developed values, expectations,and habits of learning aligned with diverse cultural norms (Banks et al.,2005), teachers and their students may have distinctly different reactions tothe public school experience. It is not uncommon to find teachersunintentionally teaching in ways that do not serve well their students whoare from a diversity of languages, cultures, racial/ethnic backgrounds,religions, economic resources, interests, abilities, and life experiences.

In this chapter, we outline the theoretical framework that provides afoundation for culturally responsive pedagogy. Additionally, we articulatethe underlying assumptions which reflect the position we have taken andprovide the foundation for our research that establishes a basis for thisbook. We believe that decisions about effective instruction for all students—including those students who are from a diversity of languages, cultures,racial/ethnic backgrounds, religions, economic resources, interests, abilities,and life experiences—require a firm grounding in theoretical, research, andpractical knowledge relevant to teaching and learning. Our own research inresponsive pedagogy began in the 1990s. Motivated by a keen interest tosupport classroom learners who are from diverse linguistic, racial/ethnic,

27

cultural, religious, gender, socioeconomic backgrounds, and abilities, wewere heartened to find a sizeable amount of research on the effects ofpreparing teachers to effectively instruct diverse student populations in thepreliminary research review that we conducted at that time. However, wewere dismayed to find few studies that examined the impact of (1)professional development on student achievement; and (2) teachers’preparation relevant to teachers’ classroom instruction interactions withlearners of diverse backgrounds. Spurred by this missing work in the field atthat time and by our commitment to children and teachers in public schoolclassrooms, we generated a research agenda focused on investigating therelation between teachers’ cognition and behaviors associated with high-quality teaching in schools with diverse student populations. Our goal hasbeen to gain an understanding of how teachers adapt pedagogy andcurriculum, and how they adjust their beliefs towards multicultural,multilingual, and inclusive classrooms in ways that assist the academicachievement of all learners.

CULTURE

Pivotal to our work is the perspective that culture is central to schoollearning (Hollins, 2008). A plethora of definitions exist for the concept ofculture generated by a range of fields of study, including anthropology,psychology, sociology, and education to mention only a few. An earlydefinition grounded in the field of anthropology states that culture is a‘‘complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customand other capabilities and habits’’ that are acquired by members of a society(Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1963, p. 81). While somewhat limiting, thisdefinition emphasizes the widely accepted view that culture is somethinglearned and transmitted across generations. Furthermore, culture serves as aguide for interpreting reality. The anthropological construct of culture is animportant place to begin, yet it overlooks the way that culture is realized ineducational contexts and how it influences the learning process forindividual learners.

The social science field integrates sociocultural and historical perspectivesin its construction of culture. This stance enhances the definition of culturepertinent to education as we consider the situation of students who have notachieved academically and whose needs have not been met in schoolcontexts (Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003). A generally accepted conceptualizationof culture in the social science field is the values, beliefs, behaviors, learned


norms, and ways of knowing that people use and act upon in response totheir environment (Trumball, 2001). Evident in this perspective is thecomplexity and pervasiveness of culture. Moreover, culture and culturalfactors are situated in and influenced by social, historical, political, andeconomic conditions, thereby incorporating the presence of power andprivilege. We support and advocate for this pervasive and inclusive view ofculture.

We favor Nieto and Bode’s (2011) broad definition of culture ascomprising the ever-changing values, traditions, social and politicalrelationships, and worldview created, shared, and transformed by a groupof people who are bound together by a combination of factors. Thesefactors can include—but are not limited to—a common history, geographiclocation, language, race/ethnicity, social class, religion, gender, sexualorientation, and other circumstances related to one’s experience. We haveobserved that it is not uncommon for European American native-Englishspeaking middle-class students and teachers in the U.S. context to assertthat they have no culture. In reality, these individuals tend not to notice theall-encompassing nature of ‘‘American mainstream culture’’ since theirprimary culture is the over-arching, dominant culture practiced andaccepted by U.S. society. Nieto and Bode’s (2011) expansive definitionclarifies four key points:

1. no one is excluded from participating in a culture;2. multiple factors simultaneously influence an individual’s cultural identity;3. culture is socially constructed; and4. culture does not exist in a vacuum.

In the context of education, culture is at the center of all we do, includingcurriculum, instruction, interactions, and assessment (Gay, 2010b). Aspreviously mentioned, culture influences how we think, perceive, behave,and communicate—all of which affect how we teach and how we learn. Theschooling process—whether it is situated globally or in the United States—consists of an intricate cultural tapestry. According to Boykin (1994, p. 244),this cultural tapestry ‘‘is profound and inescapable’’ and is grounded inEuropean and middle-class origins that are so ingrained in school structures,programs, and behavioral expectations that they have become the yardstickof what is considered to be ‘‘normal’’ conduct. Pai, Adler, and Shadiow(2006) contend that an examination of the role of culture in human life isessential to one’s understanding of the educational process.

Erickson (2002) asserts that everything in education relates to culture.Culture shapes learning in significant ways. Culture provides insights about

Theoretical Frameworks and Research 29

learners’ tendencies or preferred learning styles, but culture and culturalcharacteristics do not determine discrete attributes that can be assigned toindividuals from particular cultural groups. Research on connectionsbetween culture and learning proved to be a valuable response thatcountered cultural deficit theories developed during the 1960s and 1970s.Theories of cultural deficiency described students of diverse backgrounds asbeing ‘‘deficient,’’ lacking in culture or ‘‘disadvantaged’’ by their culture.Constructed by progressive social scientists in the 1960s, the cultural deficittheory commonly ‘‘blamed the victim’’ for low academic achievement andoverlooked historical and societal structural inequities manifested in publicschools (Bloom, Davis, & Hess, 1965).In the case of the U.S. context, public schools have historically failed to

adequately serve students who are outside of the European American, nativeEnglish speaking, middle-class, nondisabled, mainstream culture (Zollers,Albert, & Cochran-Smith, 2000). Structural inequalities that exist in U.S.society are evidenced in the disparate levels of academic success and thescarcity of resources in the schools located in low-income communities witha high percentage of school-age learners from a wide range of diversebackgrounds. The tendency within schools is for students to experience lessacademic success, to be the recipients of more severe disciplinary actions, toexperience an overrepresentation in special education program, and to betaught by less educated and less experienced teachers compared to schoolslocated in middle-class communities (Agarwal, Epstein, Oppenheim, Oyler, &Sonu, 2010). We further discuss these topics and relevant data in ChapterThree.

Building on the ideals asserted by Dewey (1933) and revitalized byFreire’s work to create a democratic, participatory society (Freire, 1970), agroup of scholars rejected the cultural deficit paradigm and developed thecultural difference theory in the 1970s and 1980s in order to provide analternative explanation. The cultural deficit perspective situates poor schoolachievement squarely on students’ alleged cognitive deficits, suggesting thatbecause students are from a nonmainstream or diverse background, they areintellectually deficient (Riessman, 1962; Hall & Moats, 1999). In its earlydevelopment, the cultural difference theory attempted to bring to light thestrengths and resilience of students, families, and communities from diversecultural, racial/ethnic, and linguistic groups (Wang & Gordon, 1994).Additionally, this theory focused on the discontinuities or differences thatexist between the culture of the school and the cultures at home or in thecommunity of students from diverse backgrounds. The theory of culturaldifference acknowledges that students of culturally diverse backgrounds


bring valuable cultural knowledge, worldviews, and life experiences toschool. However, in the early years, the tendency was for schools to simplifythe concept of cultural differences, thereby reducing culture to a list ofbehavioral traits and learning styles which teachers could attribute tostudents of certain backgrounds. While culture certainly influences one’sworldview, values, beliefs, behaviors, and learned norms, it does notprescribe a predetermined list of behavioral traits or learning styles sharedby individuals of a particular cultural group. Taken to the extreme,descriptions of cultural traits can have an echo of blatant stereotypes.Moreover, in its early stages of development, the cultural difference theorydid little to dispel the misconception held by many individuals who aremembers of U.S. mainstream culture that it is only ‘‘others’’ who possessculture, or who possess the ‘‘wrong’’ culture.

In recent years, a new generation of cultural difference theorists andscholars have conducted research and constructed theories in response toconcerns about the academic achievement of students from diversebackgrounds as compared to their middle-class peers from the EuropeanAmerican, native English speaking mainstream culture. These scholarscontributed to a theory of culturally responsive teaching—also called‘‘culturally relevant teaching’’ by Ladson-Billings (1994b[2009]) or ‘‘educa-tion that is multicultural and social reconstructionist’’ by Grant and Sleeter(2007)—which asserts that the differences between school culture andstudents’ home and community cultures are significant factors relevant totheir academic achievement (Au, 1993; Banks, 1994; Delpit, 1995; Gay,2002; Grant & Sleeter, 1996; Irvine, 2003; King, 1991; Kozol, 1991;Ladson-Billings, 1994b/2009; Moll & Gonzalez, 2004; Nieto, 2010). Thistheory lends optimism and guidance to educators who are committed toimproving the academic experience and achievement of students fromdiverse cultural, racial/ethnic, linguistic, religious, economic, academicbackgrounds, and life experiences. Moreover, it has resulted in valuableresearch about how students’ cultural knowledge can inform teachers’instructional practices.

When teachers primarily conduct instruction from their own culturalperspective, the organizational and interactional structures can seemunfamiliar to students from diverse backgrounds that are different fromthe teachers’. In the view of Irvine (2009): ‘‘When teachers and studentsbring varying, and often conflicting, cultural experiences to the classroom,there is the possibility of cultural discontinuity’’ (p. 7). Similar to the theoryof cultural difference, it is believed that cultural discontinuity can interferewith students’ academic achievement and interactions at school. Studies


focused on cultural discontinuity (Delpit, 1995) have provided insightsabout contrasts between school and home cultures, finding that the core ofthe conflicts between teacher and student revolved around their views ofwhat it means to be ‘‘normal.’’

All things considered, culture is complicated and when situated insociopolitical contexts, not all cultures or cultural knowledge are ‘‘createdequal.’’ In his theory of cultural capital, Bourdieu (1986) describes culturalcapital as those intangibles such as the knowledge, skills, education, orexperiences in life that do or do not facilitate success. Bourdieu’s theoryexplains how different types of cultural capital or cultural knowledge help tomaintain one’s economic privilege and link to social class. Such culturalknowledge is subtle, often unspoken, and hard to grasp, especially withoutrole models who make use of it in their daily life. Such cultural knowledge isvalued and esteemed by members of the mainstream culture in society. Forexample, in the current U.S. context, cultural capital might includefamiliarity with traveling by plane, visiting museums, attending concerts orother cultural events, and accessing the latest technology product (Howard,2010). Not surprisingly, the cultural capital most valued in U.S. schools tendsto be that which is esteemed by members of European American, Englishspeaking, middle-class, ‘‘mainstream’’ culture—including mainstream stu-dents and teachers (Yosso, 2005). Because schools reflect the knowledge andvalues (cultural capital) of the mainstream culture, they reinforce thisknowledge throughout most activities that occur at school, includinginstruction, curriculum, and assessment. For those students who areEuropean American, middle-class, and native English speakers, schoolaligns with what is familiar and consonant with their home culture. On theother hand, for students with diverse backgrounds, they have a wealth ofcultural capital (knowledge), but it may not correspond with the unspokenand subtle expectations of school.

SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Sociocultural theory views culture not as an individual construct situated inan individual’s mind, but as a larger construct that is impacted by externalfactors which shape human cognition (Cole, 1996). Firmly grounded in theworks of Vygotsky (1978), sociocultural theory assumes that children’sdevelopment is better understood through the context of participation inactivities which require cognitive processing and communication, instead offocusing solely on the individual. As discussed by Howard (2010),


sociocultural theorists suggest studying culture as a construct that influencescognition as well as motivation, interactions, everyday practices, world-views, and negotiating our place in the world (Cole, 1996; Guitierrez &Rogoff, 2003; Lee, 2007). By observing one’s thinking, communication, andproblem-solving within situated learning, we can focus on the individual’sprocessing of information that occurs in authentic situations. This is truewhen observing learners and teachers in their authentic contexts of learningand instruction.

Language and communication are integral to culture; the role they play ispivotal in socializing children into their linguistic and cultural communities.Nieto (2002) extends this link and contends that language, literacy, andculture intersect and provide a richer, more complete view of learning.Flippo and colleagues (Flippo, 2003; Flippo, Hetzel, Gribouski, &Armstrong, 1997) assert that the relationship between culture and literacyis bidirectional, meaning that culture acts as a mediator in one’s acquisitionand expression of literacy. Literacy learning shapes an individual’s culturalidentity, and cultural identity influences one’s interpretation, acquisition,and expression of literacy. Each of these examples draws attention to thestriking significance and integral nature of culture, language, and literacy inrelation to the performance of learners and their teachers in the schoolcontext.

Beyond cognition and communication, the sociocultural theory supportsexamining culture as a broader construct that influences one’s forms ofinteraction, motivation, everyday practices, finding one’s place in the world,and the lens one uses to view the world (Lee, 2004, 2007). Teachers andlearners enter school as rich cultural beings with their own personal culturalbackgrounds that influence their perceptions, values, language, andexpectations about what seems right and ‘‘normal.’’ As noted by Delpit(1995), ‘‘We all interpret behaviors, information, and situations through ourown cultural lenses; these lenses operate involuntarily, below the level ofconscious awareness, making is seem that our view is simply ‘the way it is’’’(p. 151). Given that the majority of schools in the United States aregrounded in U.S. mainstream culture and the English language, it is notsurprising that the cultural patterns practiced by individuals from EuropeanAmerican, English-speaking, middle-class backgrounds are deeply ingrainedin schools’ structures and programs to the point that these practices areconsidered the ‘‘right way to do school.’’

Sociocultural and sociopolitical perspectives are firmly grounded on thenotion that ‘‘social relationships and political realities are at the heart ofteaching and learning’’ (Nieto, 2002, p. 5). The lack of common ground and


familiar referents which result in cultural conflicts can cause negativeconsequences beyond academics for students whose culture is different fromthe teacher’s. Gay (2010b) states that test scores are only a symptom for theproblems, not the cause. She contends that scores on standardized tests donot fully explain students’ performance. Beyond academics, one only needsto review school disciplinary referral accounts to gain insights into conflictslinked to cultural discontinuity (Monroe, 2005).

Conversely, Irvine and Armento (2001) contend that there is a long-standing practice of culturally congruent pedagogy implemented in theUnited States. They assert that U.S. schools have a history of successfullyproviding culturally congruent and responsive curriculum, instruction,assessment methods, and behavioral expectations for centuries, but thesehave been responsive primarily to one group of students—those studentswho are U.S.-born, European American, English-speaking, middle-classindividuals. Given such a strong cultural congruence between school andhome cultures, it is not surprising that this group of students has shownhigher achievement scores and positive behavioral records than otherstudent groups.

In Howard’s (2010) thorough discussion of sociocultural theory, hestresses the important emphasis that cultural historical activity theoryasserts within the sociocultural paradigm. The use of ‘‘cultural tools’’ thatinclude artifacts such as language, beliefs, symbols, and cultural knowledgeare essential to the learning process according to the cultural historicalactivity theorists. These ‘‘cultural tools’’ and artifacts are used byindividuals to represent their experience as a cultural being and participant.For example, ‘‘cultural tools’’ and artifacts might include words, pictures,letters, numbers, or books that are all used in one’s daily expression andinvolvement within a cultural context. Building on Warofsky’s (1973)conceptualization of a three-level hierarchy of artifacts, Howard (2010)provides a clear explanation of the various rankings of artifacts included inthe human cultural experience. At the simplest level are words, writinginstruments, and communication structures which humans use for concreteexpression and production. These are called primary artifacts. Secondaryartifacts are less concrete exemplars of culture, such as beliefs and norms.Primary artifacts (e.g., words, writing instruments, etc.) are used in order toexpress or represent the secondary artifacts. Tertiary artifacts are used forthe purpose of making meaning of the other two types of artifacts. Inessence, tertiary artifacts provide an interpretive lens we use to understandthe practices and beliefs of others. In the context of the classroom, whenteachers understand that as cultural beings, we use words (primary artifact)


to express our beliefs or norms (secondary artifact), they can make sense ofthese ‘‘artifacts’’ in relation to student learning and thinking (tertiaryartifact); and can enhance their pedagogical practices for all students. Forexample, in some collectivist cultures where the needs of the group holdpriority over the needs of the individual, students tend not to initiatequestions or responses in class unless they are called on by the teacher. Thiscommunication structure of not initiating communication with the teacherin class is an example of a primary artifact. If the student is called onrepeatedly by the teacher in a single class session, the student mayexperience discomfort as a result of the highlighted attention. Being noticedor ‘‘standing out’’ from one’s peers or the group is in conflict with the normsand beliefs of many collectivist cultures and illustrates an example of asecondary artifact.

A tertiary artifact is demonstrated when the teacher makes meaning ofthese classroom dynamics on her/his own accord or as the teacher gainsinsights about cultural beliefs and norms attached to the in-classcommunication structures described here. Perhaps the teacher gains furtherinsights from a conversation with the student who stops by after class toexplain that she is uncomfortable being called on so often due to thehighlighted attention this brings her. If, by chance, the teacher still doesnot comprehend her concern, the student’s point becomes painfully clearwhen she reveals to the teacher that if the in-class highlighting continuesshe risks being ostracized by her cultural peers outside of class. The teachercan now make meaning of the student’s request that she not be called on sooften. Simply put, teachers with this knowledge of culture and anunderstanding of ‘‘cultural tools’’ can apply the tertiary artifact (aninterpretive lens) to begin to make sense of culturally based communica-tion, behaviors, and interactions. With this conceptual understanding,teachers can thoughtfully dissect students’ words, meanings, and intentionsas situated within cultural confines. For example, in the context of anEnglish language teacher responding to a student’s question, instead oftaking offense to the student’s close physical proximity (‘‘in your face’’)and confident stance, or her directive (‘‘I need to be dis-enrolled from thisclass. I already speak English.’’), the teacher paused and reflected on thisstudent from Spain. He contemplated the student’s words, delivery, andmessage. Despite his discomfort, he reflected on his basic knowledge ofSpanish culture, and concluded that the students’ question and deliverywere consistent with her cultural norms that encourage self-advocacy,confidence, direct requests, and use of close personal space in face-to-faceinterpersonal communication.


UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS

The following underlying assumptions reflect the beliefs on which this bookis grounded and the positions we have taken:

1. Culture is central to learning, language, literacy, and education; it ispervasive in people’s ways of knowing and responding to life; it influencesteachers’ and students’ decisions and mutual interactions.

2. Children arrive at school having been socialized at home in how to uselanguage to acquire the knowledge their community has judged appro-priate for someone at their age.

3. Learning is socially constructed and mutually negotiated, not trans-mitted; learning is influenced by learners’ background knowledge, lifeexperiences, and cultural knowledge.

4. Language, literacy, and culture are interrelated and intersect with thelearning process.

5. All children deserve the opportunity to an equitable and quality education.6. All students deserve access to a curriculum that is relevant and to

instruction that accommodates for their learning interests, abilities, andneeds. This includes instructional planning and practices aligned with apedagogy that is inclusive and equitable in order to facilitate theacademic achievement of all students.

7. Education is not politically neutral; sociopolitical and historicalcontexts influence educational policies, schools, curricular decisions,administrators, teachers, and students.

8. While English is becoming a common language used globally, there isvalue in all languages. Multilingualism is valued and promotes mutualunderstanding; maintenance of one’s native language is a basic humanright.

9. One’s native language is a valuable resource and a useful tool. This isparticularly so when a speaker is adding a new language to her/hislinguistic repertoire.

10. Individuals in today’s world need to be prepared to function in amulticultural, inclusive society within the United States and globally.

In the following section, we underscore the underlying assumptions andtheir implications for instruction.

1. Culture is central to learning, language, literacy, and education; it is

pervasive in people’s ways of knowing and responding to life; it influences

teachers’ and students’ decisions and mutual interactions.


Culture influences how we think, perceive, behave, and communicate—inspoken language, writing, and reading—all of which affect how we teachand how we learn. Understanding cultural components of learning is crucialfor effective teaching; in the educational context, culture is pivotal toinstruction, interactions between teachers and learners, curriculum, andassessment (Gay, 2010b).

2. Children arrive at school having been socialized at home in how to use

language to acquire the knowledge their community has judged appropriate

for someone at their age.

Humans begin learning language, learning about language, and learningthrough language from the moment of birth (Galda, Cullinan, & Strickland,1997). By the age of five, children are eager to learn new things and areasking innumerable questions about their environment. By the age of five orsix, children have mastered most of the conventions of oral language,barring any language delays or conditions that interfere with languagedevelopment.

3. Learning is socially constructed and mutually negotiated, not transmitted;

learning is influenced by learners’ background knowledge, life experiences

and cultural knowledge.

Vygotsky (1978) emphasized the social nature of language and learning,arguing that children learn language in a social context. He contended thatlearning and language development are influenced by interactions withcompetent peers and adults. Often called, communicative competence,children’s develop the ability to use language in order to function in thespeech community where they are raised (Heath, 1983). Even at a youngage, children develop the ability to vary their language use in order to usethe language appropriate to a particular social context.

4. Language, literacy, and culture are interrelated and intersect with the

learning process.

The development of competence in oral language lays the foundation forthe development of reading and writing, which are also systems of language.There is strong consensus among experts in language development thatchildreny ‘‘need a foundation in oral or sign language before they can beexpected to learn to read or to benefit from formal reading instruction’’(Harp & Brewer, 2005, p. 14).


5. All children deserve the opportunity to an equitable and quality education.

Relying on the ideals asserted by Dewey (1933) as foundational, publicand formal education is essential to support a complex and democraticsociety. Public schools are a common denominator throughout the UnitedStates.

6. All students deserve access to a curriculum that is relevant and to

instruction that accommodates for their learning interests, abilities, and

needs. This includes instructional planning and practices aligned with a

pedagogy that is inclusive and equitable in order to facilitate the academic

achievement of all students.

We support the view of culture as a construct situated in and impacted byexternal factors such as sociopolitical and sociohistorical factors in relationto culture’s influence on language and thought. From the stance asserted byErickson (2002) that everything in education relates to culture, cultureinfluences cognition as well as motivation, interactions, and learning (Cole,1996; Guitierrez & Rogoff, 2003; Lee, 2007). When teaching and learningare decontextualized from students’ life experiences which include theirculture, students’ chances of achievement and potential for success areminimized (Gay, 2010b).

7. Education is not politically neutral; sociopolitical and historical contexts

influence educational policies, schools, curricular decisions, administrators,

teachers, and students.

Structural inequalities in society are reflected in our schools. Fewerresources and substandard education are documented elements found inlow-income communities (Kozol, 1991; Rothstein, 2004). Students of non-mainstream racial/ethnic and linguistic backgrounds are overrepresented inspecial education services and underrepresented in gifted education (Losen& Orfield, 2002). These historical patterns have long pointed to structuralinequities.

8. While English is becoming a common language used globally, there is value

in all languages. Multilingualism is valued and promotes mutual under-

standing; maintenance of one’s native language is a basic human right.

While the international TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of OtherLanguages) organization holds as it mission the advancement of excellencein English language teaching, it simultaneously ‘‘values and encouragesmultilingualism in all learners at every age and level.’’ Additionally, TESOL


advocates for individual language rights for all peoples and supportsprograms that foster skills in both the learner’s native language andadditional languages (TESOL, 2004).

9. One’s native language is a valuable resource and a useful tool. This is

especially so when a speaker is adding a new language to her/his linguistic

repertoire.

A crucial and fundamental feature of culturally responsive teaching isthat teachers recognize students’ native languages and cultures as resourceson which to draw in classroom instruction and interactions (Jimenez &Rose, 2010). In today’s global society, being able to speak, understand,and think in a language—beyond English—contributes towards one’sglobal competence that is necessary to function in the globalized world(Zhao, 2010).

10. Individuals in today’s world need to be prepared to function in a

multicultural society within the United States and globally.

During the past 30 years, the modern workplace has changed. Thedemands for those transitioning from the classroom to the workplacehave risen as students around the world now compete with each other forjobs as noted in the Fact Sheet, How does the United States Stack up?(Alliance for Excellent Education, March 2008). A well-prepared andglobally competent workforce is crucial for the future success of everycountry.

CONCLUSION

In Chapter Two we have provided a foundation of the theory supportingculturally responsive pedagogy. We also described the underlying assump-tions reflecting our position on culture in learning, language, literacy,teaching, and education. We support examining culture from a broadconstruct, understanding that culture influences an individual’s perspectives,interactions, daily motivations, communication, and worldview. In thecontext of the classroom, teachers’ and learners’ cultures are essentialcontributing factors in the social construction of learning, which iscontinually influenced by teachers’ and students’ background knowledge,life experiences, cultural knowledge, and commitment to an equitable andquality education for all. In Chapter Three we address the current contextsof students’ academic achievement and teacher education programs.



1. As you reflect on the various conceptualizations of culture presented inChapter Two, select the descriptors and features of culture that resonatewith your view of culture.

2. What is your definition of culture? Develop a preliminary draft of yourown definition of culture and discuss it with a friend or colleague.Describe the process you went through to determine the features ofculture included in the definition.

3. Explain the ways culture influences your perspective on family, learning,teaching, schooling, and success.

4. Compare and contract your definition and view on culture with the broadvalues, beliefs, behaviors, and norms recognized as central to the societaldominant ‘‘mainstream’’ culture.

5. Examine and discuss the underlying assumptions presented in ChapterTwo. Construct your own set of assumptions about culture, learning, thelearner, language, literacy, education, and equity.


CHAPTER THREE

CONTEXTUALIZING STUDENT

ACHIEVEMENT AND TEACHER

EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Culture impacts how we teach, process learning, solve problems, andinteract with each other. As teachers recognize the ways in which cultureinfluences how one thinks, believes, and behaves, they begin to understandthe ways in which culture affects their own teaching and expectations aboutteaching as well as students’ learning and classroom interactions. In ChapterTwo we discussed a theoretical foundation for culturally responsivepedagogy which addressed the pervasiveness of culture along with theinfluence it has on one’s cognition, motivation, worldviews, and everydaypractices situated within authentic contexts of teaching and learning. Giventhat culture is pivotal to all that we do in education, what does the researchabout student achievement indicate? What research focus has been given tostudent achievement when teachers do attend to cultural congruencebetween the students’ families and school? Is student performance impactedwhen cultural links are made to content and instruction? In Chapter Threewe present data on student achievement and the relation between teachers’preparation and student achievement. Regarding student achievement, weconsider factors that impact the disparity in educational outcomes ofvarious groups of students, including those from diverse backgrounds andthose from the U.S. cultural mainstream backgrounds. Additionally, inChapter Three, we address the current structures in place to prepareteachers to teach diverse student populations and the research on the impactof teacher education to prepare teachers to effectively teach students ofdiverse backgrounds.

41

As previously noted, theU.S. school-age population is growingmore diverseacross culture, race/ethnicity, language, academic, socioeconomic, andreligious backgrounds. As a result of such broad cultural diversity, U.S.schools aremore diverse than they have been since the early 1900s, when a largeinflux of immigrants arrived from various parts of Europe (Gay, 2010b). Of the50 million students enrolled in U.S. public schools, 45%were identified as partof a racial/ethnic group (National Center for Education Statistics, 2007).Students enrolled in U.S. schools who speak a language other than English athome number 10.6 million, approximately 20% of the total enrollment. This isa notable increase from data reported in 1995 when 2.1 million of the publicschool students were identified as Limited English Proficient (LEP), therebyaccounting for only 5% of all public school students at that time (Gandara,1995). Data relevant to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1975)show that of the total number of students enrolled in public schools, 6.7 millionreceived special education services. Among those students served 20% areAfrican American, 16% are Latino, 1% are Native American, 2% are AsianAmerican, and 60% are European American (Caucasian). Regarding theeconomic status of students and their families, the U.S. Census Bureau (2004)reported that 23.7% of African Americans, 21.9 of Latinos, 23.2% of NativeAmericans live in poverty, while only 10.8% of Asian Americans and 10.2% ofEuropean Americans do. On the topic of religion, the United States is quicklybecoming one of the most religiously diverse nations, with 18.1% MainlineProtestant, 26.3% Evangelical Protestant, 23.9% Catholic, 1.7% Jewish, .6%Muslim, and 16.1% unaffiliated.

As these demographic changes occur across the entire country, the impactand numbers vary within different regions. In the Western United States,school enrollments have been noticeably influenced by the increase indemographic diversity. For example, enrollment by European Americannative English speakers in Western states hovered at 43% in 2007, while theenrollment by diverse student populations reached 57% (National Center forEducation Statistics, 2007a). This pattern is typical of districts in the Denver,Colorado, metropolitan area, including districts to the immediate north of thecity. For example, sample data compiled fromfive school districts in theDenvermetropolitan area show the following demographics of students enrolled:

� 18% are African American;� 52% are Latino;� 1% are Native American;� 4% are Asian American;� 25% are European American.


Two of the Denver metropolitan area school districts will provide thebackdrop for classroom-based instructional scenarios that illustrate culturallyresponsive pedagogy to be highlighted in Chapters Eight, Nine, and Ten. Whenconsidering statewide demographics for Colorado, data given in a recent newsrelease from the Colorado Department of Education (2010b) show a slightlydifferent view. The CDE data indicate that among students enrolled statewide inColorado public schools, 4.8%areAfricanAmerican, 31.6%are Latino, 9%areNative American, 2.9% Asian American, and 56.8% are European American.

STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

Reading

Recognizing that students from diverse backgrounds bring to school a wealthof cultural knowledge, what are the achievement outcomes for students in U.S.public schools? Using student performance data made available through the‘‘Nation’s Report Card’’ published by theNational Assessment of EducationalProgress (NAEP) and the ‘‘The Condition of Education’’ produced by theNational Center for Education Statistics (2007b), we report on nationalachievement data for reading and math at the 4th, 8th, and 12th grade levels.Current data in reading achievement provide important insights about theevolving discrepancies that exist across the student population in the UnitedStates. For consistency purposes, we use the terminology and labels included bythe NCES report in the figures below. In the narrative, we continue with theterms and labels identified in the introduction of this book. NAEP classifiesfour levels of student proficiency in reading using the following descriptors:

1. Below basic: Students who are at below basic level are able to follow briefwritten directions and carry out simple, discrete reading tasks.

2. Basic: Students who are at a basic level are able to understand, combineideas, and make inferences based on short uncomplicated.

3. Proficient: Students who are at a proficient level are able to search forspecific information, interrelated ideas, and make generalizations aboutliterature, science, and social studies materials.

4. Advanced: Students who are at an advanced level are able to find,understand summarize, and explain relatively complicated literature andinformational material.

At the basic proficiency level, scores show a similar distribution acrossracial/ethnic groups for 4th grade readers. Among 4th graders, 29% of

Contextualizing Student Achievement and Teacher Education 43

African American, 30% of Latino, 32% of Asian American, 30% of NativeAmerican, and 35% of European American (White) students are reading atthe basic proficiency level (see Fig. 3.1). Moving beyond basic proficiency inreading, discrepancies among groups become more pronounced. Scores atbelow basic proficiency reveal a sharp discrepancy between reading levels ofracial/ethnic student groups. Among students reading at the below basicproficiency, 58% are African American, 54% are Latino, and 52% areNative American students compared to much lower percentages of AsianAmerican and European American students (27% and 24%, respectively).

When proficient and advanced reading levels are examined, data show thatamong 4th graders, 13% of African American, 16% of Latino, and 18% ofNative American students score proficient to advanced levels. In contrast,42% of Asian American and 41% of European American 4th grade studentsscored at proficient to advanced in reading. These percentages remainconstant for 8th grade students (see Fig. 3.2) and continue steady for 12thgrade readers (see Fig. 3.3).

Reading is essential to students’ academic success. Reading achievementscores of students in the 4th and 8th grades appear to hold steady; however,

Fig. 3.1. Fourth Grade Readers: Percentage Distribution of NAEP Reading

Achievement Levels by Race/Ethnicity (2005). Source: Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2006b).


the scores of 12th grade students decline. Given the pattern of time spent ondirect reading instruction and time dedicated to actual reading in schools,students’ chances of improving their reading skills decrease as they progressthrough the grades. Reading instruction diminishes once students leave 4thgrade. Results to a survey reported in The Nation’s Report Card (NationalCenter for Education Statistics, 2009) indicate that teachers’ responsesabout time spent on reading instruction reveal that:

� 3% of 4th graders received less than three hours of language artsinstruction per week;� 30% of 4th graders received a minimum of 7 hours of languagearts instruction per week; and� 47% of 4th graders received 10 hours or more of language artsinstruction.

On the other hand, at the 8th grade level, teachers’ responses reveal that:

� 2% of 8th graders received less than 3 hours of language arts instructionper week;

Fig. 3.2. Eighth Grade Readers: Percentage Distribution of NAEP Reading




� 44% of 8th graders received a minimum of 3 hours of language artsinstruction per week; and� 30% of 8th graders received a minimum of 5 hours of language artsinstruction per week.

Math

In mathematics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)classifies four levels of student proficiency using the following descriptors:

1. Below basic: Students who are at a below basic proficiency level havedemonstrated basic addition and subtraction facts; recognize simplesituations in which addition and subtraction apply; and most at this levelcan add two-digit numbers without regrouping.

2. Basic: Students who are at basic proficiency have demonstrated aconsiderable understanding of two-digit numbers and knowledge of somebasic multiplication and division facts.

Fig. 3.3. Twelfth Grade Readers: Percentage Distribution of NAEP Reading




3. Proficient: Students who are at the proficient level have demonstrated aninitial understanding of addition, subtraction, multiplication, anddivision (the four basic operations). They can compare informationfrom graphs and charts; and are developing an ability to analyze simplelogical relations.

4. Advanced: Students who are at the advanced proficiency level havedemonstrated an ability to compute decimals, simple fractions, andpercents. They can identify geometric figures, measure lengths andangles, and calculate areas of rectangles. They are also developing skillsto operate with signed numbers, exponents, and square roots.

In mathematics, the distribution of students’ achievement does not varysubstantially across racial/ethnic groups for 4th grade math students.Among 4th graders, 47% of African American, 49% of Latino, 35% ofAsian American, 47% of Native American, and 42% of European Americanstudents demonstrated basic proficiency in math (see Fig. 3.4). At belowbasic proficiency in math, a discrepancy in achievement distributionsbecomes more noticeable. Among 4th grade students who demonstrated

Fig. 3.4. Fourth Grade Math Students: Percentage Distribution of NAEP Math




below basic proficiency level in math, 40% are African American, 32% areLatino, and 32% are Native American students compared to much lowerpercentages of European American and Asian American students (10% inboth cases). This divergence in achievement continues for those studentswho demonstrate proficiency in math. Among 4th graders who scored atproficient, 12% of African American, 18% Latino, and 19% of NativeAmerican students demonstrated proficiency. Conversely, 41% of AsianAmerican students and 40% of European American students demonstratedproficiency at math. At the advanced level, the distribution diverges again.Among 4th graders, 1% of African American, 1% of Latino, and 2% ofNative American demonstrated advanced proficiency in math. On thecontrary, 14% of Asian American students and 7% of European Americanstudents demonstrated advanced proficiency in math. A similar distributionremains constant for 8th grade students (see Fig. 3.5) and continues steadyfor 12th grade students (see Fig. 3.6).The percentage of students scoring at the ‘‘basic’’ level of proficiency

tended to be similar across student groups, whereas the percentage of

Fig. 3.5. Eighth Grade Math Students: Percentage Distribution of NAEP Math




students scoring at proficient and advance levels diverged noticeably byracial/ethnic groups. This divide was also true at the below basic level. Thesedata are distressing, given that math is a strong predictor of academicsuccess and a requirement for college preparation. While there are clearlystudents of all groups who demonstrate success in math, such findingsprompt questions of ‘‘why?’’ We again look to The Nation’s Report Card(NCES, 2009) and survey results about teaching time spent on math. Surveyresults reveal that: 85% of 4th grade students received four to five hours ofmath instruction per week. On the other hand, 8th grade teachers indicatedthat the percentage of 8th graders receiving weekly math instructiondecreases to 36%. What courses replaced math for so many students? Whatclasses did these students take in place of math? For the students whosemath achievement scores fall below basic proficiency at the 4th grade level,their days of direct instruction are limited as are their chances for enhancingtheir math proficiency.

Fig. 3.6. Twelfth Grade Math Students: Percentage Distribution of NAEP Math




ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ ACHIEVEMENT

Reading

As noted, ELL students constitute 20% of the total number of enrolledstudents in U.S. public schools. How have English language learners (ELLstudents) fared in U.S. public schools? With respect to reading achievement,ELL students at the 4th-, 8th-, and 12th grade levels who are reading at thebasic proficiency level, show similar results across grade levels and across allgroups reported in the previous section (see Fig. 3.7):

� 27% of 4th graders are reading at a basic proficiency;� 29% of 8th graders are reading at a basic proficiency;� 31% of 12th graders are reading at a basic proficiency.

In this case, the number of students whose achievement is at basicproficiency increased slightly with each grade level. At below basic

Fig. 3.7. ELL Students at 4th, 8th, and 12th Grades: Percentage Distribution of

NAEP Reading Achievement Levels (2005). Source: Department of Education,



proficiency, scores show a slight decrease across the three grade levelsranging from 73% of 4th graders to 71% of 8th graders and 69% of 12thgraders reading below proficient meaning fewer 12th grade students than4th grade students demonstrated below basic reading proficiency. Thepercentage of ELL students reading at proficient to advanced is smallregardless of students’ grade level. ELL students who scored proficient oradvanced at reading were limited to 7% of 4th graders, 4% of 8th graders,and 5% of 12th graders.

Achievement levels for ELL students at the basic level tend to becongruent with other 4th graders who are from diverse backgrounds aswell as with European American students. Among all 4th grade studentgroups reported here, about 30% were reading at basic proficiency.Conversely, the distribution of reading achievement levels for ELLstudents at below basic proficiency deviated notably from the studentgroups reported previously. Approximately 70% of ELL students were atbelow basic proficiency regardless of their grade level. This is nearly 10 to15% more ELL students at below basic proficiency than the other studentgroups previously reported. This discrepancy is magnified when compar-ing ELL students with the subgroup of Asian American and EuropeanAmerican students. Nearly 40% fewer Asian American students andEuropean American students than ELL students read at the below basicproficiency level. The percentage of ELL students whose readingachievement was at proficient and advanced levels was 5 to 7%. Of thestudents previously reported, each group had 10 to 35% more studentsachieving at the proficient to advanced levels than identified in the ELLstudent group.

Math

In the area of mathematics, the distribution of achievement varies between4th grade English language learners and ELL students in 8th grade and 12thgrade (see Fig. 3.8). Among 4th graders:

� 54% demonstrated basic proficiency;� 46% demonstrated below basic proficiency; and� .12% demonstrated proficient or advanced achievement in math.

The distribution of achievement for English language learners in 8th- and12th grade is noticeably different from the 4th grade students. AmongEnglish language learners in 8th and 12 grades, 26 to 29% demonstrated


basic proficiency while 71 to 74% demonstrated below basic proficiency inmath which is nearly .25% more 8th and 12th graders demonstrating belowbasis proficiency compared to 4th graders. Similar to the 4th grade ELLstudents, 3 to 12% of the 8th- and 12th graders demonstrated proficient toadvanced proficiency level in math. Regardless of students’ grade level, thepercentage of ELL students demonstrating proficiency and advancedproficiency in math is low. Also, as ELL students advance through thegrade levels, the data support that mathematics becomes an increasinglydifficult challenge. This is especially true for students moving towards 12thgrade. For these students, the percentage of ELL students who achieve atbelow basic proficiency in math, reaches nearly 75%.

Given the reduced number of bilingual programs which began to diminishin the 1980s (Lucas & Grinberg, 2008), ELL students are spending more

Fig. 3.8. ELL Students at 4th, 8th, and 12th Grades: Percentage Distribution of

NAEP Mathematics Achievement Levels (2005). Source: Department of Education,



time with nonspecialist, general education teachers and less time with aspecialist in English as a second language (ESL). Costs associated withproviding services by a specialist in ESL frequently drive school districtdecisions to transition ELL students more quickly out of ESL supportservices and into the regular classroom. Lucas and Grinberg suggest that asa result of these changes, ELL students are spending much of their time ingeneral education classrooms with teachers who have limited or noprofessional expertise in ESL.

ACHIEVEMENT GAP

Much has been written about the achievement gap. Trends reveal that in 4thgrade a similar percentage of students across all groups achieve basicproficiency in reading and math. After 4th grade, however, students’achievement levels noticeably diverge. Do curricular concepts become lessconcrete and more abstract? Does content become more challenging? Areinstructional practices different at the secondary level? When schoolstructures, curriculum, and teachers’ instructional practices align with thecultural norms and values of society’s mainstream culture, how does adiverse student population fare in U.S. public schools?

A number of factors influence students’ decisions to stay in school or dropout. During the 2003–2004 school year, 74.3% of high school studentsgraduated. What do we know about the 25.7% of the students—nearlyone-fourth—who dropped out? Relying on levels of academic success orfailure relevant to drop-out rates, can risk oversimplification of the issue. Inreality, students may stop attending school for reasons beyond academics.Pulled by family needs, students may drop out in order to assist their family athome (e.g., care for younger siblings or an ill family member) or to supporttheir family finances by securing a job. The information reported in Fig. 3.9provides a more complete picture of recent data distributed across studentgroups regarding the drop-out rates forU.S. public high schools (see Fig. 3.9).

TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION

Presently in the United States, there are approximately 3.7 million K-12teachers with an estimated 300,000 new teachers being added each year(U.S. Department of Education, 2008). As previously noted, while thestudent population becomes increasingly diverse, the demographic diversity


of the teaching population is not. According to data gathered from the U.S.Department of Education’s (2008) National Center for Education Statistics(2008) in the Schools and Staffing Survey, the teaching force in publicschools is predominately female (75%), native English speaking, from aWhite (non-Hispanic) background (83%) with an average age of 40. Anincreasing number of teachers are coming from a higher socioeconomicbackground (Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). Regarding racial/ethnic background,of the remaining proportion of teachers, 7.8% were African American,5.7% Hispanic, 1% Asian American, and .8% Native American. Thepercentage of teachers from diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds increasedfrom 13% in 1993–1994 to 17% in 2003–2004. With little in commonregarding culture, race/ethnicity, language, socioeconomic background, andlife experience, how are teachers prepared to engage a diverse studentpopulation in today’s classrooms?

Most teachers continue to be prepared in Baccalaureate programs at publicinstitutions, despite an increasing number of alternative programs thatare enrolling a rising number of prospective teachers (Cochran-Smith &Zeichner, 2005). Nevertheless, with requirements changing at the state andinstitutional levels, it is becoming more common for teachers to graduatewith an undergraduate major in a content area rather than with a major ineducation. However, while they are more likely to have a major in a contentarea, graduates are not necessarilymore likely to end up teaching that content.

Fig. 3.9. High School Drop-Out Rates (For Students 16–24 Years Old) (2005).

Source: Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

(NCES, 2006c).


The preparation of teachers typically follows one of three paths: (a) thetraditional model of on-campus university coursework culminating in amulti-week student teaching experience; (b) an alternative ‘‘teacher inresidence’’ program in which college graduates complete a short coursebefore moving immediately into their own classroom, with subsequentsupervision provided; and (c) a professional development school (PDS)model focusing on a structured sequence of internships that are aligned withprofessional courses collaboratively developed by university and P-12 schoolfaculty. As a result of updated standards and work towards transformation,many teacher education programs—in particular, those based on a PDSmodel—now include a core focus for teachers to advocate for theelimination of societal inequities and delivering effective responsive andinclusive instruction that informs and empowers all students.

Historically, teacher education programs have been organized aroundcoursework and field experiences. Key components of preparation includesubject matter, learner development, foundations of education, teachingmethods, and classroom teaching. In their extensive review of research onteacher education, Cochran-Smith and Zeichner (2005) stated that methodscourses and fieldwork tend to be closely linked with preservice teachers’preliminary field experiences. Frequently, methods courses include assign-ments structured to link theory with practice that necessitate classroom-basedinteractions with teachers and learners. During preliminary coursework andfield experiences, teacher educators typically prompt preservice teachers toexamine their beliefs when these run counter to the research on studentlearning. The structure and duration of field experiences vary according to themodel of the teacher education program. In traditional programs, fieldexperiences consist of an introductory classroom observation and 10–15weeks of student teaching to culminate one’s preparation.

In the past two decades, both alternative licensure programs and PDSinitiatives have transformed teacher education. Alternative licensureprograms were created to offer options to four-year undergraduateprograms and to allow high-need districts to attract recruits directly intotheir district. In alternative licensure programs, coursework is usuallyoffered in a condensed format or in an intense summer ‘‘boot camp’’ modelafter which intern teachers enter the classroom to teach. During their firstyear as ‘‘teacher in residence,’’ interns receive on-the-job supervision andmentoring. The professional development school (PDS) model builds oncollaborative relationships between universities and school district partners.A structured sequence of internship experiences begin at the onset of theteacher education program and are aligned with professional coursework.


The goal of the PDS model is to provide an authentic context wherepreservice teachers can make connections between educational principlesand classroom application.

A consistent and pressing issue in teacher education has been thepreparation and retention of high-quality teachers who can work effectivelywith a diverse student population, particularly in urban school contexts(Wang et al., 2010). In the past two decades, teacher educators have debatedthe conceptualization of teaching for social justice and the approaches forpreparing teachers to make a difference. While researchers have proposedlists of needed dispositions, attitudes, experiences, knowledge, skill setsneeded for teachers to work effectively with a diverse student population(Grant & Sleeter, 2007; Gay, 2010a; Milner, 2010), in the recent review ofresearch on preparing teachers for diverse populations prepared for theAmerican Educational Research Association (AERA), the authors clarifythat few changes have been made in teacher education for cultural diversity(Hollins & Guzman, 2005). Simultaneously, racially/ethnically and linguis-tically diverse students, families, communities, and their advocates areinsisting on being respected and educated for who they are, and having theopportunity for a high-quality education (Garcia, 2002; Gay, 2010a).

How are teachers prepared for a culturally and linguistically diverse studentpopulation? Reviews of the literature note that issues of diversity in teachereducation curricula have generally been delivered in separate courses asoptional or as an ‘‘add-on’’ diversity ormulticultural course (Grant & Secada,1990; Hollins & Guzman, 2005; Sleeter, 2001). Aside from the ‘‘add-on’’content or isolated course, the rest of the teacher education curricula haveremained mostly unchanged relevant to issues of cultural diversity. Thecoursework focused on cultural diversity typically begins with learningexperiences which are centered on reducing prejudice and which are intendedto increase teachers’ awareness and sensitivity to diversity (Hollins &Guzman, 2005). Learning experiences often involve teachers in a study ofculture, an investigation of their cultural and life experiences, and anexamination of their racial identity development. Teachers reconsiderhistorical explanations for racial inequality and examine their own biases ormisinformation towards students and families of diverse cultural back-grounds. There’s limited information about attention in coursework tostudents of diverse linguistic backgrounds or issues of language acquisition.Coursework also includes a focus on creating curriculum and instructionbased on students’ backgrounds using what Banks (2006) calls ‘‘equitypedagogy.’’ Equity pedagogy involves teachers modifying their teaching stylesin ways that will facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse


racial, cultural, and social class groups. Additionally, field experiences areoften organized in ways to enhance preservice teachers’ experiences with andunderstanding of diverse populations. Examples of field experiences includecommunity-based experiences such as working with community agencies,offering tutoring to low-income children, or working as participant-observersin a community study.

What does the research indicate about preparing teachers for a diversestudent population? One area of research centers on teachers’ dispositionstowards and knowledge about culture. Studies point to preservice teachershaving limited knowledge about culture or cross-cultural communicationand limited interactions with students from diverse broad culturalbackgrounds (Taylor & Sobel, 2001, 2003; Terrill & Mark, 2000).Additionally, studies show that (a) many teachers hold lower expectationsfor English language learners and students of other diverse backgrounds(Marx, 2000; Terrill & Mark, 2000), and (b) preservice teachers holdnegative beliefs about individuals who are different from them (Hollins &Guzman, 2005). Research further shows that when teachers hold lowexpectations for their students or believe that cultural diversity is a deficit tobe ‘‘overcome,’’ they often have difficulty teaching in ways that are bothculturally responsive and academically challenging (Ladson-Billings, 1995).Third, research suggests that when teachers approach students from a

‘‘color-blind’’ perspective (e.g., ‘‘I don’t see color, I only see kids’’), theyoverlook important features of students, features that impact students’ lifeexperiences and self identity (Johnson, 2002; Milner, 2010). Studies suggestthat European American education students and preservice teachers expressreluctance to accept responsibility for addressing inequities in curricula orschooling (Case & Hemmings, 2005; Sleeter, 2001; Trent et al., 2008).Another area of research focuses on reducing prejudice of preservice

teachers in teacher education. Studies in this area examined teachereducation practices aimed at reducing teachers’ prejudice or increasingteachers’ sensitivity to cultural diversity. In the recent review of research(Hollins & Guzman, 2005), the majority of studies reported positive short-term impacts of prejudice reduction activities grounded in coursework.Prejudice reduction activities involved using literacy narratives as teachingcases; examining cultural identity development; and written reflections toreadings, discussions, and films. Nathenson-Mejia and Escamilla (2003)studied the impact of using multicultural children’s literature in a fieldworkseminar that spanned a three-year period and that was situated in a PDSmodel of teacher education. The children’s literature was used to groundpreservice teachers’ discussions on cultural diversity. The researchers found


that preservice teachers used the books in their classroom to makeconnections with their students’ lives and to extend students’ verbal,reading, and writing skills. Results also indicated that preservice teachers’attitudes towards their students changed during the three years and thatthey became motivated to teach in multicultural classrooms.

Research examining pedagogy investigated the extent to which teachersimplemented their learning in the classroom context. With a focus on equitypedagogy, Banks (2006) asserts that this type of pedagogy exists whenteachers use methods and materials that support the academic achievementof students from diverse backgrounds. In the AERA review of research(Hollins & Guzman, 2005), many of the studies that were reviewedinvestigated aspects of teacher education courses intended to preparepreservice teachers to provide equity pedagogy in the K-12 classroom.Examples of data sources used in these studies consisted of transcriptions ofclass discussions, journal entries, individual reading logs, interviews withpreservice teachers, lesson plans, case-based teaching, unit plans, interviewswith classroom learners, field notes, videotaped lessons, and email conversa-tions. Two studies, in particular, investigated preservice teachers’ ability toplan lessons using information from students’ cultural and experientialbackgrounds. In a study centered on a literacy course with an eight-week fieldexperience in a school with a diverse student population, Xu (2000) found that20 European American middle-class preservice teachers learned to planinstruction that integrated students’ learning styles, background knowledge,and life experiences. Of the 20 teachers, four self-identified as ethnicminorities and four as being from a low socioeconomic background. Thesepreservice teachers effectively used strategies such asmulticultural integrationand cooperative learning during reading and writing instruction withstudents. In a second study focused on 23 preservice teachers from diversebackgrounds who were taking a course on developmentally appropriatepractices, Morales (2000) found that they (a) acquired an understanding ofcultural and experiential differences; (b) were able to construct developmen-tally appropriate strategies for young children; and (c) gained increasedconfidence to work with children and families different from themselves.Moreover, these preservice teachers reported an increased awareness of theneed to critically examine cultural diversity issues.

In an investigation focused on the extent to which teachers implementedtheir learning in the classroom context (Sobel, Taylor, Kalisher, & Weddle-Steinberg, 2003), we conducted a study of seven preservice teachers during ayear-long internship situated in urban elementary schools with diversestudent populations. Housed in a teacher education program grounded in a


Professional Development School (PDS) model, the internship followed twosemesters of coursework that addressed teaching and learning theory,teaching methods, linguistically diverse education, and inclusionarypractices. Using principles of action research, the preservice teachers wereengaged in reflective journaling aimed at self-study of how their beliefsabout diversity issues were revealed in their classroom interactions,practices, and observations. Results indicated common themes among theways participants took action on their beliefs, including the value of:

(a) Equity in classroom instruction and practices: for example, preserviceteachers’ journal entries revealed insights about their strategic planningefforts aimed at meeting the unique language and learning needs ofstudents using differentiated instruction.

(b) Family involvement and interactions: for example, several preserviceteachers revealed new-found appreciation for the demands faced by theparents of the children and the need for parent-teacher conferences toaccommodate a parent’s double shift and work schedule.

(c) Cultural sensitivity and understanding in classroom instruction andinteractions: for example, one preservice teacher designed a simple surveyfor students to complete with their parents about the family routine andspecial days celebrated by their family. Her purpose was to deepen herunderstanding of students’ background knowledge and lived experiences.

This study prompted preservice teachers to pause, reflect on, andarticulate their beliefs as connected to culturally responsive pedagogy.Preservice teachers critically examined the ways they took action on theirbeliefs within the educational structures and contexts where they taught.The results of this study were consistent with research that emphasizesreflective practice as an effective tool to stimulate thinking, discussion, andproductive action. The reflective journaling provided a structure forpreservice teachers to address their beliefs and actions about diversityissues in a meaningful way.

What feedback do teachers offer about their preparation? What needs,knowledge, and skill sets do they identify as valuable in their preparation towork effectively with diverse student populations? The extensive review ofresearch supported by the American Educational Research Association onpreparing teachers for diverse populations (Hollins & Guzman, 2005)reported on several evaluation studies of teacher education programs. In astudy focused on determining the impact of the program on 26 preserviceteachers’ readiness and willingness to teach in culturally diverse schools,researchers used a questionnaire and interviews at different stages during the


program to gather data (Wiggins & Follo, 1999). Results indicated that whilepreservice teachers perceived that the program had prepared them withinstructional skills for teaching diverse student populations, they were not infact comfortable teaching in culturally diverse classrooms and did notunderstand the cultural norms and expectations of diverse communities. In astudy which we carried out (Taylor & Sobel, 2003), we asked 62 preserviceteachers who were predominantly European American, native Englishspeaking females from middle- to upper-middle-class homes to reflect ontheir preparation, based in a PDS model of teacher education, to effectivelyteach students in multicultural, multilingual, inclusive classrooms. All 62participants responded anonymously to two questions which were one partof a series of studies within a longitudinal investigation. Preservice teacherswere asked: (1) What elements of the teacher education curriculum andpedagogy affected your knowledge and understanding related to classroomcontexts that are multicultural, multilingual, and inclusive? (2) Whatelements of the teacher education curriculum and pedagogy affected yourknowledge and understanding regarding how to provide effective instructionfor learners in multicultural, multilingual, and inclusive classroom contexts?

Results indicated that preservice teachers found value in: (a) guidedexposure to ‘‘real-world’’ broad cultural diversity and cross-culturalinteractions situated in the context of the Professional Development School(PDS); (b) observations of the theory-practice applications addressed inthe coursework and manifested in classrooms in the PDS context; and(c) observations of and interactions with the clinical classroom teacher,who often provided positive examples or, in some cases, negative or non-examples of how to provide effective culturally responsive instruction in amulticultural, multilingual, and inclusive classroom. In addition, preserviceteachers voiced a resounding request for more, that is, they specificallyarticulated a need for more (a) guided exposure to realities and perspectivesdifferent from their own, (b) explicit demonstrations of pedagogical strategiespresented in university coursework, and (c) candid discussions about issues ofrace and the impact of the diversity on learners and school systems.

THE RELATION BETWEEN TEACHING

AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

As it shifts from conceptual theory to grounded practice, culturallyresponsive pedagogy has been examined in numerous instructional settings


with a focus on the instruction of several content areas. Research evidencedemonstrates that culturally responsive pedagogy does enhance studentachievement (Gay, 2010b). This is especially true when achievement measuresinvolve a body of evidence that includes but is not limited to standardized testscores. Extensive research has been conducted that has focused on teachersimplementing culturally responsive instruction in classroom contexts wherethe student population is predominantly African American.

In the area of mathematics, we address two studies, one by Nasir (2000)and one by Ensign (2003). Nasir (2000) investigated the construction ofidentity, culture, and learning to find the relationship between the learner’sidentity and learning integral in math proficiency for African Americanadolescents. Building on the students’ life and cultural knowledge of thegame of dominoes, the researcher found that when students’ manipulatedkey math concepts within the context of this culturally familiar game, theirunderstandings of the math goals were reached. Ensign (2003) investigated ateacher’s lesson on price comparison that had direct connections to familiarcontexts and cultural experiences. The teacher prompted students to collectprices of similar products within the context of familiar neighborhoodstores. Afterward, students used the information collected to conduct pricecomparisons. Results indicated students’ enhanced comprehension of themath concepts taught. For further findings on mathematical achievement,we refer you to Martin’s (2000) analysis on the mathematical experiences ofAfrican American students that is grounded in sociocultural, sociohistorical,community, family, school, and intrapersonal contexts.

In the area of literacy, we highlight two special projects, one of which is theMulticultural Literacy Program that was implemented in grades K-8 in threeschool districts during a four-year period in Michigan (Ann Arbor, Inkster,and Ypsilanti). This project included multiethnic literature with whole-language approaches and a socioculturally sensitive learning environment(Diamond & Moore, 1995). Whole-language approaches emphasize lan-guage, reading and writing as meaning-making systems. These approachesintegrate the teaching of letters and sounds, that is, graphophonics, along withsyntactic, semantics and semantic aspects within reading and writing usingauthentic texts for authentic purposes. The selected literature used in theMulticultural Literacy Program drew attention to contributions of maincharacters from a range of backgrounds, including African Americans,Latino Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and NativeHawaiians and a variety of genre such as folk tales, poetry, fiction, essays,biographies, autobiographies, and song lyrics. Program designers opted touse the medium of literature to ground the program in order to provide


readers with opportunities to: (a) make life connections with issues shared bythe main characters, (b) find solutions to similar problems they haveexperienced, (c) confront social injustices, (d) visualize racial inequities, and(e) live vicariously through the characters. As explained by Gay (2010b) usingliterature in this way resonates with readers’ creative ways of thinking andrecognizing common human experiences shared by individuals of racially/ethnically diverse backgrounds. The program was structured to create asupportive community of learners with a variety of group arrangements andsocial settings for learning such as learning centers, dyads, cooperativelearning groups, and reality-based reading opportunities. Instructionalstrategies used by teachers in the program included read-and think-alouds,directed-reading-listening-thinking activity, readers’ theater, choral reading,reader response, and dramatizations. Indicators of students’ achievementincluded their:

� Increased interest and enjoyment in reading multicultural texts;� Increased positive attitude towards reading and writing;� Increased knowledgeabout forms, structure, functions, andusesof language;� Expanded vocabulary, sentence patterns, and decoding abilities;� Improved reading comprehension and fluency;� Improved writing performance;� Improved self-confidence and self-esteem; and� Increased appreciation of their own culture and others’ cultures.(Diamond & Moore, 1995).

The second literature-based literacy project, called The Webster GroveWriting Project, focused on grades 6–12 in a small suburban economicallyand racially diverse (25% African American and 75% European American)school district in Missouri (Webster Groves, Rock Hills, Warson Woods,Glendale, and parts of Shrewsbury). The project integrated mentorliterature, serving as exemplary texts of distinct writing styles and lifestories from the lives of African American writers. These mentor texts werewritten by authors such as Langston Hughes, Richard Wright, AliceWalker, Gwendolyn Brooks, and Toni Morrison to mention a few (Krater,Zeni, & Carson, 1994).

The project was organized around eight key principles which combinedAfrican American cultural characteristics and contributions with processand literature approaches to writing. These principles included:

� building on students’ strengths;� encouraging cooperative learning;


� using computers;� individualizing and personalizing instruction;� increasing control of language;� building cultural bridges;� enhancing personal involvement with literacy;� expanding personal horizons.

Effects of the project were measured in part by students’ achievement onstandardized tests. At the end of the first year, students’ scores on the districtwriting assessment increased by an average of two points (the mean increasewas 1.6). Scores for AfricanAmericanmiddle school students increased by 2.3points. Scores for African American high schools students increased by 1.7points. Writing assessment scores from the past had shown increases limitedto 1.0 points from grade to grade during an academic year (Krater et al.,1994). The Webster Grove Writing Project continued for nearly five years.During the fifth year, the project used the state writing text to assess studentperformance. In addition to the writing assessment, measures used to assessstudents’ progress included students’ writing samples and teachers’ observa-tion of student behaviors. At then end of year five, 67% of the 8th gradersinvolved in the project scored above the state mean. Overall success of thisproject prompted theWebsterGrove school district to adapt its principles andmethods to mathematics instruction at the kindergarten to 9th grade levels(Krater et al., 1994).

CONCLUSION

It makes simple sense that a relationship exists between teaching and studentachievement. The work on effective teaching practices indicates that startingwith the learner is pivotal to effective teaching. In fact, a foundational partof effective teaching involves teachers placing the learner at the center oftheir design for the classroom environment, plans for curriculum anddecisions about instructional strategies. We provide more detail on effectiveteaching in Chapter Six. In Chapter Four we turn our direction to prioritiesset and supports provided by professional organizations for teachers to beprepared for a diverse student population. Taking a global and U.S.-basedperspective, we overview of how professional organizations provideleadership towards the goal of supporting teachers to equitably prepareall students for successful participation in school and to become involved,active citizens.



1. Collect the most recent available data on students’ reading achievementscores distributed across racial/ethnic groups and for English languagelearners at the school of interest. Examine these data for distinguishingfeatures and trends.

2. Collect the most recent available data on students’ mathematicsachievement scores distributed across racial/ethnic groups and forEnglish language learners at the school of interest. Examine these datafor distinguishing features and trends.

3. With respect to English language learners’ data, inquire about the type,amount and duration of ESL services these students receive. For thosestudents no longer receiving ESL services, investigate when ELL studentswere transitioned out of ESL support services. Compare and contrastthese findings with trends you noted in students’ reading and mathe-matics achievement scores.

4. What type of teacher education program are you affiliated with, or didyou experience in your teacher preparation? Describe the coursework,readings, and learning experiences used by this program to prepareteachers for a diverse student population, in particular English languagelearners. To what extent and in what areas did these experiences prepareyou to teach a diverse student population?

5. What do you know about the cultures represented in the studentpopulation at the school of interest? Identify the cultural knowledge youhave about the three to four predominant racial/ethnic/cultural groupsrepresented in the school of interest. List the values, beliefs, behaviors,and norms held by each of these groups.

6. Consider and articulate what you know or can learn about the cultures’patterns of communication and interactions including how questions areasked and answered. Discuss and reflect on your findings relevant to thepossible ways these students’ cultures may influence their learningexperiences at the school of interest.


PART TWO

PERSPECTIVES AND SUPPORTS

Photo 2. Hallway Flag Celebration.

CHAPTER FOUR


PEDAGOGY: THE STANCE FROM

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Building on an overview of teacher preparation structures and researchimpacting teachers’ ability to effectively teach students of diverse back-grounds in Chapter Three, we shift our focus to an examination of theinfluences of key professional organizations. We examine the work ofprofessional organizations that provide guidance while concurrentlyinfluencing and advocating for the specific learners who are the focus ofthe organization and their members’ work. Given that culture is pervasive inhuman society, no one is excluded from participating in culture. In thecontext of education, culture is at the center of all we do, includingcurriculum, instruction, interactions, and assessment (Gay, 2010b). In thecase of students, they arrive at school with developed cultural norms, values,expectations, and habits of learning. Teachers also approach schooling froma cultural framework, but their cultural norms, values, expectations, andhabits may look very different from those of their students. With a deepunderstanding of culture and the role it plays in life, learning, and teaching,teachers can begin to make sense of culturally based communications,behaviors, and interactions. Teachers can then use students’ cultural framesof reference and background knowledge to guide their instruction andimplementation of curriculum in ways to maximize relevance for allstudents. As educators, our understanding of the individual needs of eachstudent involves learning and thinking deeply about the influences ofnational policies, local school issues, and individual student strengths,needs, and differences that impact our responsibilities as educators. In this

67

chapter, we examine how professional organizations lead national, state,district, and, ultimately, individual teachers’ capacities to equitably prepareall students for successful participation in school and active citizenship.

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Professional organizations are often the first place people turn towhen seekingemployment and/or new opportunities (Raines, 2009). Professional organiza-tions provide platforms for involvement with others committed to the samecause or sharing the same passion. Many organizations offer professionaldevelopment opportunities in the form of workshops, resource banks, andtechnical assistance. Membership in professional associations allows forindividuals tomake an impact and give back to their field.Manyorganizationswork hard on behalf of their members to affect practice at governmental orsocial levels, allowing formembers to have a larger influence on their field. Theprimary aim for professional organizations is to assert a mission thatadvocates for working on common issues and contributing to a unified voice.The experience of working on shared concerns that help members value andpromote their profession and their individual careers are primary aims forprofessional organizations. For no matter what the organization, Raines(2009) points out, it is much easier for an organization comprised of 200members to affect change and leadership than it is for just one individual.

This chapter provides a discussion of the stance that global and U.S.-basedprofessional educational organizations take by highlighting the leadinginitiatives and standards they have put forth to guide and support thepreparation, professional development, and retention of high-quality teachersto work effectively with diverse student populations. Building on an overviewof TESOL performance-based standards and NCATE standards for teacherlearning and professional development (addressed in Chapter One), wepresent here an overview of global and U.S.-based professional educationorganizations. To provide a broad yet focused look into the important workthat leading professional organizations do, we have structured Chapter Fourto include an overview of 12 global andU.S. associations. Since the work thathappens in a classroom directly and indirectly links to the work of aprofessional educational group, we want to highlight:

� What that organization claims to stand for;� How those organizations supports all learners, with a focus on ELLstudents; and


� The supports provided to educators working with students from diversebackgrounds and with diverse needs.

Specific professional associations and centers are profiled as theyrepresent both global and U.S.-based perspectives that advocate forequitable and effective education of students in today’s multicultural,multilingual, and inclusive classrooms. The professional organizations weoverview include:

� Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL);� National Association for Multicultural Education (NAME);� National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE);� National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE);� International Reading Association (IRA);� Council for Exceptional Children (CEC);� Association for Supervision, Curriculum, and Development (ASCD);� American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE); and� Learning Forward.

For organizational purposes, the discussion of those nine professionalassociations is presented within two subgroups: those of (1) teacher-focusedmembership and (2) professional development, supervision, and teachereducation (Table 4.1).

The authors acknowledge the existence of vast professional resources andsupports available from private and federally funded agencies andinstitutions of higher education at national and regional levels that striveto build the capacity of state and local school systems to better servestudents from diverse background and with diverse needs. Three profes-sional centers (the Equity Alliance, the Center for Research on Education,Diversity and Excellence-CREDE, and the Bueno Center) are highlighted asrepresentative organizations that support such important efforts (Table 4.2).

TEACHER-FOCUSED MEMBERSHIP

The Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages organization(TESOL) is committed to ensuring that teachers know, understand, and usemajor concepts, principles, theories, and research related to the nature androle of culture and cultural groups to construct supportive learningenvironments for ELL students. TESOL holds that all pre-K–12 educatorsneed to receive specialized training and preparation in the skills necessary to

The Stance from Professional Organizations 69

Table

4.1.

ProfessionalOrganizationsforEducators.

Professional

Organizations

Mission

Audience

ActivitiesRelatedto

CulturallyResponsive

PedagogyandEnglish

LanguageTeaching

Teacher-FocusedMem

bership

TESOL—

Teachers

ofEnglish

to

Speakersof

Other

Languages

TESOL’smissionisto

developandmaintain

professionalexpertise

inEnglish

language

teachingandlearningforspeakersofother

languages

worldwide.

InternationalEnglish

LanguageTeachers

Bilingualeducation,Interculturaleducation,

NonnativeEnglish

speakersin

TESOL,

Refugee

concerns,Socialresponsibility,and

Teacher

education

NAME—

National

Associationfor

Multicultural

Education

NAMEisdedicatedto

reform

ingeducation

toreflecttheauthentichistories,cultures,

andconditionsoftheglobalcommunity.

Educators,specialists,

businessprofessionalsand

individualsaffiliatedwith

culturalcenters

and

institutionsthatem

phasize

multiculturalism

U.S.-basedheadquartersserves

asaresource

andclearinghouse

forconsultantservices

to

assistwithmulticulturaltraining,research,

inserviceprograms,curriculum

development,

andcollaborativeproblem-solving

NCTE—

National

Councilof

Teachersof

English

NCTEpromotesthedevelopmentofliteracy,

theuse

oflanguageto

attain

full

participationin

society,throughthe

learningandteachingofEnglish

andthe

relatedartsandsciencesoflanguage.

Educators

inEnglish,

Literacy,andLanguage

Artsprimarily

from

the

United

States.

English

asasecondlanguageassem

bly,Gay

straighteducators’alliance,Women

in

literacy

andlife

assem

bly

NABE—

National

Associationfor

Bilingual

Education

NABE’smissionisto

advocate

forBilingual

andEnglish

languagelearnersandfamilies

andto

nurture

amultilingualmulticultural

societybysupportingandpromoting

policy,programs,pedagogy,research,and

professionaldevelopment.

Bilinguallearnersand

bilingualeducation

professionalsprimarily

from

theUnited

States

Asian&

PacificIslanders,Duallanguage

immersion,ELLnew

comersandrecent

immigrants,ESLin

bilingualeducation,

Indigenousbilingualeducation,World

languages

andcultures

IRA—

International

Reading

Association

IRA

iscommittedto

promotingreadingby

continuouslyadvancingthequality

of

literacy

instructionandresearch

worldwide.

Internationalliteracy

professionals

Educators

ofAfricanAmericanstudents,Deaf

andhard

ofhearingreaders,Readerswith

disabilities,andIndigenouspeoples

CEC—Councilfor

Exceptional

Children

CEC

iscommittedto

improvingthequality

oflife

forindividualswithexceptionalities

andtheirfamiliesthroughadvocacy

and

exem

plary

professionalpractices.

Internationalteachers,

administrators,students,

parents,paraprofessionals

andrelatedsupportservice

providers.

Initiatives

relatedto

diversity

andEnglish

languageteaching:ChildrenandYouth

ActionNetwork

(CAN);LegislativeAction

Center;Caucuses:NativeAmerican,Asian/

PacificIslander,AfricanAmerican,

Canadian,Educators

withDisabilities,Gay,

Lesbian,Bisexual,andTransgender,and

Hispanic

ProfessionalDevelopment,Supervision,andTeacher

Education

ASCD—

Associationfor

Supervision,

Curriculum

&

Development

ASCD

developsprograms,products,and

services

foreducators.

Professionaleducators

from

alllevelsandsubject

areas

primarily

from

theUnited

States

ASCD

Actioncenterinitiative;Thewholechild

initiative;

Professionalinterest

communities

include:

AfricanAmerican,Global

education,Hispanic/LatinoAmerican,and

Women’sleadership

issues

LearningForw

ard

LearningForw

ard

believes

thatstaff

developmentim

proves

thelearningofall

students

andprepareseducators

to

understandandvalueallstudents,create

safe,andsupportivelearning

environments,andhold

highexpectations

forallstudents’academ

icachievem

ent.

Professionaleducators

from

alllevelsandsubject

areas

primarily

from

theUnited

States

Partnership

withtheSchoolrenew

alnetwork

at

Stanford

University;Activeengagem

entwith

U.S.congress

mem

bersto

introduce

legislationto

support

effectiveprofessional

learning

AACTE—The

American

Associationof

Colleges

for

Teacher

Education

AACTEpromotesthelearningofallPK-12

students

throughhigh-quality,evidence-

basedpreparationandcontinuing

educationforallschoolpersonnel.

Teacher

educators,teachers,

andschoolleaders

primarily

from

theUnited

States.

TheSouthernPoverty

Law

Center,NCATE

effectively manage culturally and linguistically diverse present in today’sclassrooms (http://www.tesol.org).

The TESOL Standards for the Accreditation of Initial Programs in P-12ESL Teacher Education provide guidance for teacher preparation programsseeking to incorporate content into their courses. The principles conveyed inthose standards are recommended reading for administrators and teacherscommitted to understanding the basic issues of second language acquisition,bilingualism, the difference between social and academic languageproficiency, and the roles that language and culture play in learning. Thisprofessional organization maintains all pre-K–12 educators need to under-stand the ways native language impacts academic and social situationsEnglish language learners face when dealing with the demands ofmainstream education. TESOL upholds that the academic achievementand school completion are significantly enhanced when students are able touse their native languages to learn in school (http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/index.asp). In addition to workshops and international conference meetings,TESOL recommends the use of practical resources such as the ClassroomPractice series. A representative example of this rich resource bankshowcases practical strategies for creating classroom environment andmanagement plans that are culturally responsive in multilingual andmulticultural inclusive classrooms (Taylor & Sobel, 2008) and practicesthat take into account the unique needs and characteristics of adolescents

Table 4.2. Professional Centers for Educators.

Professional Center Center Overview

Equity Alliance Equity Alliance at Arizona State University represents a set of

funded programs that promote equity, access, participation and

outcomes for all students. The Equity Alliance focuses on

supporting the capacity of state and local school systems to

provide high-quality, effective opportunities to learn for all

students, and to reduce disparities in academic achievement.

CREDE—Center for

Research on

Education,

Diversity &

Excellence

The Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence at the

University of California Berkeley is committed to improving the

education of students whose ability to reach their potential is

impacted by language or cultural barriers, race, geographic

location, or poverty. CREDE’s five standards for effective

pedagogy establish ideals forbest teachingpractices forall learners.

The Bueno Center

for Multicultural

Education

TheBUENOCenter forMulticulturalEducationat theUniversityof

Colorado Boulder provides a comprehensive range of research,

training, and service projects that emphasize cultural pluralism.


http://www.tesol.org

http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/index.asp

http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/index.asp

(Dantas-Whitney & Rilling, 2010) that are reflective of a wide range ofeducational contexts across classrooms in the United States, Latin America,Africa, Europe, and Asia.

The National Association for Multicultural Education (NAME) holds thatgenuine respect and appreciation of cultural diversity lies at the foundationof educational practices. NAME works to promote the understanding ofunique cultural and ethnic heritage and the development of culturallyresponsible and responsive curricula. Members of this professionalorganization are committed to working towards the elimination of racismand discrimination in society in effort to achieve social, political, economic,and educational equity (http://www.nameorg.org). To facilitate acquisitionof the attitudes, skills, and knowledge to function in various cultures,NAME publishes a quarterly journal, Multicultural Perspectives, whichincludes feature articles, reviews, program descriptions, and other pieces byand for multicultural educators and activists around the world. Addition-ally, the NAME clearinghouse serves as a diverse and rich resource thatcatalogues books, journals, magazines, parent resources, poetry, stories,speeches, and videos to aid in creating classrooms and communities thatmaximize the potential of all students.

The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) is committed topreserving a student’s first language and its cultural ties, since the firstlanguage is considered a base upon which the student adds control ofEnglish and some familiarity with its literature and the culture withinwhich that literature developed (http://www.ncte.org). This organizationbelieves that educators need to model culturally responsive and sociallyresponsible practices for students by crossing traditional personal andprofessional boundaries in pursuit of social justice and equity. NCTEfurther advocates for supporting linguistically and culturally diverselearners in English language by providing professional developmentsupports that help educators respect all learners and incorporatingstudent’s knowledge and experience into classroom practice. NCTEsupports teachers in delivering instruction to meet these aims withresources such as, ReadWriteThink (http://www.readwritethink.org), anelectronic warehouse for educators, parents, and afterschool professionalswith access to high-quality practices in reading and language artsinstruction. A vast professional library is available to help inform teachingwith the latest research and practical teaching tips. The wide selection ofbooks, journals, and position statements is recommended by both theNational Council of Teachers of English and the International ReadingAssociation.


http://www.nameorg.org

http://www.ncte.org

http://www.readwritethink.org

The National Association for Bilingual Education organization (NABE)

believes that when schools provide children quality education in theirprimary language, they give them two things: knowledge and literacy. Theorganization believes knowledge that students get through their firstlanguage helps make the English they hear and read more comprehensibleand that literacy developed in the primary language transfers to the secondlanguage. NABE believes the combination of first language subject matterteaching and literacy development that characterizes good bilingualprograms indirectly but powerfully aids students as they strive for Englishproficiency (http://www.nabe.org).

Acknowledging the rapidly increasing numbers of English languagelearners in U.S. schools today, NABE supports the publication of practicalguides to understanding and addressing the impact of special educationreferral and classification processes for English language learners. One suchresource, Determining Appropriate Referral of English Language Learners toSpecial Education (McLeod, 2002), provides realistic guidance in usingstudent data to determine if a school has an overrepresentation (orunderrepresentation) of English language learners in special education andways to improve communication with English language learners and theirfamilies.

The International Reading Association (IRA) through its professionalmeetings, conferences, publications, and collaboration efforts with con-cerned organizations and national constituencies assists in promotingcultural diversity and its direct connection to literacy development.Professional development resources and events help teachers access anduse a variety of instructional materials that foster acceptance andappreciation of students and family members from varied socioeconomic,gender, and religious backgrounds. This professional organization supportseducators to understand how the issues of power and privilege affectacademic opportunities and outcomes that often exist among groups (http://www.reading.org). This organization supports the stance that literacylearning is easiest when initial instruction in the child’s home language isprovided and affirms the right of families to choose the language in whichtheir children receive initial literacy instruction. IRA has set a standard onteaching culturally and linguistically diverse students grounded in a set ofprinciples and understandings that reflect a vision for a democratic and justsociety and inform the effective preparation of educators privileged toprovide literacy instruction.

The dynamic IRA chapters worldwide support small and large-scale professional development workshops and conferences where a


http://www.nabe.org

http://www.reading.org

http://www.reading.org

commitment to diversity as a potential source of strength of a society ismodeled. Representative resource materials such as ‘‘Choices ReadingLists’’ are just one example of how the IRA professional organizationencourages the creation of curriculum that values diversity and helpsteacher educators and teachers step outside their personal experienceswithin a particular linguistic, ethnic, religious, or cultural group toexperience the offerings of others. Each year, thousands of students,teachers, and librarians around the United States select their favoriterecently published books for the ‘‘Choices’’ reading lists. These lists helpeducators access books that meet the unique abilities, interests, andbackgrounds of their students.

The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) organization believes inequitable access to and meaningful participation in quality educationalopportunities for individuals with exceptionalities. Their dedicated efforts towork with educators and policy makers at all levels to develop programs,policies, and initiatives help to ensure students with disabilities and/or giftsand talents from diverse cultures receive high-quality educational services.CEC is committed to efforts that promote educational practices thatappropriately identify students from diverse cultures who receive specialeducation and/or gifted services; assessment practices that accurately reflectcultural differences; educational services that provide effective interventionsfor students from diverse cultures; and increase the number of teachers,administrators, and university faculty from diverse cultures (http://www.cec.sped.org).

The increasing number of students identified with a disability must beconsidered in light of the corresponding increases in overall diversitydemographics. Cartledge, Gardner, and Ford (2009) stress this situationcalls for an urgent need to attend to school practices that will supporteducators in minimizing the effects of disabilities in an effort to reduce therisk status for those most vulnerable students. Though active membershipchapters worldwide, CEC supports professional development to improve thecultural competence of all educators through conferences, webinars, andresource materials such as What Every Teacher Should Know About DiverseLearners (Walker Tileston, 2010). This compact volume covers influences ofstudent diversity; understanding diversity in terms of modalities, socio-economic status, race/ethnicity, gender and religion; recognizing the signs ofbias, including linguistic bias, stereotyping, exclusion, selectivity, andisolation; choosing the teaching strategies that make the most differenceby focusing on the learner’s attention, cognition and memory; and settinghigh expectations for learners.


http://www.cec.sped.org

http://www.cec.sped.org

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT, SUPERVISION,

AND TEACHER EDUCATION

The Association for Supervision, Curriculum and Development (ASCD)

provides the educational community access to high-quality learning,curriculum, and instruction. This professional organization believes thatindividuals are obligated to understanding the grave consequences ofpersistent gaps in student achievement and demand that addressing thesegaps becomes a top policy and funding priority. ASCD believes that to closethe achievement gap, all underserved populations—high-poverty students,students with disabilities, and students of different linguistic and culturalbackgrounds—must have access to research-based, engaging, and challen-ging coursework that builds on the strengths and interests of each learner(http://www.ascd.org). This organization advocates for high-quality tea-chers that are meaningfully supported by ongoing professional developmentand provides resources for those supports as well as additional materials forstrengthening schools, families, and communities. Those professionaldevelopment supports include no-cost webinars such ‘‘Myths of SecondLanguage Acquisition’’ which addresses many of the misassumptions thatare made about second language acquisition that lead teachers to haveunrealistic expectations of ELL students. Whether through printed resourcematerials, conferences or online training formats, ASCD professionaldevelopers ensure that evidence-based, practical suggestions are provided toeducators to more effectively teach ELL students.

Learning Forward formerly known as National Staff Development Council

(NSDC) is committed to supporting every educator engage in effectiveprofessional learning every day so every student achieves. Acknowledgingthat schools’ most complex problems are best solved by educatorscollaborating and learning together, Learning Forward believes thatprofessional learning decisions are strengthened by diversity. This organiza-tion addresses equity in education from the perspective of professionaldevelopment by articulating national standards that have been adopted oradapted in 35 states (http://www.learningforward.org). Learning Forwards’ambitious five-year strategic plan is designed to guide its work in the area ofequity issues and narrowing the achievement gap by launching a nationalmovement to enlist schools, particularly those serving students performingbelow expectations, to embrace research-based staff development supports.

In addition to hosting U.S. conferences, Learning Forward membersinfluence thought through discussions with national advisors, membership


http://www.ascd.org

http://www.learningforward.org

in the Learning First Alliance, frequent blog postings, webinar trainings,onsite technical assistance, and interviews with leaders in their publicationJournal of Staff Development and a bimonthly newsletter. RepresentativeLearning Forward resources include work by Caro-Bruce, Flessner, Klehr,and Zeichner (2007) which confronts the challenges of educational inequitythrough the use of action research as a mechanism for raising studentachievement and strengthening instructional leadership.

The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE)advocates for issues of culturally responsive pedagogy and diversity acrossthe organizations broad scope of teacher education. This professionalorganization espouses that institutions of higher education play a major rolein shaping the attitudes and beliefs of the nation’s youth as these institutionsbear the heavy task of preparing each generation to assume the rights andresponsibilities of adult life. AACTE believes that educational institutionsmust provide needed leadership for the development of individualcommitment to a social system where individual worth and dignity arefundamental tenets (http://aacte.org). To realize those aims, the organiza-tion stresses resources must be provided where all teachers and students arehelped to understand that being different connotes neither superiority norinferiority and programs that help students advocate for themselves.

AACTE’s stanceon the use of theELL students’ native languages stresses theuse and development of state and local assessments in content areas that takelinguistic strengths andneeds intoaccount.AACTE’s commitment to culturallyand linguistically responsive education is reflected through important effortssuch as the collaborative partnership with the Southern Poverty Law Center’sTeaching Diverse Students Initiative (http://www.splcenter.org/what-we-do/teaching-tolerance). Other professional development supports includeresources that provide insights into both common and unique educationalneeds of students. Brisk’s (2007) edited textLanguage, Culture, and Communityin Teacher Education addresses an integrated approach to the preparation ofEnglish-as-a-second-language or bilingual teachers and the needs of culturallyand linguistically diverse students.

PROFESSIONAL CENTERS FOR EDUCATORS

The Equity Alliance supports the capacity of state and local school systems toprovide high-quality, effective opportunities for all students and to reducedisparities in academic achievement. This professional center is committed to


http://aacte.org

http://www.splcenter.org/what-we-do/teaching-tolerance

http://www.splcenter.org/what-we-do/teaching-tolerance

inclusive education, valuing diversity, pushing the boundaries of traditionalthinking, and leading by example. The center’s comprehensive professionallearning resources includes print, multimedia, workshops, and leading expertsthat work to create the conditions necessary for change to occur and inclusivepractices to take hold (http://www.equityallianceatasu.org/).

As a part of the Equity Alliance, the National Center for CulturallyResponsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt) has lead initiatives to addressthe disturbing patterns of disproportionality by providing technicalassistance and professional development to close the achievement gapbetween students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds andtheir peers. NCCRESt’s work is designed to increase the use of preventionand early intervention strategies; decrease unsubstantiated referrals tospecial education; and increase the number of schools using effective literacyand positive behavior supports for students who are culturally andlinguistically diverse. NCCRESt has developed a vast library of evidence-based publications designed to assist students, families, school professionals,researchers and policy makers increase equity for all students andunderstand and develop solutions to disproportionality. Tools such as theEquity in Special Education Placement: A School Self-Assessment Guide forCulturally Responsive Practice (Richards, Artiles, Klingner, & Brown, 2005)provide direction to assist educators in creating schools that are culturallyresponsive in their programming and instruction so that optimal achieve-ment might occur for all students. This resources aids educators in thecritical examination and systematic development of improvement plans thatencompass: (a) school governance, organization, policy, and climate; (b)family involvement; (c) curriculum; (d) organization of learning; and (e)special education referral process and programs.

The Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE)

is focused on improving the education of students whose ability to reachtheir potential is challenged by language or cultural barriers, race,geographic location, or poverty. CREDE believes all children can learnwhen challenged by high standards (http://crede.berkeley.edu/). The centerpromotes the ideals that English proficiency is an attainable goal for allstudents, that bilingual proficiency is desirable for all students, and thatlanguage and cultural diversity can be assets for teaching and learning. Animportant facet of CREDE’s work is the development of a pedagogy thathas been proven to be effective in educating all students. The center’s FiveStandards for Effective Pedagogy do not endorse a specific curriculum butrather establish ideals for best teaching practices that can be used in anyclassroom environment. Those standards articulate both philosophical and


http://www.equityallianceatasu.org/

http://crede.berkeley.edu/

pragmatic guidelines for effective education and include (1) Teachers andstudents producing together: facilitate learning through joint productiveactivity among teachers and students; (2) Developing language and literacyacross the curriculum: develop students’ competence in the language andliteracy of instruction throughout all instructional activities; (3) Makinglessons meaningful: connect curriculum to experience and skills of students’home and community; (4) Teaching complex thinking: challenge studentstowards cognitive complexity; and (5) Teaching through conversation:engage students through dialogue, especially instructional conversation.

CREDE promotes research and provides educators with a range of toolsto help them implement best practices in the classroom. CREDE’s resourcecenter includes books with evidence-based strategies; multimedia presenta-tions showcasing ways the Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy can becustomized in lessons; interactive workshops, online courses designed tohelp teachers improve practices; and a speakers series where work is sharedand policy and practice recommendations are made.

The Bueno Center for Multicultural Education is committed to facilitatingequal educational opportunities for cultural and linguistically diversestudents through the promotion of a wide range of research and trainingprograms. Unique features of the BUENO Center are the implementationof comprehensive multicultural, bilingual, and special education researchand training projects that support individuals attempting to earn a high-school equivalency, undergraduate, graduate, or doctoral degree. Each ofthose programs emphasizes advocacy and respect for cultural and linguisticdiversity (http://www.colorado.edu/education/bueno/).

In addition to teacher licensure and outreach programs, research projectsat the Bueno Center include the Literacy Squared program that provides forliteracy intervention for Spanish-speaking elementary students. Representa-tive resources available through the Bueno Center include the professionaldevelopment series, Educating culturally and linguistically diverse students,which provides current training resources for administrators and staffdevelopers, including suggested interactive activities, handouts, electronicpresentation slides (e.g., PowerPoint), video episodes, and evidence-basedreference materials.

CONCLUSION

Well-educated and well-supported educators are at the heart of educationalequity; yet getting at that heart is challenging work. As Kozleski, Sobel, and


http://www.colorado.edu/education/bueno/

Taylor (2003) explain: ‘‘This work is difficult since it requires an in-depthlook at individual and collective practices that may be unconscious of theirbiases and preferences for certain forms of knowing, being, learning andbehavior’’ (p. 84). Ensuring that teachers are able to effectively teach liketheir students’ lives matter calls for educational leaders to draw upon andmaximize the benefits of professional organizations to build capacity at alllevels in order to bring about sustainable change that delivers positiveoutcomes for all students. School communities need professional learningresources that encourage substantive discussions about the realities ofculturally responsive teaching and evidence-based tools that can guideadministrators and teachers to consider what aspects of their programwarrants strengthening and changing.

Educators, policy makers, and the public rely on professional organiza-tions for direction and sources of support. Help can come in many ways, butthe bottom line is that for educators striving to make a positive differencefor students in multilingual, multicultural, inclusive classrooms they needanswers to the following questions:

� What stance does an organization take on ‘‘diversity’’?� What leadership and advocacy does the organization provide forequitable education of a diverse student population?� What guidance and support does the organization offer to teachers tomaximize their effectiveness with a diverse student population?

Powerfully articulated missions accompanied by rich resources from thevaried professional organizations and centers help to establish high andrigorous standards for what novice and veteran teachers should know andbe able to do; to support teachers and school leaders in meeting the ongoingchallenges of educating all learners; to advance related educational reformsfor the purpose of improving student learning; and to provide an arena forindividuals to make an impact and give back to their field.


1. What professional development resources would you suggest be used tosupport all teachers in working with students from diverse backgrounds,students with diverse needs, and students adding English to theirlinguistic repertoire?


2. What supports will school administrators and staff developers need toenhance professional development processes in order to improveinstruction for students from diverse backgrounds, students with diverseneeds, and students adding English to their linguistic repertoire?

3. Administer a tool such as Equity in Special Education Placement: ASchool Self-Assessment Guide for Culturally Responsive Practice.What dothe results of such a self-assessment reveal about your schools’ ability toensure equitable access to and meaningful participation in qualityeducational opportunities for individuals with exceptionalities?


CHAPTER FIVE


PEDAGOGY: NATIONAL AND

STATE-LEVELS

INTRODUCTION

In Chapter Four, we addressed the importance of what professionalorganizations do and the standards they have put forward about teachers’knowing and providing culturally responsive pedagogy. Professionalorganizations have set forth visions and guidelines regarding culturalresponsiveness to guide teachers’ knowledge and skills in this area. Thischapter will provide a focus on U.S.-based examples of national educationaldirectives that address issues in culturally responsive pedagogy. Our U.S.-based focus will then move to the state-level with an overview of teachingstandards that address teacher competence in valuing an understanding ofdiversity. The state of Colorado is highlighted to provide a realistic contextof ways national directives move from professional organizational levels, tonational-level and to district and community levels and ultimately intotoday’s classrooms. Moreover, Colorado is the context in which the authorswork and conduct research which was highlighted in Chapters Two andThree.

NATIONAL-LEVEL DIRECTIVES

The law known as ‘‘No Child Left Behind’’ (NCLB) (U.S. Department ofEducation, 2001) is the primary statute governing the U.S. federalgovernment’s role in education. Initially passed in 1965 as the Elementaryand Secondary Education Act (ESEA, 1995) it was rebranded as part of itslast major overhaul in 2001, to make its focus the use of standardized test

83

scores in schools, particularly those serving students with diverse linguistic,broad cultural experiences, and academic backgrounds. NCLB focused theU.S. educational community’s attention on closing achievement gapsbetween students from diverse backgrounds (including European Amer-ican), but it included many provisions that created what U.S. Secretary ofEducation Arne Duncan called ‘‘perverse incentives’’ (Dillon & Lewin,2010). Duncan maintains that in an effort to meet NCLB requirements forpassing grades, many states began ‘‘dumbing down’’ student performancestandards, and teachers began focusing on test preparation rather than onengaging class work. In 2010, the U.S. administration called for a broadoverhaul of NCLB legislation, proposing to reshape divisive provisions thatencouraged instructors to teach to tests, narrowed the curriculum, andlabeled one in three American schools as failing.

The Obama administration proposed a Blueprint for Reform (U.S.Department of Education, 2010) to replace the NCLB’s pass-fail schoolgrading system with one that would measure individual students’ academicgrowth and rate schools based on indicators like pupil attendance,graduation rates, and learning climate, in addition to test scores. The newnational target is for all students to graduate from high school prepared forcollege and/or a career. In addition to calls for more vigorous interventionsin failing and low performing schools, this legislation would also reward topperformers and lessen federal interference in tens of thousands of reasonablywell-run schools in the middle. Instead of measuring only the number ofstudents who perform proficiently at each grade level, this new reform aimsto assess each student’s academic growth, regardless of their beginningperformance level. An innovative aspect of this reform holds schoolsaccountable for closing achievement gaps between poor and affluentstudents, as no sanctions exist now for schools that fall short in this area.Under the new proposals, states would be required to intervene even inseemingly high-performing schools in affluent districts where test scores andother indicators identify groups of students who are lagging or stagnating(U.S. Department of Education, 2010).The new reform calls for U.S. states to use annual tests and other

indicators to classify the nation’s nearly 100,000 public schools into severalcategories: approximately 10,000 to 15,000 high-performing schools willreceive rewards and recognition; approximately 10,000 failing or consis-tently low performing schools will require varying degrees of strategic andvigorous intervention from the State Department of Education in whichthey reside; approximately 5,000 schools will be required to addressunacceptably wide student achievement gaps; and approximately 70,000


adequately performing schools will be encouraged to figure out on their ownhow to improve. Issues regarding teacher-quality provisions are alsoproposed, requiring states to develop teacher evaluation procedures todistinguish effective educators, based in part on how their students areperforming. These would replace the law’s current emphasis on certifyingthat all teachers have valid credentials, which some argue (Dillon, 2010) hasproduced enormous logistical roadblocks with little student achievementbenefits. Another key aspect of the proposed reforms aims to tackle the issueof student learning standards. The NCLB law requires states to adopt‘‘challenging academic standards’’ to receive federal money for students inlow socioeconomic areas under a section known as Title I. However, statesare allowed to define ‘‘challenging,’’ and some maintain that standards havebeen set at weak and mediocre levels. New plans proposed requiring statesto adopt ‘‘college- and career-ready standards’’ to qualify under federalfinancial programs (U.S. Department of Education, 2010).

In putting forth those sweeping reforms, PresidentObamadeclared, ‘‘Everychild in America deserves a world-class education. Today, more than ever, aworld-class education is a prerequisite for success’’ (U.S. Department ofEducation, 2010, p. 2). To achieve this goal, the realities of addressing thediverse student population in America’s schools is prominently acknowl-edged: ‘‘The proposal will help ensure that teachers and leaders are betterprepared to meet the needs of diverse learners, that assessments moreaccurately and appropriately measure the performance of students withdisabilities, and that more districts and schools implement high-quality, state-and locally determined curricula and instructional supports that incorporatethe principles of universal design for learning tomeet all students’ needs’’ (U.S.Department of Education, 2010, p. 2). Commitments fromanational-level aregiven to continue and strengthen the federal assistance to ‘‘help schools meetthe special educational needs of children working to learn the Englishlanguage, students with disabilities, Native American students, homelessstudents, the children of migrant workers, and neglected or delinquentstudents’’ (U.S. Department of Education, p. 1). The reauthorizationproposal will provide federal financial support to states and school districtsto support the development of innovative programs that enhance theknowledge base about evidence-based practices, and to scale up thosepractices to improve the achievement of ELL students. These financialincentives are designed to help states and school districts implement high-quality language instruction programs that strategically address issues relatedto dual-language, transitional bilingual education, sheltered English immer-sion, and newcomer transitions to the community.

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: National and State-Levels 85

Leadership at the national-level challenges local U.S. educationalcommunities to embrace educational standards in order to be positionedon a path to global leadership. The national leadership of the educationsector provides incentives for states to adopt academic standards that betterprepare students and creates accountability systems that measure studentgrowth towards meeting the goal of success for all children. The Council ofChief State School Officers (CCSSO) is a nationwide organization thatbrings together the top education leaders from every state in the nation tolead the important work of national policy implementation. CCSSO is anonpartisan, nonprofit organization of public officials who head depart-ments of elementary and secondary education in all 50 states and the U.S.Territories. CCSSO’s promise is to help school leaders and their organiza-tions create a public education system that prepares every child for lifelonglearning, work, and citizenship by focusing on issues that are identified asimportant to individual states (http://www.ccsso.org/). CCSSO providesthoughtful, pragmatic, analysis of the implications and opportunities whichfederal education policies have for state education agencies. CCSSOprepares testimony for congressional committees, analyzes proposed federalregulations, form coalitions with other national education organizations,and educates federal policy makers on the education policy needs of states.Through encouraging collective state action, CCSSO strengthens theinfluence and impact each state has over federal education by unifyingstates around common principles, themes, and policies.

Recent CCSSO efforts have included the release of a set of state-lededucation standards, which include the English-language arts and mathe-matics standards for grades K-12 developed in collaboration with a varietyof stakeholders, including content experts, states, teachers, school admin-istrators, and parents. These professional practice standards are an updateof the 1992 Interstate new Teacher Assessment and Support Consortiummodel standards for licensing new teachers and reflect a standard forperformance that is intended to look different at different developmentalstages of a teacher’s career (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010).Common Core State Standards establish goals for learning that will prepareAmerica’s children for success by providing a consistent, clear under-standing of what students are expected to learn, so teachers and parentsknow what they need to do to help them learn. The standards were designedto be robust and relevant to the real world, reflecting the knowledge andskills that our young people need for success in college and careers. TheCCSSO Model Core Teaching Standards articulates principles of profes-sional practice for all teachers. Hill, Stumbo, Paliokas, Hansen, and


http://www.ccsso.org/

McWalters (2010) explain that revising the core teaching standards wasprompted by new understandings of learners and learning and representsthe collaborative work of practicing teachers, teacher educators, schoolleaders, agency officials, and CCSSO staff. The standards articulate whatteachers should know and be able to do to help each and every studentreach the goal of being college and career ready. A hallmark of this newvision for teaching includes a focus on personalized learning for learnerswith diverse needs and from diverse backgrounds. Hill et al. (2010)acknowledge that ‘‘Inequitable experiences and outcomes persist for entiresubgroups of students, especially students of color, low-income students,students with disabilities, and English language learners’’ (p. 2). In additionto not only recognizing but highlighting those inequities, developers of thenew standards further stress that teachers need the knowledge and skills toindividualize learning for learners with a range of differences, cultural andlinguistic diversity, and the specific needs of students for whom English is anew (second or additional) language. As team developers further stress,‘‘Teachers must have a deeper understanding of their own frames ofreference (e.g., culture, gender, language, abilities, ways of knowing), thepotential biases in these frames, and their impact on expectations for andrelationships with students and their families’’ (p. 3). This stance mirrorskey concepts emphasizing the need for teacher to use culturally responsivepedagogy as noted in Chapter One.

Taking U.S. national-level policy work to each of the states is the nextcrucial step in ensuring the realities of practice. The National ComprehensiveCenter for Teacher Quality (http://www.tqsource.org/) is a national resourcedesigned to be just such a bridge. Since 2002, CCSSO has partnered with theTeacher Quality (TQ) Center to support collaboration between statedepartments of education and higher education institutions to improve thepreparation, licensing, and professional development of all teachers to workwith students who have disabilities, both teachers in general and those inspecial education. The mission of the TQ Center is to develop exemplarymodels for how to build an effective statewide system of preparation,licensure, and professional development for general and special educationteachers of students with disabilities. Funded through the Office of SpecialEducation Programs at the U.S. Department of Education, the TQ Centerprovides states a means through which they can examine their current systemof teacher preparation, licensure, and professional development; identifyareas for improvement; and make initial commitments to a focused reformeffort using the national model standards and state standards as road mapsfor reform. The TQ Center also collects, articulates, and disseminates


http://www.tqsource.org/

common state challenges, promising approaches, and successful strategiesrelated to reform and alignment of state teacher preparation, licensure, andprofessional development systems. They assist states in customizing success-ful strategies to their unique contexts while promoting state strategies ofreform that recognize the contribution of and involvement of multiplestakeholders in creating a coherent, responsive, and sustainable systemwithinand across given states. With over 5 million ELL students attending school inthe United States (Ballantyne, Sanderman, & Levy, 2008), the TQ Center hasproduced an array of ELL resources to support teacher preparation programsand inservice professional development to work effectively with ELLstudents. McGraner and Saenz (2009) describe the key features of effectiveinstructional practices for ensuring that ELL students’ learning of academiccontent is support by empirical evidence and offer the ‘‘InnovationConfiguration for Preparing Mainstream Teachers of ELL Students,’’ a toolfor evaluating training efforts. Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, and Rivera(2006) expand on evidence-based recommendations for policymakers,administrators, and K-12 teachers who seek to make informed decisionabout instruction and academic interventions for ELL students. Theseresearchers provide individualized and class-wide interventions in reading andmathematics for students with second language needs. Given the complexitiesof teacher licensure and the corresponding ELL program models, manydistricts across the U.S. struggle to find enough teachers who are qualified toteach ELL students (Garcia & Potemski, 2009), hence the TQ Center hassupported work to enhance teacher recruitment and retention efforts. Garciaand Potemski (2009) discuss creative and comprehensive recruitmentstrategies for education leaders that includes professional developmentfocused on enhancing familiarity with the language and culture of the ELLstudents, training general education teachers on evidence-based, practicalinstructional strategies, recruiting paraprofessionals, developing alternativecertification programs, extending teacher recruitment efforts globally, andproviding financial incentives to educators to implement these efforts.

STATE-LEVEL DIRECTIVES

Given the varied and unique contexts across the United States, individualstates take national charges and operationalize them in ways that best matchand complement the social, political, and economic needs of the given state.Historically, school districts across the United States have yielded policy-making discretion to their state legislatures and Departments of Education


(Hadderman, 1988). States’ efforts to improve student achievement andteacher performance have diminished local school district controls overfunding, standards, and curricular content. However, local control of theways in which many policies are implemented often rests in the hands of theBoards of Education (a body of elected representatives) within local schooldistricts (Land, 2002). It is those local boards that are charged with directingadministrators’ supervisory and management functions, implementing stateand federal mandates, and setting standards for academic excellence.

Since 1994, ten U.S. states (Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Georgia,Indiana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennes-see) have had over 200% growth in their ELL student population (Office ofLanguage, Culture and Equity, 2010).With this growth has come a myriad ofeducational changes. A profile of Colorado, one of those states with rapidlychanging demographic patterns, is provided to further contextualize theUnited States educational landscape. Colorado is being highlighted becausethe authors’ research and work are here—which include the classroomscenarios to be addressed in later chapters.

STATE-LEVEL CONTEXT: A FOCUS ON COLORADO

To begin with, Colorado comprises a large geographic area ranking 8th inthe United States in terms of total land area, measuring 269,837 squarekilometers, or 104,185 square miles. Also known as the ‘‘Centennial State,’’Colorado is situated in the Rocky Mountain region, surrounded by Utah tothe west, Kansas and Nebraska to the east, and Oklahoma and New Mexicoto the south. The area is famous for the magnificent scenery produced by theplains, rivers, and mountains. The estimated population of Colorado isapproximately 5 million (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). Denver is both thelargest city and the state capital. Important contributors to the state’seconomy include the agricultural industry, tourism, federal facilities, and agrowing technology field (Colorado, 2011).

Official educational leadership began in 1858 when a territorial provisionwas made for a superintendent of public instruction to be elected by popularvote. The responsibilities of the territorial superintendent at that timeincluded the general supervision of schools, making recommendations foruniform texts, reporting to the legislature on the condition of the schools,and preparing a plan of study. When Colorado became a state in 1876, thefirst superintendent of public instruction was appointed; however, the dutieschanged very little from the days of the territorial superintendency.


In 1948 the Colorado State Constitution was amended to provide for anelected state board of education with powers to set up qualifications for andselection of the Commissioner of Education and a professional staff for theDepartment of Education. The first Colorado State Board of Education waselected in November 1950, with the Colorado Department of Education(CDE) serving as the administrative arm of the Colorado State Board ofEducation. CDE serves Colorado’s 178 local school districts, providingthem with leadership, consultation, and administrative services on astatewide and regional basis. CDE is comprised of over 40 units, 25different programs, and 300-plus staff members, all pursuing the Depart-ment’s mission to provide all Colorado children equal access to quality,thorough, uniform, well-rounded educational opportunities in a safe andcivil environment (Colorado Department of Education, 2011).

CDE strives to create a purpose-driven and dynamic system ofeducational leadership, service, and support that focuses on the learningof all students. Since 2007, CDE has used a ‘‘Forward Thinking’’ model,which provides a roadmap for the state department’s work and whichincludes goals that are aligned with national reform initiatives and arefocused to accomplish the work at hand. The organization is designed inways that provide: (1) technical assistance to meet district and school needs;(2) professional development in best practices; (3) evidence-based resourcesto increase achievement for all students; (4) a seamless, collaborativeleadership system; (5) efficient and effective use of federal, state, and privatefunds; (6) an accessible and useful source for research, data, and analysis;and (7) a model for building expanded leadership capacity.

The Colorado Department of Education is dedicated to increasingachievement levels for all students through comprehensive, educationalreform programs. As part of CDE’s ongoing efforts to be more responsiveto all students, teams of experts in specialized areas (Academic Standards,Literacy, Special Education, Language, Culture and Equity, EducationalTechnology, and Early Childhood) provide consultative supports across thestate. With over 100,000 students in grades K-12 identified as ELL students(Escamilla, 2009), this population has grown by over 250% since 1995, whilethe overall K-12 population in Colorado has only grown by 12%. The vastmajority of this population is Spanish speakers; however, there are over 100language groups represented in this populace (Colorado Department ofEducation, English Language Acquisition Unit, 2007). With this changingdemographic, school districts look to CDE for guidance that will help themto best support English learners. CDE’s Language, Culture and Equity teamis committed to providing support to all ELL students, linguistically,


socially, and academically, by providing educational leadership for teachers,parents/guardians, students, and Colorado communities. Needed support isprovided through an array of initiatives, such as the development of aguidebook for Colorado educators working with ELL students (Waterman,2006), a resource that provides realistic information to the field withoutbeing overly prescriptive with respect to any one specific program model.Given that individual school districts have control over the types ofprograms they offer, it is essential that the state department provide state-of-the-art best practices adaptable to variations of program design. Theguidebook provides solid suggestions about how to begin in programdevelopment, assessment, and evaluation.

Based on the leadership and work created by leaders at national resourcecenters such as CCSO and The George Washington University Center forEquity and Excellence in Education (http://ceee.gwu.edu/), the CDELanguage Culture and Equity team spearheaded the cross-unit developmentof a manual to inform Colorado’s school districts about appropriate ELLaccommodations (Colorado Department of Education, 2009). This resourceprovides a five-step process for the English Language Acquisition (ELA)Plan that district and school supervisors, general education and English as aSecond Language (ESL)/Bi-lingual Education (BIED) teachers, adminis-trators, and district level assessment staff can use in the selection,administration, and evaluation of instructional and assessment accommo-dations by ELL students. This resource document is regularly updated anddisseminated state-wide to support professional development.

The Educator Licensing Unit at Colorado’s Department of Education isresponsible for issuing educator licenses and reviewing the content ofeducator preparation program across the state. Guided by the teachingstandards created by professional organizations (e.g., TESOL, IRA, CEC)the department works with the Board of Education and local stakeholders(e.g., advocacy groups, faculty in higher education) in formalizing stateteaching standards and corresponding licensure approvals.

In Colorado all teachers are held to rigorous standards that arestrategically aligned with the content and skill sets associated with domainareas (e.g., elementary education, science education, special education,linguistically diverse, etc.). With respect to a focus on culture and valuing ofdiversity, all teachers regardless of licensure area must be knowledgeable ofindividualization of instruction. This performance-based standard calls forColorado teachers ‘‘to be responsive to the needs and experiences childrenbring to the classroom, including those based on culture, community,ethnicity, economics, linguistics, and innate learning abilities. The teacher is


http://ceee.gwu.edu/

knowledgeable about learning exceptionalities and conditions that affect therate and extent of student learning, and is able to adapt instruction for alllearners’’ (Colorado Department of Education, Professional Standards,2000). For teachers holding a general education teaching license, if they optto add an endorsement in the content of area of Linguistically DiverseEducation, they must complete college coursework (i.e., in areas oflinguistics, knowledge of English, first and second language acquisition,cross-cultural communication, and other languages) and successfully passthe state Linguistically Diverse Education (LDE) exam. Teachers pursuingmore specialized licensure in the area of Linguistically Diverse Specialist:Bilingual Education must first hold an endorsement in LinguisticallyDiverse Education (LDE), complete more advance college coursework inthe areas highlighted above, successfully pass the state Bilingual Educationexam, and hold a foreign language teaching license (Colorado Departmentof Education, Linguistically Diverse Specialist, 2004).Academic reform efforts in Colorado parallel the federal initiatives and

include newly adopted state model content standards that add 21st centuryskills, incorporating early childhood, postsecondary, and workforcereadiness expectations, with plans underway to develop a new teacherevaluation system in addition to a statewide assessment plan (Jones, 2010).Across the state, expanded sets of indicators are being applied, includingstudent academic growth (as measured by the Colorado Growth Model),student achievement levels (as measured by the percent of students scoringat advanced, proficient, partially proficient, and unsatisfactory levels), theextent of achievement gaps based on income and ethnicity, and post-secondary readiness (as measured by graduation rates and results of college-placement tests). In addition, Colorado set in motion new core requirementsand uses for educator evaluations with expectations of student growth beingtaken into consideration for factors such as student mobility and numbers ofstudents identified with linguistic, academic, and behavioral needs.

CONCLUSION

As national policies, legislation, and mandates are formed and moved tostate and district levels, collaborative dialogue is essential to determine howpractices must change to support and advance dedicated visions that relateto learners with diverse needs. The complexities and variations ofimplementation call for the engagement and the voices of the manystakeholders that will be impacted by important reform initiatives. Content


in this chapter has provided a ‘‘real-world’’ view—from national, state,community, and school levels—of mandating and operationalizing cultu-rally responsive pedagogy with special attention to ELL students. InChapter Six, we examine characteristics and qualities of effective teachersand provide practical illustrations with application to the classroom of waysthat the principles of culturally responsive pedagogy are realized.


1. What financial incentives are available or already exist within youreducational community (state-level, district level) to support the develop-ment of innovative programs that enhance the knowledge base aboutevidence-based practices, and to scale up those practices to improve theachievement for students from diverse backgrounds, students with diverseneeds, and students adding English to their linguistic repertoire?

2. What supports will school administrators and staff developers need toimplement evaluation processes (e.g., daily progress monitoring, runningrecords, etc.) that improve student instruction?

3. How might the increased interest and mandates to use formative andsummative student achievement data inform the realities of the teacherworkday? How will insights from collaborative data meetings informteachers’ planning?Howmightmeetings be structured?Howmight teacherevaluation processes be tied to teachers analyzing and using student data?

4. What recruitment strategies does your educational community use tosecure highly qualified teachers of students from diverse backgrounds,students with diverse needs, and ELL learners?

5. What instructional strategies would you suggest be used to support allteachers (across content and grade levels) who have English languagelearners in their classrooms?


CHAPTER SIX


PEDAGOGY: EFFECTIVE

TEACHING

Will I know it if I see it? Can I do it?

INTRODUCTION

The influences that sociopolitical, cultural, and historical contexts have oneducational policies, standards, and curricular decisions are reflected in ourschools. As Freire (1994) taught, no education is politically neutral. Schoolpolicies, instructional practices, curricular content, and culture playinterrelated roles in the education of students in the classroom. We agreewith Erickson’s (2002) assertion that everything in education relates toculture which in turn shapes aspects surrounding teaching and learning. InChapter Five, we provided an overview of influences on education at thenational and state levels, including directives intended to guide effectiveteaching for students of diverse backgrounds and teachers’ competence todemonstrate a valuing of diversity. At the state level, Colorado served as arealistic context and provided insights to the ways national directivesinfluence state level initiatives. In this chapter, we turn our sights to theclassroom and effective teaching—in particular, teaching that is effective fora diverse student population with specific attention to English languagelearners. We begin by taking a glimpse at the practices of highly effectiveclassroom teachers. What practices have been identified as essential tohighly effective teaching for classroom teachers? How do the practices forhighly effective teaching compare with culturally responsive teachingpractices? Which of these practices are effective and responsive to Englishlanguage learners?

Before we turn our focus to teaching that is effective for a diversestudent population with specific attention to English language learners, welook to the comprehensive work on effective teaching models that

95

generate meaningful student understanding. In Darling-Hammond’s(2008) discussion of principles of learning for effective teaching, sheasserts that in order to focus on teaching, we need to consider what weknow about learning and the learner. She references the NationalAcademy of Sciences report (Donovan & Bransford, 2005), whichaddresses how students learn. The report articulates three fundamentalprinciples of learning that are especially important for effective teaching.These principles include:

1. Students arrive to the classroom with prior knowledge that must beaddressed by the teacher for teaching to be effective;

2. Students need to organize and use knowledge conceptually if they are toapply it beyond the classroom, thereby transferring it to new content orsituations in meaningful ways;

3. Students learn more effectively if they understand (a) how they learn andwhat learning strategies they tend to use; and (b) how to manage theirown learning and what learning strategies work best for them in differentcontent areas.

In other words, starting with the learner is pivotal to effective teaching.Teachers who inquire about students’ prior knowledge and use thisinformation to engage learners as they deliver instruction can effectivelysupport learners’ grasp of new concepts and content in ways to ensure reallearning. A foundational part of effective teaching includes the need forteachers to gather and use learners’ background knowledge and priorexperiences as they:

� plan to implement curriculum;� make decisions about instructional strategies; and� design the classroom environment for a particular group of learners toengage as a community of learning where the teachers’ instruction can beeffective.

With respect to the learner, what elements contribute to a students’background knowledge and prior experiences? Home life? Language?Cultural values and expectations? Gender roles? Racial/ethnic membership?How society receives and reacts to students based on their racial/ethnicmembership? Socioeconomic background? Religion? Community andneighborhood experiences and practices? All of the above?


In her text on ‘‘power learning’’ and effective teaching, Darling-Hammond(2008) states:

When students from a variety of cultural contexts and language backgrounds come to

school with their own experiences, they present distinct preconceptions and knowledge

bases that teachers must learn about and take into account in designing instruction.

Teachers who are successful with all learners must be able to address their many ways of

learning, prior experiences, and knowledge, and cultural and linguistic capital. (p. 4)

Undoubtedly, for effective teaching to occur, teachers grasp that all of theaforementioned elements contribute to the learner’s background knowledgeand prior experiences. This preliminary information-gathering effort, whichis crucial to effective teaching, may prove to be a less complex process whenthe teacher shares the learner’s native language, primary culture, culturalvalues and expectations, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic background, reli-gion, and community practices compared to when teacher and learner arefrom disparate backgrounds and cultural frames of reference. However,when a teacher’s goal is to provide effective teaching, taking time to inquireand learn about the learner’s background knowledge, lived experiences andframes of reference are essential preparations.

TAKING STEPS TOWARDS A CULTURALLY

RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

Much has been written about the dispositions, knowledge, practices,interactions, and expectations needed by teachers to be culturally responsiveand prepared to teach a diverse student population that includes Englishlanguage learners (Garcia, 2002; Garcia, Arias, Murri, & Serna, 2010;Wong-Fillmore & Snow, 2002). Culturally responsive pedagogy is not asimple set of practices or materials to be secured and readily implemented.Gay (2010b) defines it as ‘‘using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences,frames of reference, and performance styles of culturally diverse students tomake learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them’’ (p. 31).How do the practices of culturally responsive pedagogy compare with thoseof effective teaching? As noted in Irvine and Armento’s (2001) discussion ofculturally responsive teaching, the research on effective teaching iscompatible with the principles of culturally responsive teaching. In fact,attributes suggested for culturally responsive teachers are congruent with

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: Effective Teaching 97

what we know about effective teaching. In a review of the literature,Cruickshank, Metcalf, and Jenkins (2011) indicate that effective teachers areidentified by:

1. Their character traits;2. What they know;3. What they teach;4. How they teach;5. What they expect from their students;6. How their students react to them; and7. How they manage the classroom.

Before we address the fundamental principles of learning that areimportant for culturally responsive teaching, we begin by focusing on adifferent sort of learner, the teacher. The teacher is certainly pivotal to allthat occurs in the classroom from what is taught, how it is taught, and whatis expected. Teachers’ knowledge and character influence each of the abovealong with how the classroom is managed. All of these contribute towardshow students react to their teacher. What would we recognize about ateacher who implements culturally responsive pedagogy?

As we reflect on culturally responsive pedagogy situated within theoverarching framework of effective teaching, we turn our focus to theattributes that are characteristic of teachers who embrace the ideologygrounding culturally responsive teaching. Nieto (2005) describes fivequalities that she considers to be evident in teachers who have an affinityfor culturally responsive pedagogy. Such teachers have:

� A solidarity with and a valuing of students, including students’ lives,development, human dignity, culture, and future success. We recognize theseindividuals as teachers who entered teaching because of their commitmentto children and to those children’s futures.� A passion for equality and social justice. We recognize these individuals asteachers who entered teaching in order to make a difference in children’slives and in the future that awaits them. Simply put, these are individualswho see teaching as a way to make the world a better place for thechildren in it. At a more complex level, these are teachers who whenprompted to reflect on the absence of social justice—that is, socialinjustice—see a society in which children’s and family’s access toopportunities and essential human rights is denied or obstructed. Werecognize these individuals as teachers who would loath the thought ofsupporting unjust schools or an unjust society, whether they entered


teaching with this passion or developed it after entering the profession(Chubbuck, 2010; Wise, 2005).� A sense of mission to serve all children, in particular, children from diversebackgrounds, to the best of their abilities. Our hope is that all teacherscome to teaching with this mission. Whether or not teachers enteredteaching with this mission intact, are from a diverse background or havebeen transformed by coming to terms with their identity, biases, andbeliefs, they are deeply committed to serving all students. We recognizethese individuals as individuals who may be grappling with issues ofprivilege, racism, and structural inequities that impact students’ educa-tion; and are committed to serving all students—in particular, studentsfrom diverse backgrounds.� The courage to question mainstream school knowledge along with theconventional way of doing things and viewing the actions of others. Werecognize these individuals as teachers who have the courage to questiontheir beliefs and assumptions about students, families, and communitiesof diverse backgrounds. They have the courage to examine the status quoregarding school’s policies and practices, examine the extent to whichthese are equitable for all students, and take steps to prompt change wheninequity exists.� The willingness to go beyond established and familiar frameworks, to notshy away from taking on a new practice that may be more successful with allstudents. We recognize these individuals as teachers who take the risk tolook, listen, and learn about the experiences and needs of all students—especially students of diverse backgrounds. Using newfound insights,these teachers attempt to teach in ways to deliver effective instruction toall students, in particular, students from diverse backgrounds and Englishlanguage learners.

Do you recognize yourself in these characteristics? Do you share all orsome of the characteristics? Do you recognize these characteristics in ateacher or colleague? Are you uncertain or anxious about your views ofthese characteristics? Have you taken time to reflect on what you believe andwhat drives your work with learners?

Much has been written and researched about teachers’ attitudes andbeliefs. There is no question that our beliefs influence the decisions wemake about instructional behaviors, implementation of curriculum, andinteractions with classroom learners. As a result, many teacher educationprograms recognize the importance of attending to their students’background knowledge and life experiences. Their students—that is, the


preservice and inservice teachers involved in the teacher educationprogram—have arrived to teaching with prior knowledge; and they needto organize and use knowledge conceptually in order to apply it to theclassroom in ways that are effective and responsive to the learners in theirclassrooms. In the case of teachers from a European American back-ground, their recognition of cultural differences and the role these haveplayed in their lives may be limited or nonexistent. For teachers fromdiverse backgrounds, most are well aware of the interplay of culturaldifferences in their lives in educational and other kinds of sociopoliticaleducational contexts.

The professional literature is very clear about the need for individualswho currently teach or who are entering the profession to engage inthoughtful and honest examination of broad cultural diversity issues. Theresearch suggests that issues of diversity relevant to education warrant anexamination and in-depth understanding by teachers (Milner, 2010).Teachers need to participate in an examination of the following:

� Their own racial/ethnic and cultural identity and development;� The ways societal structures have shaped their lives and educationalexperiences as well as those of their students;� The role of meritocracy in U.S. mainstream culture and education;� Their own attitudes and beliefs about broad cultural diversity in aspectsof race/ethnicity, culture, and language that are relevant to their workwith classroom learners.

RACIAL/ETHNIC AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

In order to understand the role of race/ethnicity and culture in theclassroom, it is important for teachers to understand the interplay thesehave had in their own life. Racial identity is defined as ‘‘a sense of groupor collective identity with a particular racial group’’ (Helms, 1990, p. 3).Working from the perspective that race and racial differences are sociallyconstructed, we understand that racial differences are primarily con-structed by the larger society and the ways particular racial groups arevalued or devalued is determined within a sociopolitical context (Nieto,2002). Regarding racial identity, it is interesting to note that EuropeanAmericans are not used to seeing themselves as racial beings (Carter,1995; Howard, 2006). Additionally, these teachers will sometimes adoptcolor-blind beliefs (‘‘I don’t see color, I only see kids’’) in an attempt to


avoid their fear of racial issues. Instead, by taking a color-blindperspective, teachers risk avoiding or overlooking essential parts of astudent’s identity. Several well-established theories of racial identitydevelopment (Cross, 1991; Helms, 1994) are addressed in an overviewprovided by Howard (2006) which covers stages of racial identitydevelopment and offers an in-depth introduction to stages of White racialidentity development.

SOCIETAL STRUCTURES

It is not uncommon for teachers who are from European American Englishspeaking middle-class backgrounds to overlook the inequitable distributionof power and privilege to various groups of people (Darling-Hammond,2004). In cases where opportunities seemed effortless, such as universityapplication and admissions, it is easy for individuals to overlook thenumerous supports and support systems that steered them through multiplesteps and mounds of paperwork. It is not until we pause to consider howaccessible the application information and resources are distributed andmade available to all members of society—or not—that we recognize theinequity that exists (Chubbuck, 2010).

MERITOCRACY IN U.S. CULTURE AND

EDUCATION

The concept and role of meritocracy is easy to see if it has impacted younegatively; however, it is a struggle to recognize if you have benefittedfrom privilege. Working hard and getting ahead is the American dream,but it is elusive to many, and not for lack of hard work or persistence. Forteachers who have benefitted from how their race and culture have beenconstructed by the larger society, they have most likely experienced arange of unearned privileges, benefits, and consequences as have theirfamilies. Reflecting again on university admissions, family income—notmerit—is the best predictor of who attends college. If the United Stateswere a truly meritocratic society, admissions to the university would bebased solely on the applicant’s merit. Instead, the higher the familyincome, the more likely those children are to go to college (Henslin, 2004;Milner, 2010).


ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS ABOUT CULTURAL

DIVERSITY

In addition to a self-examination of the constructs of race/ethnicity andculture, it is essential for teachers to candidly reflect on their views of broadcultural diversity relevant to classroom learners, including students’language competence or proficiency and other aspects of their ability.When teachers approach their work from the standpoint of what theyobserve or believe students to be lacking (e.g., English proficiency, strongacademic skills, experience with middle-class culture, socioeconomicresources, etc.), their focus is on the ways students are ‘‘deficient’’ and onthe need for remediation. Teachers with a deficit perspective tend not torecognize or pursue the knowledge, language, abilities, or experiences whichstudents do bring to classroom learning. Consequently, teachers may lowertheir expectations of what students can achieve, thereby stunting students’opportunities and learning potential (Milner, 2010; Gay, 2010a).

While such reflections and analyses require candid soul-searching, the valuesof growth and positive development are at the core of these examinations ofbroad cultural diversity issues. In our roles as teachers, we need to start withourselves and our views before we can launch into effective teaching that iscompatible with the principles of culturally responsive teaching. Trent andcolleagues warn that ‘‘What goes unacknowledged ultimately becomesinvisible’’ (Trent et al., 2008, p. 346); certainly teachers’ and students’ culturaldiversity is a positive resource not to be overlooked or avoided in education.

Teachers committed to culturally responsive pedagogy take time to learnabout students’ cultures and lives. They understand the value andimportance of building relationship with students, in particular, Englishlanguage learners (Jimenez & Rose, 2010). Even more so, they recognize thecrucial component that the learner’s background knowledge plays inlearning, language, and literacy development. Without solid comprehensionof the learner’s frames of reference, life experiences, and cultural values andnorms, the teacher will not be able to effectively activate this knowledge andbuild on it to engage students in meaningful learning experiences.

Culturally responsive teaching implements what research has shown to beeffective instruction, while employing a cultural lens to situate the contentthrough students’ existing mental schemas, prior knowledge, and culturalperspectives. Gay (2010b) recommends a number of ways that teachers candesign their instruction to be culturally responsive, as detailed in the bulletpoints below.


� Legitimize students’ cultures and life experiences, that is, become familiarwith their cultures, read, ask questions, and learn some basic facts. Movebeyond understanding surface level culture, such as foods, dances, andholidays for the cultural groups present in your classroom. Gain a deeperunderstanding of variance within a cultural group.

For example, educators can naively assume homogeneity within a culturalgroup. Yet students who share cultural, racial/ethnic, cultural, linguistic, orreligious backgrounds can vary dramatically in their cultural perspectives,physical features, educational backgrounds, particular language variety,lexicon, and pronunciation. For example, it is not unusual for twoindividuals who are both Spanish speakers from the same country in LatinAmerica to misunderstand each other when communicating in their nativelanguage to the point of offending one another. It is also not uncommon fortwo individuals who share the same native language and country of origin tohave divergent experiences with language, literacy, and formal schooling.For instance, while one individual may be literate and formally educated,the other individual may have limited or no experience with reading,writing, or formal education. Additionally, educators may be surprisedto find that students of certain cultural backgrounds or countries of originmay have strong biases towards one another. National or cultural ancestrymay result in predispositions or biases towards each other. Cultural normsmay also influence students’ tolerance towards in-class groupings relevant togender or marital status. Such cultural dynamics warrant the teacher’spersistent inquiry into cultural information as students representing newcultures join the class.

At the local level, take time to become familiar with the local culture.Teachers who don’t live in the school community, can take time to becomefamiliar with the local stores, restaurants, recreation building, and parks.Content will be made more meaningful when the teacher uses that which isfamiliar to students and connects it to the curriculum.

� Use the cultural legacies, traits, and orientations of students as filtersthrough which to teach them academic knowledge, thereby teaching ‘‘to andthrough’’ students’ frames of reference. For example, math teachers whohave students from Mexico or of Mexican culture may refer to the Mayanconcept of math. The Mayan number system is very sophisticated and wasahead of its time.� Include more significant and comprehensive information about differentcultures and their contributions in school subject content. For science


teachers, take time to research names of scientists who made importantcontributions to the fields and locate resources about them.� Make learning an active, participatory endeavor in which students areassisted in making meaning and giving personal meaning to new ideas. Forstudents to apply new learning beyond the classroom, they need toorganize and use the knowledge conceptually in ways that are meaningfulto them.

Culturally responsive teaching takes the stance that when teachers makeconnections between students’ home cultural knowledge, beliefs, andpractices to the content, pedagogy, or language used in the classroom, thenthe academic performance and school experience of learners from culturallydiverse groups will significantly improve. In order to begin to support aconnection between students’ background knowledge and the content, Gay(2010b) further recommends that teachers design their instruction to:

� Teach the students style-shifting (code-switching) skills so that they canmaneuver between home and school languages and cultures with ease. We allshift language registers as we move from one context to another. Mostpeople shift between using different varieties of language. Part of learninglanguage is understanding the social environment of a conversation andmaking choices about which register (e.g., informal, formal, slang, titles ofaddress to show respect, etc.) or variety (e.g., formal or informal) to use.The issue of language form and use in context is known as pragmatics.Language, culture, and the values attached to these are acquired at homeand in the community; and are integral to family life. Students arrive atschool with some knowledge about what language is and how to use it,but teachers can teach students style-shifting so they can build on theirlinguistic repertoire not reduce it. We make similar shifts with ourbehavior based on cultural norms and expectations. Our behavior andhow we conduct ourselves shifts by context. Conduct at church andgrandma’s house will tend towards the careful and ‘‘best behavior’’ ascompared to time with friends at the park. Bringing these adjustments tothe forefront and conscious level helps students understand the influenceof sociocultural contexts on one’s language and behavior.� Build the moral commitment, critical consciousness, and political compe-tence that students need to consider their role in promoting social justice andsocial transformation. Teach students the language and actions ofpossibility by encouraging them to ask questions and take thoughtfulaction; support their participation in critical thinking. With teacherguidance, support students’ steps towards self-advocacy.


Each of these recommendations involves teachers taking time to get toknow the individual learner’s prior knowledge, background, learningpreferences, and life experiences. Such knowledge provides teachers withinvaluable insights about the learner’s cultural background, language andliteracy knowledge, and life experiences. Using a cultural lens to situate thecontent through students’ existing prior knowledge and cultural perspec-tives, teachers can effectively activate and build on this knowledge and use itto engage students in learning that is meaningful. Culturally responsivepedagogy involves teachers using effective teaching practices—much likethose described above—to help students find relevance in the curriculum,content, and learning experiences at school.

‘‘All teachers are teachers of English language learners’’ is a statementcommonly heard in schools with large enrollments of English languagelearners (ELL students). In fact, ELL students spend the majority of theschool day in classes taught by mainstream teachers many of whom havehad limited or no preparation for supporting ELL students to successfullylearn academic content through English while concurrently developingproficiency in English (Antunez & Menken, 2001; Tellez & Waxman,2006).Teachers of English language learners need to understand that ELLstudents ‘‘come to school with knowledge of what language is, how it works,and what it is used for’’ (Garcia, 2002, p. 138).

English language learners have acquired their native language in thehome and community along with their primary culture and culturalvalues. At school, as English language learners engage in sociallymeaningful interactions they learn higher level cognitive and commu-nicative skills. Their interactions in small groups provide them withlanguage exposure and meaningful language directed at them. For ELLstudents who are learning in a language that is new to them, their learningis enhanced when it occurs in contexts that are socioculturally andlinguistically meaningful. Lucas and colleagues (Lucas et al., 2008) gleanedsix highly relevant principles for responsive teachers of ELL students froma review of the literature on second language learning. Coupled with eachof the six principles is a practical illustration with application to theclassroom.

1. ELL students need a safe, welcoming classroom environment where it issafe for them to take risks using the new language in order to learn the newlanguage. If teachers want to provide ELL students with the opportunity foroptimal learning, they can consciously create a safe, anxiety-free classroomenvironment.


Practical illustration. Studies have shown that ELL students feelunwelcome, ignored, and anxious in U.S. classroom (Valdes, 2001). Suchanxiety can thwart ELL students’ interactions centered on language,thought, and learning, and even cause them to withdraw (Pappamihiel,2002). These findings link directly with Krashen’s (2003) affective filterhypothesis about second language learners’ linguistic input or output beingnegatively influenced by fear or anxiety. ELL students will take more risksto communicate in English when the learning environment is safe andwelcoming.

2. Conversational language proficiency is fundamentally different fromacademic language proficiency, and it takes many more years for ELLstudents to become fluent in academic language than conversationallanguage.

Practical illustration. If you have chatted informally with ELL students inEnglish after school or in the hallway then later found them to be ‘‘tongue-tied’’ and stumbling over their words when talking about U.S. history inEnglish, you have observed this principle in action. Conversationalproficiency can develop within two years of initial exposure to a language,but academic proficiency comparable to that of a native speaker of a similarage can easily take five to seven years to develop.

3. The opportunity for social interaction, including in-class interactions inwhich ELL students are actively engaged, can foster the development ofconversational and academic language.

Practical illustration. Grounded in the sociocultural theory of learning(Vygotsky, 1978), learners’ social interaction and dialogue serve as afoundation for the development of language and thought. When interactingin groups of peer learners, ELL students are met with more exposure toEnglish, more meaningful language directed towards them, and increasedopportunities to produce more language (Gibbons, 2002). Furthermore,learners’ interaction with other more capable peers—more capable in thecontent and/or the language—supports learners’ successful completion oftasks. The supportive scaffolding provided by the more capable learner is animportant element of Vygotsky’s theory of learning (1978) called the zone ofproximal development.

4. Second language learners who have strong native language and literacyskills are more likely to achieve an equivalent level of skill as their peerswho are native speakers of the target language.


Practical illustration. Strong native language and literacy skills aregenerally the result of formal schooling in the primary language. Thislearning provides ELL students with a solid foundation for understandingand manipulating language, reading, and writing for communication andlearning purposes in their native language and a new language. Theselearners have a solid understanding of how language, reading, and writing‘‘work’’ for communication and in formal school contexts. Such factors areusually associated with successful second learning and academic achieve-ment (Thomas & Collier, 2002). Moreover, learners who already have astrong foundation in academic content they have learned in their nativelanguage in school, bring a robust background knowledge, thereby easingthe burden of the ELL learner having to learn new subject matter whilesimultaneously learning in a second language. Given the critical nature ofthese factors particular to each individual learner, schools run the risk offailing if they provide ELL students with a ‘‘one-size-fits-all’’ curricular andinstructional approach. It is essential that teachers ascertain the students’native-language and literacy abilities as well as their formal schooling andacademic preparation in their native language, then use this information tosteer curricular and instructional decisions.

5. Second language learners must have access to comprehensible input(Krashen, 1982)—content that is accessible—just above their current levelof language proficiency. They also need the opportunity to produce outputin the second language for meaningful communication and purposes.

Practical illustration. Having significant exposure to a sizeable amount ofEnglish will not nurture language learning if the ELL student cannotunderstand the language. To make sense of the academic content and theEnglish language, the ELL student needs to be able to comprehend both.Hence, the quality and the nature of the input are both essential when one islearning content in one’s second language. Organizational structures likeadvance organizers and outlines can help a learner access the content andthe language. Furthermore, the ELL student’s output of language andcontent is also important. The type of language produced by the ELLstudent—spoken language or written language—impacts the difficulty of thetask. Spoken language is generally more difficult. The immediacy andspontaneity of spoken language can be very challenging for individualscommunicating in a language they are learning, while written languagegenerally allows time for the learner to think, plan, process, and revisebefore putting pen to paper or fingers to the keyboard.


6. Second language learning is facilitated by explicit attention to linguisticform and function. In other words, exposure to and interaction with asecond language is not enough to result in the learner’s proficiency inacademic language and literacy (Harper & deJong, 2004).

Practical illustration. While content area teachers are not expected toexplicitly teach language, they can support the language forms and functionsthat are characteristic of specific academic disciplines. For example, given itsemphasis on past events, the history curriculum frequently uses past tense.History teachers who can emphasize this language tense with ELL students tohelp students recognize this tense used within ameaningful text. The languageused in science texts emphasizes objectivity and procedures while the languageof math serves to articulate precise relationships and procedures involvingnumbers. Teachers can emphasize the language forms and functions used inwritten texts and spoken discourse to help make their content area accessibleto students, in particular, ELL students (Lucas et al., 2008).

PLANNING FOR CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE

PEDAGOGY: AN ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK

In our research focused on the relation between teachers’ cognition andbehaviors associated with high-quality teaching in schools with diversepopulations, we have attempted to study the ways teachers’ beliefs informtheir classroom practice (Taylor & Sobel 2001, 2003; Sobel et al., 2003).Specifically, we have investigated the various ways teachers’ haveoperationalized their commitment to culturally responsive pedagogy in theclassroom. Using data sets generated by written narratives, in-classobservations, written reflections of implemented lessons, and post-lessoninterviews, we used interpretive content analysis to examine and code datafor common themes (Baxter, 1993).The identification of common themeshas resulted in an organization framework to support teachers as theycontemplate their efforts to operationalize culturally responsive pedagogy.The organizational framework provides a simple yet comprehensivestructure to support teachers’ thinking about their plans and preparationtowards teaching that is responsive to students’ broad cultural background.We have adapted the original framework (Sobel & Taylor, 2006) to allowfor a more comprehensive lens with which to reflect on the classroom andinstruction from the perspective of culturally responsive pedagogy. Thefollowing 12 components provide an organizational framework for planningand reflecting in the implementation of culturally responsive pedagogy.


1. Considering the Learner: Who is the learner?

� Name, age, gender, grade, family members at home, home context� Native language, primary culture, racial/ethnic background� Previous experience with school, literacy and learning, academicsuccess;� Self esteem, attitudes towards reading and school, preferences forlearning;� Background knowledge, broad cultural background, lived experiences.

Starting with the learner is pivotal to implementing instruction that isculturally responsive. Effective teachers understand that a foundational partof effective teaching involves using information about the learner in theirplanning of how to implement curriculum, making decisions about theinstructional strategies to employ in a lesson, and designing a classroomenvironment that will allow students to thrive and take risks as learners.When teachers recognize that culture is at the center of all we do ineducation—including curriculum, instruction, interactions, and assess-ment—they understand the importance of addressing students’ many waysof learning, prior experiences, and background knowledge, along with theirvalued cultural and linguistic capital (Darling-Hammond, 2008).

2. Environment/Environmental Print: How has the teacher used theenvironment to create a context that signals a valuing of diverse culturesand perspectives; a commitment to equity; and a community of learners?Does the environment serve as an additional ‘‘teacher’’ and reinforcestudent learning in active ways?

� Learners thrive in a safe, supportive classroom environment;� Students need to know that they are welcome and safe from negativerepercussions in the classroom;� Students will thrive when their attributes, strengths, cultures,languages, and experiences are recognized, viewed as resources, andused as a foundation for future learning (Bridges, 1995).

Teachers have the opportunity to create a classroom context that signals avaluing of broad cultural diversity and a commitment to equity. Teacherscan nurture a classroom climate where a cohesive and respectful groupidentity is fostered within a community of learners. If asked, would theteacher respond in the affirmative to the question, ‘‘Would I want to be astudent in my classroom?’’ (Williams, 2001).


Print-rich environments strongly correlate with literacy development,including math literacy. Environmental print can include text displays onthe classroom walls, collaborative posters developed by teacher andstudents, word walls that evolve with added input of teacher and students,and printed guidelines about what good readers do or steps involved in thewriting process.

In other cases, displays may include students’ work, visuals that supportcontent studies or key concepts and that provide concrete referents whenstudentsneed supplemental supportsduring class time.Environmental print anddisplays can become an additional ‘‘teacher’’ who supports students’ learning.

Environmental print and displays provide a way for students to literallysee themselves and their broad culture reflected in the classroom context andvalues. Displays and print in the classroom can be used to reflect students’broad culture, including their racial/ethnic background, heritage culture,language, and religion, as well as their individual abilities or talents, genderorientation, socioeconomic status, and other characteristics.

3. Curriculum Considerations: How can the teacher implement thecurriculum in a way that is meaningful to this group of learners?

� Content standards and benchmarks;� Potential links to learners’ perspectives or cultural lens of students inclass;� Potential links to students’ reality and local culture;� Potential links to cultural legacies and/or contributions of individualswho share; primary culture of students in class.

Culturally responsive pedagogy does not come as packaged curricularmaterials, and rightfully so. What is appropriate and culturally responsive willvary with each group of students and the evolving student population. The issueof reflectionand reflectingoncurriculumbecomesvery important for teachers toteach in culturally responsive ways. Teachers will want to examine the interplayof curriculum, content, and culture reflected in the classroom of learners,along with their own talents, behaviors, and preferences (Irvine & Armento,2001), then make decisions about how to organize content in ways that willbe meaningful for the classroom learners. The standards and benchmarksdescribe what content and concepts need to be taught, but how these areimplemented, and from what perspectives the decision of the teacher is made.

4. Language Objective: What language forms and functions are character-istic of specific academic disciplines?


� Content lexis;� Language forms characteristic of a certain academic discipline;� Language functions characteristic of a certain academic discipline.

Each academic discipline has specific language demands. As teachersconsider the learning experiences that students (language users) need toengage in, they can then consider the vocabulary necessary for learners tograsp the content as well as the language functions and discourse of thediscipline. Additionally, teachers need to consider if all four language modesare included; listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In some cases, teachersmay want to consider the sequencing of the language modes. Spokenlanguage involves spontaneity and thinking on ‘‘one’s feet,’’ which impactsthe difficulty of the task. For example, in a social studies unit onWorldWar IIin which students will be asked to examine the causes of the war, the languageobjectives may involve students selecting appropriate information throughreading research and speaking with other; connecting the information, andexplaining their findings (first in a ‘‘think-pair share’’ in triads, then in aquick-write followed by an informal sharing in small groups of five or six; thissequence allows students to ‘‘rehearse’’ their understandings first by thinking,then sharing with a peer, then writing, then speaking with others). While allteachers are not teachers of language, all teachers can support the teaching oflanguage forms and functions relevant to the content area they teach.

5. Social Context for Learning/Grouping Strategies: What considerationdoes the teacher give to designing the opportunity for learners to interact,talk, and confer?

� Social interaction fosters development of language and thought;� Learners’ interactions with more capable peers supports learning;� Exposure to English increases in structured interactions.

The guidelines used by a teacher for constituting student groups maycenter on how to group, why to group, and when to group, or on how andwhen to reconstitute groups. Working from the research-based findings thatlearning involves meaningful conversation and collaborations, teachersunderstand the importance and rationale for the various ways of groupingstudents (Routman, 1999). Teachers understand that the learners’ socialinteraction and dialogue in the classroom serve as a foundation for thedevelopment of language and thought (Vygotsky, 1978). Strategic groupingis essential for teachers committed to being responsive to students acquiringEnglish as an additional language. Teachers who understand this know that


having the chance to express oneself and one’s understandings of newcontent within multiple groupings in a community of learners is vitallyimportant for ELL students. Strategies about structuring small-groupinteractions link directly to enhancing student achievement, at bothindividual and class levels.

6. Content/Instructional Materials: From what cultural lens or perspectivecan the content be presented in order to enhance a meaningful learningexperience?

� Selection of content in alignment with students’ prior knowledge andcultural perspectives;� Consider materials that build on students’ background knowledge andexpand their frames of reference;� Consider instructional materials that are age-appropriate and supportstudents’ preferred learning strategies;� Consider instructional materials that support ELL students’ use oflistening, speaking, reading, and writing.

As teachers find meaningful ways to make the curriculum relevant tostudents, their choice of materials influences the depth of students’connections and learning, and the success of the instruction. Once teachershave gained insights and information about the learners’ backgrounds, thematerials they select can create connections to the learners’ culturalperspective and be used to support inclusive teaching practices. Frequentlyfaced with a set curriculum, teachers’ choices about supplemental materialsallow them to connect content to students’ cultural knowledge, lifeexperiences, frames of reference, and interests. The choices teachers makeabout multicultural literature titles or the examples they use to illustrate keyconcepts are pivotal since each offers potential ways for teachers to makecontent meaningful and relevant by linking it to the learner’s cultural filter.

7. Scaffolding/Instructional Adaptations: In what ways is the teacher helpingto make the content accessible to learners so that they can developunderstandings they could not do independently?

� Determine students’ preferred learning strategies;� Determine students’ strengths and needs;� Consider and select adaptations or supports that will allow student toengage in the content or learning experience.

Once teachers have gained knowledge about students’ cultures, what ismeaningful to them, and the learning preferences they tend to use to


successfully access content, teachers can accommodate individual learnersby adapting instruction so that it builds on students’ individual strengthsand needs. Scaffolding or adapting the instruction does not involvesimplifying the curriculum; rather, the essential concept is presented andhigh levels of strategic support are provided to the learner. This allows forteachers to help students move from what they know to what they need toknow in ways that are meaningful for them. Examples of scaffolding oradaptations may include using organizational structures during the lesson(e.g., two-column notes) or advance organizer before the lesson is taught(e.g., preview key concepts, main idea, and details). At the end of a lessonwith ‘‘scaffolding’’ or an adaptation integrated, the learners should be ableto transfer their understanding to new tasks with added independence.

Additionally, instructional adaptations may involve differentiating theinstructional mode and/or the learning task. Depending on the learner’spreferred learning style, the teacher may decide to deliver the content using avisual, auditory, or tactile mode or a combination of modes. Again, usinginformation about the learners, the teacher may decide to scaffold thecontent materials for the classroom by teaching the same content andconcepts using a range of materials written for a variety of reading abilitiesso all students can access the content.

8. Distribution of Attention: What are the strategies the teacher uses toattend to each student in ways that are equitable and respectful ofstudents’ cultural background and needs?

� Learn about the background and personality of each learner;� Maximize opportunities to allow learners to use their preferred modesof learning to demonstrate their understandings.

Teachers generally use a variety of ways to purposefully and consistentlyinteract with students. Besides the importance of regularly distributingattention to an individual student, the various ways teachers go about this isan important consideration in a culturally responsive classroom. Dependingon students’ cultural backgrounds, the teacher will want to select interactionstyles that are compatible with the cultural frameworks of the students. Theteacher’s knowledge about students’ cultures and backgrounds will allowthem to attend to students in a manner that demonstrates respect forstudents and is effective in the overall interactions of the classroom culture.Part of this learning involves the teacher finding out about the discoursestyles of individual students in the classroom, especially ELL students. Asthe teacher’s knowledge base about cultural discourse styles deepens, theteacher will need to decide whether or not to adapt her/his discourse style to


match that of the students or explain the discourse styles used in U.S.American Standard English within the broader linguistic-cultural context.For example, if students have learned in their primary culture that it isdisrespectful to make eye contact with an adult, the teacher needs to allowfor this when interacting with this student. Overtime the teacher may wantto help the learner understand social and cultural views about eye contact inthe current context. Checking students’ understanding, assessing students’knowledge, redirecting students’ behavior, and asking for students’ ideas areall reasons teachers may interact with students.

9. Checking for Evidence of Student Understanding: What are the strategiesthe teacher uses to ascertain if students understand the content andlearning task?

� Learn about the background and personality of each learner;� Gather information about cultural norms for interactions, commu-nication, and adult-student norms.

With all students, teachers are looking for multiple ways to find evidenceof students’ understandings. What are ways teachers can ensure that allstudents understand the content and can successfully carry out proceduresfor learning experiences and tasks? For all students, teachers want to havemore than one way and mode to provide them attention and for students todemonstrate their understandings. For students learning English as anadditional language, having multiples ways and modes to demonstrate theirunderstandings is crucial. Providing students the opportunity to demon-strate understanding verbally, with physical response, through visual media,written form, or dramatic response keeps the focus on their comprehensionof content. Otherwise, when students’ understanding is checked using alanguage mode where they lack proficiency, the evidence is not reliable. Leftto only verbal or written response puts all students, especially ELL students,at risk if they are not proficient communicators or writers in English.

Teachers may distribute their attention nonverbally by roving about theclassroom observing students’ interactions and applications (e.g., watching,making eye contact, and listening in while students are talking amongthemselves). The teacher may interact by asking questions and promptingresponses (e.g., one-on-one with an individual student, small group or wholeclass understanding that students’ comfort level will vary with eachgrouping configuration). At the core of teachers’ plan for distributingattention is consideration to a variety of factors such as the student’sculture, language, gender, ability, personality to mention a few.


10. Classroom Behavior/Managing the Classroom: What are the strategiesthe teacher uses to structure the classroom for learners to engage as in acommunity of learning where teaching can be effective?

� Learn about the background and personality of each learner;� Gather information about cultural norms for interactions, commu-nication, and adult-student norms;� Anticipate and plan for students to be active learners in a learningcommunity.

Students depend on consistent, positive standards for classroom behaviorthat are equitable for all students. Effective teachers are aware of this andplan carefully how they will set up their classroom routines. Knowing thatstudents use the classroom as their ‘‘learning laboratory’’ teachersencourage them to make connections with their learning inside and outsideof the classroom. Students learn best when they are active participants inplanning, monitoring, and controlling their own learning. For this activelearning to function in a classroom with 25 or more students, effectiveteachers understand the essential nature of designing classroom routines andnorms with consideration of who the students are.

With behavior and language being culturally bound, teachers know toaccommodate students from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgroundswhile still establishing effective communication practices and clear behavioralexpectations. Teachers who are knowledgeable about culturally responsivepedagogyknow toquestionhowandwhy their ownculturally based expectationsof appropriate behavior and disciplinary practices might allow them tomisinterpret students’ behaviors that are incompatible with teachers’ expecta-tions (Monroe, 2005). By bringing unspoken cultural biases to a conscious levelfor examination, teachers are less likely to misinterpret the language and actionsof students from diverse backgrounds and react in a discriminatory manner.

11. Connecting with Family, Community, Local Culture: What strategiesdoes the teacher uses to build rapport with students’ families and learnabout their local community culture?

� Learn about the background and family of each learner;� Gather information about the local community (if teacher does notreside there);� Complete a community/neighborhood walk or drive where the schoolis located and/or where the students live.� Periodically frequent community/local establishments where studentsand their families participate.


The research about school and family connections indicates a highcorrelation to learners’ achievement when this relation is strong. Effectiveteachers know that building relationships with students and their familiesallows them to provide more meaningful instruction by integrating relevanceand helping students make real-world connections. To do this requireslearning more about students, their communities, and their cultural andlinguistic backgrounds (Jimenez & Rose, 2010).

Our recent research with novice and veteran teachers who are committedto culturally responsive pedagogy also showed strong results supportingteachers’ beliefs that nurturing positive interactions with the learner’s familyis a critical part of their work as a teacher. Teacher participants in ourstudies revealed a genuine commitment to establishing and maintainingpositive family connections. While not always simple or easy, a strongrelationship with the learner’s family is recognized as a worthwhile effort byteachers committed to culturally responsive teaching. Yet no formula worksall the time. Teachers must try a variety of efforts and ground these in theirknowledge of individual learners and learner groups. Teachers report tryinga variety of ways to connect with families, such as home visits, in-class teas,adult–child buddy relationships linked to reading and writing, and parent-led math small-group interactions, to mention only a few. Teachers’commitment to culturally responsive teaching is often raised to a higherlevel of consciousness when they articulate the ways they have involved oradvocated for parents and families of the students they teach.

12. Teacher’s Personal/Professional Growth:What steps does the teacher taketo continue learning and growing as a cultural being?What opportunitiesdoes the teacher take (or make) for professional development?

� Deepen understandings of cultural features and perspectives;� Continue learning about the cultural backgrounds represented in thediverse student population;� Set professional goal and locate related professional developmentopportunity.

Throughout their professional lives, teachers committed to culturallyresponsive teaching often continue to reflect on the ways they demonstrateand act on this commitment. Such a commitment tends to be realized inone’s philosophy of life both in the professional and personal arenas.Teachers committed to culturally responsive pedagogy can single out whatchoices they have made or actions they have taken that demonstrate theircommitment to principles of equity and cultural understandings. It is not


uncommon for these teachers to put themselves in situations where theycontinue learning about culture, themselves as a cultural being, and culturalpedagogy. Sometimes teachers become involved in teaching others aboutprinciples of equity. In some cases, they may craft intentional travel andstudy programs. In other cases, they may strategically select professionalreadings to discuss in professional learning communities or professionaldevelopment opportunities in which to participate.

CONCLUSION

Culturally responsive teachers concentrate on recognizing, acknowledging,and building on the background knowledge, skills, and life experiences thatstudents bring to school in their planning of instruction and implementationof curriculum. They understand that the classroom needs to be a validatinglearning community for all students, especially students from diversebackgrounds and English language learners. Culturally responsive teachersalso realize that there is a human tendency to gravitate towards that which isfamiliar to us when selecting visual displays, reading selections, teaching andlearning strategies, literature, environmental print for the classroom, andinstructional materials. When teacher and students do not share the sameprimary culture or life experiences, the result can be a learning environmentthat is incongruent with the reality of the students.

Looking ahead to Part Three (Classrooms Implementing CulturallyResponsive Pedagogy), we turn our focus to two composite school districtslocated in a large metropolitan area of the state of Colorado. In each districtwe highlight two schools that provide the backdrop for illustrations of howstate level standards and directives are operationalized at the local level. Ineach school site we will ‘‘visit’’ at least one classroom where the teacher iscommitted to culturally responsive pedagogy and actively taking steps toput it in place within a given sociocultural context.


1. What reasons led you to choose education as your profession? Whatinterests and life experiences influenced your choice of an area ofspecialization and the age group of learners you currently teach? Whatare your goals and commitments towards each student’s future?


2. Consider the racial/ethnic, cultural, religious, gender, socioeconomicfactors—to mention a few key factors—that have significantly influencedthe groups with whom you identify. What practices and values of each ofthese groups influence your perspectives on life and your cultural identity?

3. Using Howard’s (2006) overview on stages of racial identity developmentthat is grounded in Helms’ (1994) approach, study each of the six stagesthen examine your own life experiences and racial development. Preparea written narrative regarding your journey and reflections as youdetermined your stage of development according to Helm’s framework.

4. As you focus on a school context of interest, focus on a group of students inone classroom. Consider and list the life experiences, abilities, and funds ofknowledge (Moll &Gonzalez, 1994) that these students bring to the schoolcontext, especially students from diverse backgrounds, students withdiverse needs, and students adding English to their linguistic repertoire.What are students’ interests and after-school activities? In what contexts oractivities are students’ abilities and strengths revealed? In what ways dostudents apply their interests and life experiences to concepts taught in theschool curriculum? In what ways could curricular concepts be linked withstudents’ interests, life experiences, and cultural heritage?

5. Consider students in this classroom, who come to school with arepertoire of languages or language variations. What are the students’abilities in their native language and in English, if their native language isdifferent from English? To what extent are the students bilingual andbiliterate? In what ways and in which contexts do students use theirlinguistic repertoire in school and outside of the school context? Whattypes of structures could be employed in the classroom to support asocial context that fosters students’ development of language andthought through dyad, small group, and whole group interactions?

6. Reflect on the classroom of interest, what aspects of the classroomenvironment and displays signal a valuing of diverse perspectives, avariety of cultures, and a community of learners? In what ways does theclassroom environment function as an additional ‘‘teacher’’ or reinforce-ment of student learning?


CHAPTER SEVEN


PEDAGOGY: DISTRICT AND

SCHOOL LEVELS

INTRODUCTION

The overarching guidelines provided by the Federal government and State ofColorado provide a direction to the each of the 178 districts spread across thestate. In this chapter,wewill examinehowdistricts take state guidelinesandactonthemwithin the district context andwhat impact the state and district levels haveat the school level. We focus on two composite district and school contexts toprovide an overview of the ways culturally responsive pedagogy is implementedand integrated in various the school contexts. In the case of the two districts andtwo schools, we have used pseudonyms in place of the actual district and schoolnames.Webeginbyprovidingabriefoverviewofpertinent elements at thedistrictlevel (e.g., mission, values, and attention to culture) and descriptive data on thedistrict demographics.Our intent is to give a brief overviewof the district in orderto provide the reader with ‘‘big picture’’ background information that will allowthem to situate the highlighted school settings within the larger district context.Within those two schools, we provide examples of the actions they have taken toact on their valuing of culture and culturally responsive pedagogy.

SETTING THE LARGER CONTEXT: DISTRICT

OVERVIEWS

Mountain View School District

The mission of the Mountain View School District is to realize a vision forthe new century by graduating students who have the knowledge, skills, and

119

personal characteristics that will make this world a safer, more thoughtful,and more inclusive place in which to live. In order to reach this vision, theschool community approved three five-year goals for the district that relateto equity, achievement, and climate. Mountain View School District aims toachieve academic excellence for all students, to produce equitable resultsthat reduce persistent patterns of inequity, and to create a culturallyproficient and welcoming school climate through the following goals:

� Achievement Goal: Increase measurable student achievement in specificcontent areas through curriculum and instruction that is rigorous andrelevant;� Equity Goal: Narrow the achievement gap in all content areas as measuredby state testing results, district graduation rates, and curriculum-basedassessments; and� Climate Goal: Create and sustain a safe and positive learning environmentthat protects and respects the rights of all individuals as measured byspecific results from the annual School Climate Survey.

Mountain View School District is committed to creating partnerships withschools, community organizations, and state policy makers to ensure that allEnglish language learners receive an appropriate education and achieve highacademic standards in an environment that values linguistic and culturaldiversity. In compliance with federal and state guidelines that require schooldistricts to assess English language proficiency of all studentswho speak and/orunderstand a language other than English and to provide special Englishlanguage instruction to all students who enter school not yet proficient inEnglish, all Mountain View School District families complete a HomeLanguage Survey as part of the registration process. Specially trained assessorsfrom the district’s Department of Literacy and Language follow upwith phoneinterviews and/or assessments to determine whether or not students qualify foran alternative reading andwriting program. InMountainViewSchoolDistrict,alternative language arts instruction is provided through the ESL (English as aSecond Language) program and for some Spanish speakers, through theBilingual Education program. Mountain View School District offers differ-entiated instruction to meet the needs of all students. The schools with an ESLprogram offer specific instruction on English language acquisition. Studentswho qualify to enter an ESL program school may also opt out from this choiceand may attend a nonprogram school.

Efforts to achieve the aims of academic excellence for all students, equitableresults that reduce persistent patterns of inequity and foster a culturallyproficient and welcoming school climate, led district and community leaders


to create and adopt the following performance and evaluation standards forall of Mountain View School District’s classroom teachers:

� The teacher shall demonstrate a knowledge of subject matter and effectiveinstructional skills;� The teacher shall demonstrate competency in valuing and promotingunderstanding of diversity;� The teacher shall demonstrate effective management of the learningenvironment;� The teacher shall demonstrate commitment to education as a profession;and� The teacher shall demonstrate effective interpersonal skills.

To support teachers in meeting those standards, individual districtdepartments (e.g., ESL or Special Education) offer formalized professionaldevelopment workshops to all teachers and on-demand training to schoolsas needed.

The Mountain View School District includes 61 schools across ageographic area of 495 square miles spanning six communities. Table 7.1provides a profile of Mountain View School District (Colorado Departmentof Education 2010a).

Dalby Heights School District

The Dalby Heights School District is located on the northern tier ofColorado’s largest metropolitan area, and serves five cities. This area ranksamong the state’s top five largest counties and is projected to be the fastestgrowing county in the metropolitan area over the next two decades. Theschool district is committed to the excellence of successful students, tosupporting a highly skilled staff and partnering with a caring community.The district articulates a vision, mission, and purpose that provide a clearfocus for the district. Their vision is that Dalby Heights School Districtexists so the students it serves are well-prepared for the next stage of theirlives and obtain the skills, knowledge, and expertise to thrive in our world,at a level that justifies the resources used. Their mission is to acceleratestudent academic performance and nurture their social development andtheir purpose is to engage in core work that directly results in studentsmeeting or exceeding grade level standards in reading, writing, and mathwhile demonstrating the behaviors associated with citizenship, ethics,integrity, creativity, productivity, and healthy lifestyles.

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: District and School Levels 121

Engaging the community in providing educational experiences to ensureDalby Heights students reach their full potential is a priority for the schooldistrict. To reach that aim, district leadership is committed to partneringwith stakeholder groups; fostering communication between parents andeducators; providing tools and resources to empower parents to effectivelyengage in their local schools; advocating for parents and communitymembers who have questions or concerns; and mentoring parents andcommunity members interested in leadership positions within their schools.Parent and community involvement is an additional priority at DalbyHeights Schools. Aware of the critical role parents play in the success of notonly their own children but all students in their community, the DistrictSchool Improvement Team (DSIT) is a driving force in parent andcommunity engagement and an example for similar groups in the region.

The Dalby Heights School District wants to see all students succeed inschool and has focused resources on a number of unique academic programsgeared at tapping into the individual needs of their students. The district servesstudents from68different language backgrounds (seeTable 7.2), Themajorityof whom are native Spanish speakers. To serve the needs of these students,

Table 7.1. Mountain View School District Profile.

Student Numbers

Enrollment 29,320

Students with limited English proficiency 2,499 (8.5%)

Languages spoken 22

Students served through special education 2,683 (9.3%)

Students on free or reduced priced lunch 5,377 (18.4%)

Graduation rate 89.2%

Student Demographics

European American 20,814 (71%)

Hispanic 5,099 (17.4%)

Asian 1,660 (5.7%)

African-American 252 (.9%)

Native American 154 (.5)

Native Hawaiian 27 (.1%)

Multiracial 1,314 (4.5%)

Number of Schools

Elementary 34

Middle 14

High 9

Charter 2

Alternative schools 2


many of the district’s schools offer English as a Second Language services.Students with limited English proficiency receive support in languagedevelopment so they’ll be able to more easily transition into mainstreamclassrooms. All ESL teachers are required to hold or be able to obtain an ESLor bilingual endorsement. The Transitional Language Services (TLS) is anearly exit bilingual model which uses Spanish instruction in kindergarten, 1st,and 2nd grades, gradually increasing the amount of time inEnglish instructionuntil students are fully transitioned toEnglish by 3rd grade. TLS is available asan alternative to traditional English as a Second Language (ESL) services fornative Spanish-speaking students. Teachers in the program are highlyqualified, holding either a Linguistically Diverse: Bilingual endorsement ora Linguistically Diverse endorsement with a passing score on the District’sSpanish Language Proficiency Exam.

Each year professionals from key district departments (e.g., Gifted andTalented, Curriculum/Instruction, Staff Development, Special Education,Assessment, Language Acquisition) work with the district leaders and schoolprincipals to develop a strategic plan that includes prioritized professionaldevelopment efforts. All schools and every teacher across the Dalby HeightsDistrict must align their professional development needs with the district

Table 7.2. Dalby Heights School District Profile.

Student Numbers

Enrollment 42,077

Students with limited English proficiency 6,083 (14.2%)

Languages spoken 68

Students served through special education 3,515 (8.0%)

Students on free or reduced priced lunch 13,380 (32%)

Graduation rate 68%


White 25,326 (60.19%)

Hispanic 12,960 (30.80%)

Asian 2,289 (5.44%)

African-American 1,145 (2.72%)

Native American 362 (.86%)

Number of Schools

Elementary 30

Middle 8

High 5

Charter 5

Alternative schools 2


strategic plan as it is not the prerogative of an individual school to set a uniqueor individual agenda for staff development. A recent district initiative requiresevery teacher complete an online ESL training package. Teachers in DalbyHeights are held to high teaching standards (see Table 7.2).

SCHOOL CONTEXTS

Cesar Chavez Elementary School

Cesar Chavez Elementary School, which is in the far eastern portion of theMountain View School District and is located in the downtown section of acommunity with mining and farming roots, now serves as the home formultiple Mexican restaurants and small ethnic groceries. Cesar ChavezElementary School is a focus school and all students enroll through thedistrict open enrollment process. The student population is made up ofapproximately 50% Spanish speakers and 50% English speakers. There isconsiderable range of socioeconomic status among Cesar Chavez Elemen-tary School families, with 60% of the students on free and reduced lunch.Table 7.3 provides a profile of Cesar Chavez Elementary School (ColoradoEducation Department, 2010a).

Table 7.3. Cesar Chavez Elementary School Profile.

Student Numbers

Enrollment 726

Students with limited English proficiency 186 (42.7%)

Languages spoken 3

Talented and gifted 37 (8.5%)

Students served through special education 35 (15%)

Students supported with a supplemental literacy plan 86 (20%)

Students supported with a behavior plan 12 (2.8%)

Students on free or reduced priced lunch 348 (48%)


African-American 6 (1.4%)

Asian 3 (.7%)

European American 166 (38%)

Hispanic 259 (59.4%)

Faculty Numbers

Faculty members 98

Advanced degrees 67 (68.2%)

Average years of teaching experience 10.3


The unique focus of Cesar Chavez Elementary School is their dualimmersion program, where students learn to read and write in their firstlanguage, in small groups with the support of literacy specialists. Studentsalso receive daily structured second language instruction and math andcontent area instruction, through hands on, experiential activities. Allstudents develop language proficiency in both Spanish and English in a trulymulticultural diverse school community with a multicultural perspectiveinfused throughout the curriculum. Parents and families are a critical part ofthe Cesar Chavez Elementary School community. Parent volunteerismstrong and participation of both English and Spanish speakers in thedecision-making process and at social events is central.

Cesar Chavez Elementary School articulates a mission committed toproviding challenging academics within a multicultural, dual languageprogram. Staff members strive to build bridges that bring their communitytogether. They express a dedication to a deliberately designed curriculum,aligned with Mountain View District academic standards, that meets theneeds of all learners. They commit to empowering their bilingual students tobe thoughtful and caring individuals who are able to meet the challenges ofthe future and positively contribute to our diverse world. To attain thatmission, Cesar Chavez Elementary School faculty see their vision as a coursethat requires them to strive towards excellence, expecting high academicachievement from all students, nurturing bilingual and biliterate graduates,and to serve as a model dual language program for other schools and theircommunity. The Cesar Chavez Elementary School vision articulates agenuine value of parents as active partners in education, strong partnershipswith their community, and using their school as a community center. CesarChavez Elementary School faculty and staff strive to promote aharmonious, nurturing environment, safety at all times, responsibility andmutual respect while celebrating cross-cultural friendships, pride indiversity, and the promise of bilingualism.

Touring the hallways, classrooms, and offices at Cesar ChavezElementary School reveals multiple displays that are reflective of students’families, their lives, and their cultures, such as photographs, artifacts, andspecial student and family treasures, realia and props, student names, andfamily trees with family roots. Bilingual flyers advertising the family lendinglibrary and upcoming community events are prominently displayed in thefront hallway.

Not long ago, an after-school club focused on youth advocating for socialaction at the community level read children’s literature centered on MartinLuther King, Jr. The children raised concerns about the school and town


having no celebration for Martin Luther King Day. The group of 10children decided to write a letter to the city council requesting that acommunity march be established. With parent and community support,children hand-delivered their letters to the upcoming city council meetingwhere they shared it with the mayor and council. This year—thanks to theschool-community connection—the town celebrated the sixth annualcommunity Martin Luther King march. After the march, a culminatingpresentation of music, poetry, and speeches was led by local youth many ofwhom used to be members of the after school club at Cesar ChavezElementary School.

The principal and staff at Cesar Chavez Elementary School are innovative,committed, and persistent in their effort to create a welcoming and inclusivecontext. Nonetheless, periodically parents and faculty members observe thatcross-cultural parent interactions can wane. Additionally, with few parentswho are bilingual at Cesar Chavez Elementary, the reality is that interactionsbetween parents can truly be constrained by language. After noticing parents’routines and patterns during pick-up and drop-off, a plan was devised tosupport cross-cultural interactions for parents. Two parents—one of whomwas bilingual and bicultural—volunteered to start a one hour morning coffeeright after drop-offwhenmany Spanish-speaking parents were lingering at theschool waiting for an ESL class to begin on site. Using ‘‘ice-breaker’’ activitiesthat built on parents’ shared background knowledge (e.g., school, kids,community, family), visuals, games, and manipulatives that did not require areliance on a common language, the twoparents planned structures to supportinteractions between Spanish-speaking and English-speaking parents. Themorning coffee, known as ‘‘Una visita entre padres’’ (a visit among parents),prompted parents to come together, take risks, and get out of their comfortzone with the goal of crossing cultural boundaries and avoiding segregation.While the two original parents have moved on, other parents have continuedthe effort. With a strong pot of coffee and some ‘‘cafe con leche,’’ the visitamong parents still continues bringing parents together once a month.

Each year, all students are screened using district mandated reading andmathematics assessments. Data derived from the tests inform how studentsare grouped and who receives support or enrichment. Weekly data-reviewmeetings are held across grade levels and the special education teachers anda guidance counselor collaborate with content instructors to place studentsin pull-out interventions and plan push-in activities. Student progress ismonitored throughout the year and some students test out of their originalplacements. In order to create an intentional, positive culture, ChavezElementary School teachers and staff members (e.g., school secretary,


custodians, lunch room personnel) have instituted a positive behaviorsupport program called DREAM (the acronym stands for Discover,Respect, Empathize, Achieve, Motivate). Visible features of DREAM arebilingual posters describing appropriate behavior for various situations anda stamp book which stores earned stamps that are redeemed for rewards.

Willow Creek High School

Willow Creek is the largest of Dalby Height’s five high schools and islocated in a highly industrial area, surrounded by shopping centers and fast-food restaurants. Faculty and staff at Willow Creek High School have amission to accelerate our student’s academic achievement and nurture theirsocial development by providing high-quality instruction for every student,in every classroom, every day! Faculty believe that diversity is a uniquestrength of Willow Creek High School and take pride in the wealth of clubs,activities, and athletics that is offered to students. Willow Creek is a schoolthat is strong in academic and extracurricular traditions maintaining theirnumber one priority is their student’s academic success—both now and fortheir future.

Pennants representing faculty alma maters and banners announcing theyears each class will graduate from college line the halls. Willow Creekprovides students a spectrum of high school credit gaining strategies. Thehigh school and district together with a local community college forged anexciting partnership to challenge students by designing career pathways toincrease the number of high school students earning college credit. Theprogram allows eligible juniors and seniors the opportunity to earn collegecredit while in high school. In addition to students being able to earn 30credit hours per trimester in regular daily classes, two additional credits areavailable from an after-school study skills class or students that enroll innight school can earn up to an additional 10 credits per trimester. A creditrecovery program is also in place for students in danger of not graduatingon schedule.

Parent and family member involvement in students’ academic career isextremely important and that valued involvement is sought-after in dailyschool practices. The administration team at Willow Creek has arequirement that five parents are a part of the school recruitment team.There are also parent–teacher calls, two parent conferences, and a back-to-school night when parents have a chance to meet teachers and to gain abetter understanding of school and class expectations. Willow Creek


maintains a Community Room with bilingual staff and resources forfamilies, and it provides a leadership training course for new parents. Astudent tracking system links students and parents to their classeselectronically and allows both to follow assignments and schedules foreach. Staff members are aware that many families lack computer andInternet access, and they attempt to reach parents via telephone and writtencorrespondence with translation services when available. The administrationhas taken into account community changes, so that the Media Center atWillow Creek now has extended hours after several area libraries wereclosed due to service cutbacks throughout the city.

The school has a ‘‘late start’’ on Tuesdays (school begins at 9:00 A.M.instead of 7:45 A.M.) to allow faculty to participate in data teams, contentplanning, professional development opportunities, and intervention meet-ings. This precious school-wide planning and meeting block is continuallyrevised to manage the multiple demands of faculty. Willow Creek uses thethree-tier Response to Intervention model (RtI) with 80 to 90% of thestudents in Tier 1 in the general education classroom working in large orsmall groups. Willow Creek’s Tier 2 interventions are focused on readingand writing skills and target an array of students. Given that learnersidentified as ELL students make up 29% of the student body with Spanishbeing the most common language followed by Russian, five levels of EnglishLanguage Acquisition classes are offered. A Tier 3 level of intervention thatconsists of intensive small group instruction or even one-on-one instructionis also available for students needing such services. There are special tutorialtimes for students who need additional help, including an after schoolprogram called ‘‘Math Cafe.’’ Failure Is Not An Option (FINAO) is WillowCreek’s tutorial program designed to provide support for students across allsubject areas. Teachers assign students who did not show proficiency on anassignment or did not accomplish the assigned task before or after schooltutorials. Many students choose to attend when they are in need ofhomework support or review.

Students who arrive at Willow Creek having already been placed inspecial education generally continue with those recommended previousprograms. Those who manifest special needs after arriving at Willow Creekare not placed in special education until at least six weeks of intervention hasproven to be unsuccessful. The pattern of student performance must besupported by a minimum of six distinct data points as well as the advice of aSpecial Intervention Team. If the student has a second language need,additional evidence is required to ensure that language issues are notimpacting the misdiagnosis of a learning or behavioral disability (Table 7.4).


CONCLUSION

As seen in the profiles within this chapter, school professional developmentalignment structures vary across districts. In our profiles, Mountain Viewallows schools to identify needs and complements professional developmentefforts at the district level, while Dalby Heights more closely controls staffdevelopment in schools requiring schools to engage in only thoseprofessional development initiatives that are directly aligned with thedistrict strategic plan. During a recent National Staff DevelopmentConference (NSDC), Mizell (2010) claimed, ‘‘Unfortunately, the misuse ofprofessional development is so widespread that educators accept it as thenorm,’’ explaining that school systems typically use precious professionaldevelopment time for information dissemination, briefings on new laws andregulations, instructions for administering standardized tests, and passive,lecture-focused assemblies. To avoid squandering precious training time,Mizell (2010) calls for an effective course of action cautioning thatcontextual factors must be central to all planning to ensure that teacherssee professional development as worthy of their time.

Table 7.4. Willow Creek School Profile.

Student Numbers

Enrollment 1,819

Students with limited English proficiency 532 (29%)

Languages spoken 12

Talented and gifted 97 (.05%)

Students served through special education 168 (.09%)

Students supported with a supplemental literacy plan 102 (.06%)

Students supported with a behavior plan 41 (.02%)

Students on free or reduced priced lunch 539 (29.43%)


African-American 63 (3.46%)

Asian 84 (4.6%)

European American 771 (42.39%)

Hispanic 878 (48.27%)

Native American 22 (1.21%)

Faculty Numbers

Faculty members 98

Advanced degrees 67 (68.2%)

Average years of teaching experience 10.3


With a contextual understanding of two representative school districtsand a school within each of those districts, we will now move into an arrayof classrooms. In Chapters Eight, Nine, and Ten, we will ‘‘tour’’ threedifferent classes where teaches are taking steps to put into place culturallyresponsive pedagogy. Each teacher is at a different point in this process andall are still deepening their understandings of what it means to respond andinstruct in culturally appropriate ways.


1. Collect or review demographic and program data focused on ‘‘broadcultural diversity’’ of students, families, and faculty/staff that are similarto the types of data which we have presented in this chapter. What are thecurrent demographics and context of your school and district?

2. Examine your district and school mission statements. How do thosemissions complement each other? How do they differ? Identify examplesof how those missions regarding broad cultural diversity are realized inyour school.

3. Consider the ways that academic supports vary across school districtsand individual schools. How do support programs and interventions inacademic courses vary among K-12 schools in your area?

4. Identify three to five ways that you communicate with parents andfamilies. Which of your practices have been most effective especially withfamily members whose native language is different from the languagespoken at school? What are ways to enhance your communications withparents and families?

5. Look closely at possible examples of access inequities. How do you helpfamilies access school and district resources when they do not havecomputer or Internet access?


PART THREE

CLASSROOMS IMPLEMENTING


PEDAGOGY

Photo 3. The Peace Place.

CHAPTER EIGHT

GRADE 3 LITERACY LESSON

WITH A CULTURALLY

RESPONSIVE FOCUS

INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, we examined the ways in which state guidelines aremanifested and acted upon at the district and school level. Having providedan overview of two districts and a school housed within each district, we willnow focus on the instruction occurring on classrooms within each school.Our intention is to describe the actions taken by three teachers who arecommitted to teaching and reaching all students and who are taking steps tooperationalize culturally responsive pedagogy.Understanding that there is nosimple method or program to follow, these teachers have attempted to uselearner information to guide their decisions about the classroom environ-ment, curriculum, materials, instruction, learning, language, and buildingrapport with their students’ families. The scenarios describe the outcomes ofsteps taken by each teacher to teach on culturally responsive way; however,the scenarios are not a recipe for how to ‘‘do’’ culturally responsive pedagogy.

The sites described in Chapters Eight, Nine, and Ten are compositeclassrooms crafted from the sociocultural contexts where we have based ourclassroom research. The teachers, students, and names are pseudonyms; anysimilarity to actual individuals, districts, or schools is entirely coincidental.The composite classrooms and teachers are grounded in a range of data, andrepresent exemplary to satisfactory practices. In each scenario, you willmost likely find elements of strong pedagogy as well as practices that couldbe enhanced by the teachers.

The classroom highlighted in this scenario is located at Cesar ChavezElementary School, which houses preschool through 8th grade andmirrors the

133

realities present in many of today’s U.S. urban and suburban schools. Theschool is committed to the Mountain View district mission of creatingpartnerships with community organizations and supporting students’ towardsmaking the community a more inclusive place to live. The school houses anEnglish as a Second Language (ESL) program on site, offers differentiatedinstruction tomeet the needs of all students, and provides periodic professionaldevelopment for teachers on English language acquisition. In the literacyscenario, we observe a teacher who is taking steps to emphasize content andinstruction from students’ cultural frames of reference, use students’ back-ground knowledge and life experiences to guide her instructional plans anddelivery, and accommodate a range of students’ preferred learning strategies.

TEACHER PROFILE

Having grown up with four siblings and surrounded by extended family in theSan Luıs Valley in southern Colorado, I was used to helping with my twoyounger brothers and being around kids. After high school, I opted to work fora few years before entering the university and making a decision to teach.Having worked odd jobs at local coffee shops and restaurants with lots ofpeople contact, I was enthralled with my coursework in sociology andeducational psychology. Many aspects of human behavior and developmentwere brought to life in the readings and I could pull from the interactions I hadexperience with people at my jobs and with my younger family members. WhenI was done with general studies courses, I knew I wanted to become aprofessional educator working with children. Once admitted to the teacherpreparation program at a nearby university, I was thrilled to find out that itwas a teacher education program with a professional development schoolmodel (PDS). This would get me what I wanted which was as much time aspossible to learn on site in the classroom during my time as a preservice teacherbefore I would take full responsibility for a class full of children.

It’s been enlightening teaching at Cesar Chavez Elementary School with sucha diverse group of kids. The student population is diverse in race and ethnicity,but also in religious background, language, and socioeconomic background.I had a lot to learn about the various ethnic groups here, but especially the Latinopopulation because their background differs from mine despite sharing somecommonalities. Whereas my family ancestors settled in the San Luıs Valley inthe early 1800s when it was part of the Spanish province, NuevoMexico, most ofthe families at Cesar Chavez Elementary School are recent immigrants fromMexico. I grew up speaking what is considered today to be an archaic form of


Spanish brought to the area by the Spanish conquistadors, and I learned Englishat school.Most people whomeetmewhen I am speakingEnglish, thinkmy nativelanguage is English. It isn’t until we start to share stories about growing up, thatthey find out thatmy family spokemostly Spanish at homewhen I was a child andthat some of my family customs and holiday traditions are a mixture of Spanishand Mexican cultures. Many of the Latino families at Cesar Chavez have alanguage, customs, and cultural frame of reference that are quite different frommine. Of course, we can understand each other when we speak Spanish, but wesometimes have to clarify word meanings and phrases. Several of our traditionsand holiday celebrations are different, too. It’s been fun learning more abouttheir ways of life. More than anyone thing, I have learned that I cannot assume.I have also learned the value of finding out all that I can about my students, theirfamilies, and their lives as this can inform decisions about what I teach and howI teach it in ways that ‘‘click’’ for the children.

– Reni Ruız, Third grade teacher, Cesar Chavez Elementary School

SOCIOCULTURAL CLASSROOM CONTEXT

Cesar Chavez Elementary School mirrors the realities present in many oftoday’s urban schools. Of the 726 students, 61% are from minoritybackgrounds; 48% receive free or reduced lunch (an indicator of socio-economic background); 42.7% of the students qualify for English LanguageLearner (ELL) services (native languages include, English, Spanish,Russian); 108 students (15%) are identified with special education needs;the school has a 29% student mobility rate and a 91% attendance rate,falling below the state attendance goal for Colorado schools of 95%.

Ms. Ruız’s class currently contains 27 students, 14 females and 13 males.Of the 27 students, 11 have an individualized literacy plan. Eight studentshave been identified as English language learners. The four students with anidentified special education need include I speech/language (who is notan ELL student), 2 students with a learning disorder, and 1 emotional/behavioral disorder. The range of reading abilities represented in Ms. Ruız’sclass is 1st grade reading level to 6th grade reading ability.

RESEARCH FOUNDATIONS IN LITERACY

INSTRUCTION FOR ELL STUDENTS

Language learning is directly linked with reading and writing. All threeelements involve an individual being able to use language to communicate in

Grade 3 Literacy Lesson with a Culturally Responsive Focus 135

a variety of forms. Language is defined as a system of communication usedby human beings and produced either orally or by signs. Languagedevelopment lays the groundwork for children’s success as readers andwriters (Harp & Brewer, 2005). Most experts agree that children need afoundation in oral or sign language in the case of deaf children prior tobeing expected to learn to read or to benefit from formal readinginstruction, but there is no clear indication that they must have avocabulary of a certain number of words or know specific patterns oflanguage before they begin reading. The same is true for students learningEnglish as a second or additional language (Drucker, 2005). To optimizeoral language development at school, teachers need to make time daily forstudents to talk to each other while interacting about a variety of content.Such interactions may include pair-shares, small group discussion,brainstorming topics, or research projects. While these communicationactivities may seem simple and obviously needed, research indicatesthat teachers tend to do 65 to 95% of the talking in most classrooms notstudents (Lowery, 1980).

For reading and writing development, all learners must learn the formsof print—which include the letters of the alphabet, how the letters aresequenced into words, sentences, and paragraphs—in order to createstories, notes, letters, and many other forms of communication. Moreover,all learners—whether native English speakers or English language learnersstudents—eventually apply their developing English language know-ledge, their world knowledge, background knowledge, and understandingof print conventions to make sense of the written text when reading(Peregoy & Boyle, 2008). In writing, all learners use their developingknowledge of English, background knowledge, life experiences, andunderstandings of print conventions to begin to record their ideas on paperin written form.

There is no question that reading and writing are complex processes.These processes can go on for a quite a while before the learner gainsproficiency in either reading or writing. The learner needs to grasp the formsof print in English, the letters of the alphabet, and how these are sequencedinto words in reading and writing. Eventually learners learn how letters andwords are sequenced into sentences and paragraphs to result in stories,letters, email messages, essays, and reports.

While many similarities exist between the literacy development of nativeEnglish speakers compared with English language learners, there are someimportant differences. For those students who are at the beginning stages ofacquiring English as an additional language, they are still acquiring basic


knowledge of English during the time that they are concurrently learning toread and write in English at school. In essence, they are learning to learn in anew language while learning to read and write in that new language. Researchindicates that English language learners can benefit from instruction inEnglish reading and writing long before they have fully developed their orallanguage. Teachers do not need to wait for ELL students to becomeproficient in spoken English before providing reading and writing instructionin English (Hudelson, 1987).

When English language learners are literate in their native language,they bring knowledge and skills about reading and writing in their firstlanguage that will transfer to their learning of English reading and writing.There is much research to support the teaching of literacy in the student’s firstlanguage whenever possible due to the fact that this is the language thelearners know and that makes sense to them.Moreover, literacy skills transferreadily from one’s native language to English during the time that Englishlanguage proficiency develops (Cummins, 1981; Peregoy, 1989).

CLASSROOM TOUR

Ms. Ruız is always looking for more and different ways to reach herstudents, As we approach her room, it’s clear that her class is involved in astudy that has caught students’ interest since they are lingering around theentrance to the room taking time to look at a colorful quilt that covers theentire door to the classroom.

Approaching the classroom, you can see that the creative quilt does, infact, cover the entire door. Composed of individual student quiltpieces united to form a bold numeral 3, the quilt tells the story ofstudents’ families, favorite foods, hobbies and interests. Book coversof multicultural children’s literature border the quilt display. Some ofthe book titles include: Dia’s Story Cloth (Cha, 1994) and WhisperingCloth (Deitz Shea, 1996) (both books are about story-telling quiltsfrom the Hmong culture); Shota’s Star Quilt (Bateson Hill, 2001) (thepower of quilting and community activism as told by a young Lakotagirl); Sweet Clara and the Freedom Quilt (Hopkinson, 2003) (quiltsused as maps to guide African American slaves to the UndergroundRailroad); and The Keeping Quilt (Polacco, 2001) (a Russian family’squilt used for the Sabbath table cloth, a wedding canopy, and a babyblanket).


BEING RESPONSIVE TO STUDENTS’ CULTURE

Curriculum and Content

The multicolored quilt in the shape of the numeral ‘‘3’’ provides a visuallystimulating and welcoming entrance to greet 3rd grade students as theyapproach the teacher’s classroom at the start of the school year. Duringthe initial lesson used to launch this unit, students were welcomed by thenumeral 3 shape on the classroom door with the colorful border consistingof book covers. Students then created and contributed individual squares tocomplete the classroom quilt. Ms. Ruız rooted the individual quilt-makingin a language/literacy experience that students to inquire, discuss, write, andshare about aspects of their family history, cultural history, life experiences,and personal attributes (see Fig. 8.1). Moreover, the teacher used the art-and literacy-based sharing experience to gain valuable knowledge about thestudents, their cultural backgrounds, and their families (Kottler & Kottler,2002; Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004).

Throughout the first week of this unit, students’ interest in the book coverspeaked.During this time,Ms.Ruız began to read from the individual books aspart of her regular ‘‘shared reading’’ time with students. These carefullyselected titles have provided multiple opportunities for students to locatethemselves, their life and learning experiences, their culture, values, language,and physical characteristics within the literature shared in the classroom(Taylor, 2000). Moreover, as the students hear and read about the lifeexperiences of the main characters, they have had the chance to enter intosomeone else’s reality, share in their lives, and feelings. Ms Ruız has used thismulticultural children’s literature as a means for her students to have theopportunity to understand the pluralismof today’sworld, respect the diversityof today’s society, and see them in a positive light (Bishop, 1997).

Come on. Let’s enter Ms. Ruız’s room. Walking past the quilt display,you will immediately notice that student desks are arranged in groupsof four and compose seven seating clusters (with four desks in eachcluster). Book boxes are positioned in the center of each desk cluster.Used for independent reading, the book selections are changed weeklyand represent 5 different levels of reading representative of the readingabilities of the students who sit at that cluster of desks.

Looking to the front of the room, you see a large, brightly coloredbulletin board labeled ‘‘Our Schedules.’’ Accented with a commercial border


depicting children of different racial ethnicities, the sign ‘‘National Women’sHistory Month’’ is hung over the month of March. Color photographs ofMaya Angelou, Susan B. Anthony, Anne Sullivan and Ellen Ochoa areposted near the sign to support an author study that focuses on the stories ofimportant, strong women in U.S. History.

To the left, you see a 3u� 4u chart labeled, ‘‘CENTERS: Where I Go &What I Do When I Get There.’’ The chart is organized with color-codedpockets each containing the name of a center and an accompanying picturecue. Each pocket contains a 5� 7 index card detailing the expectations of

Investigating and Sharing Our Stories, Families and Cultures

Directions: Using the prompt in each box below, take time to reflect on an image or experiencefrom your life including early childhood up to present time. In each box, write a key word, name,memory or draw an image that illustrates your recollection of the prompt. Think about the wordsyou will use to explain each one to a friend or classmate.

1. A favorite food or

family meal

2. A childhood game

you used to play

3. A wedding custom

4. A special holiday or

a celebration you

recall

5. A family ritual or

tradition

6. A family saying or

proverb

7. A craft or art activity 8. A story shared by

your grandparents or

older family member

9. A special song that

links to a family or

cultural memory

10. An old family remedy

or folk medicine

used

11. A traditional costume

or dress

12. A family “taboo” or

“no-no”

Fig. 8.1. Exploring Our Cultures.


the center. Directions are provided in English, Russian, and Spanish. Studentname cards are prepared with Velcro backing for ease in organizingheterogeneous groupings. Beneath the centers chart, a student chant isdisplayed. Created during an interactive writing activity, the chant is verballyrecited after directions have been discussed and modeled, before studentsmove to centers. The class-generated chant is, ‘‘Centers are great. Our volumeis at one. When we are done, we will clean up, go to our desks and read.’’

Beside the centers area, youwill see a poster labeled, ‘‘Options for ProvidingFeedback’’ that displays three symbols with an accompanying word andsentence starter. A visual of a star indicates that one option for providingfeedback is for students to give a compliment about the work that their peersshare (e.g., I like your ________. I like how you ________.’’). Another option(identified on the display as a questionmark) indicates students could providefeedback to a peer in the form of a question (e.g., ‘‘Why did youchoose________? Where did you get the idea for ________?’’). And the thirdoption for providing feedback (identified on the display as a birthday cakewith lit candles stand for ‘‘wishes’’) indicates that students could providefeedback to a peer in the form of a suggestion (e.g., ‘‘Maybe next time youcouldy’’. Next time use more ________ in your writing.’’) (see Fig. 8.2).

Social Contexts and Scaffolding

In accordance with the research-based view that meaningful conversationand collaboration are critical to learning, this teacher has structured theseating arrangement and classroom design so that students are encouraged

Stars provide a complimentabout the work that was just shared

? Question mark means to ask a question about what you just heard

Wishes provide a suggestion or recommendation for the work you just heard

Fig. 8.2. Options for Providing Feedback.


to talk and confer with each other (Routman, 1999). As students sit ingroups of 4, they are encouraged to interact. Ms. Ruız demonstrates anunderstanding of the social nature of learning and language development,which is especially relevant to developing academic language in content-specific discussions. Perhaps Ms. Ruız adheres to Vygotsky’s theory aboutthe social nature of thinking and language development? She structures herclassroom so that children’s development can be understood and observedthrough the context of their participation in activities that integratecommunication and cognitive processing.

As noted, Ms. Ruız understands that young readers need a variety ofengaging books suitable for their reading level to stimulate and support theirlearning and reading; hence, the book boxes at each cluster of desks. Theteacher has conferred with individual learners around book selection andmodeled how to determine if a book is at their appropriate reading level.Readers have practiced these strategies for selecting books at their ownlevel. Proactive planning efforts such as these demonstrate the teacher’sgrounded beliefs in differentiation (Peregoy & Boyle, 2008; Tomlinson,1999).

It appears that Ms. Ruız recognizes the importance of surroundingstudents with visually pleasing and colorful displays. In addition, the visualdisplays highlight and include a series of notable, celebrated women whorepresent a variety of racial and ethnic backgrounds, thereby presentingpositive role models for young female 3rd grade learners. This nonfictionliterature about key historical characters richly complements the multi-cultural fiction which highlights main characters also from a variety ofethnic backgrounds. In the future, Ms. Ruız will read aloud in ‘‘sharedreading’’ excerpts from the nonfiction texts about the notable women inhistory. In turn, she will ask students to investigate and write about animportant person in their lives.

Incorporating instruction through center arrangements is highly effectiveand efficient if managed well. Ms. Ruız knows that merely modeling ordiscussing the ‘‘center expectations’’ as a single event on one day will notensure that particular students are able to independently practice it. Multiple,differentiated opportunities for students to practice this skill are stressed.Such opportunities allow for additional oral language and pronunciation usefor those students with learning and language differences. The visualsaccompanying each center are culturally respectful (e.g., photos of childrenfrom the classroom who represent a range of diverse backgroundsdemonstrate the center procedures) and support the learning styles of thestudents. This teacher’s use of the chant created during an interactive writing


activity reinforces the value of student-generated work, writing for authenticpurposes, and ultimately contributes to increased student ownership.

Another way Ms. Ruız supports students’ oral language development isthrough the teacher-made display that provides options for students’feedback, which is displayed in visual and text forms. The posters (e.g., star,question mark, birthday cake with candles) offer a visual cue linked to eachtype of feedback and the text form provides sample sentence-starters toassist ELL students craft their feedback. When students are prompted toprovide feedback or opt to share spontaneously, this display incorporatesguidance for language use and instructional reinforcement.

As we continue to maneuver through Ms. Ruız’s classroom, we lookto the left side of the room where we see centered above the windowsthat run along the side of the room a sign that says, ‘‘Friends look forall kinds of ways to be kind to each other’’ and a poster with theword ‘‘Friends’’ translated in a variety of languages representative ofthe school community. Along each side of the sign, you see a creativedisplay of self-portraits of classroom friends with student-generateddescriptions responding to ‘‘Who are we? Who am I today?’’ Thisdescription will be revisited and revised at key times throughout theyear so that students can update ‘‘Who they are’’ to support thenotion that we all change as does our cultural identity.

Under the windows a small couch, two bean bags and an assortmentof pillows forms the ‘‘Buddy Reading’’ area. A small crate of themedbooks on bugs/insects compliments the current science unit. Abookshelf labeled ‘‘Class Library’’ divides the ‘‘Buddy’’ area fromthe guided reading table. Collaboratively students decided how tocatalog the materials at the start of the school year. Materials weresorted into colorful crates labeled: Magic, Fiction, Clifford, Dr. Suess,Jokes, Animals, Science, Who We Are and HowWe Live (sample textsof contemporary stories and narratives about cultural pluralism anddifferent views of the world).

Tucked comfortably in the far left-hand corner to the left of the classlibrary is the listening center. On the table, two tape-recorders and avertical file with cataloged cassette tapes are positioned between smallstacks of accompanying books. Two headsets hang from hooks aboveeach tape-recorder.

The wall behind the guided reading table holds several illustratedposters, which read: (a) Ask three before me; (b) When I’m done—


ways to maximize my time; (c) Hints for punctuation and checking mywork; and (d) I’m going to give it all I’ve got everyday. These fourpositively worded classroom guidelines were created collaboratively bythe students and teacher at the start of the year. They are revisitedperiodically and revised when a need for change is determined by theclass as a whole.

Managing the Classroom and Scaffolding

Once again, we observe Ms. Ruız to demonstrate a management approachthat emphasizes the importance of community building and social decision-making. In a caring, supportive, culturally rich community of learners,teacher and learners need to find ways to interact, get to know each other,and advocate for oneself. Also, the teacher encourages learners to find valuein looking for their commonalities and differences. At the same time, theteacher recognizes that we all change as individuals and cultural beings.The creation of this classroom display on ‘‘Friends’’ can accomplishseveral tasks: (1) it can provide the teacher with information about eachlearner (experiences, family, self-concept, cultural heritage); (2) it allowsthe learner to reflect on the changes she/he has experienced during theschool year; and (3) it encourages classmates to revisit their opinions of eachother and reflect on how they demonstrate friendly, respectful interactionsin the classroom community (Kottler & Kottler, 2002; Sobel, Taylor, &Wortman, 2006; Weinstein et al., 2004).

Ms. Ruız has found a way to encourage and support meaningfulconversation and collaboration among students in the context of the ‘‘BuddyReading’’ area. Students have the chance to expand their reading and interestsrelated to the science unit. The teacher has found another venue for providinga range of engaging books at a variety of genre and reading levels with the goalof stimulating and motivating students to read for enjoyment. Ms. Ruız’sbeliefs in differentiation continue to drive her decision-making aroundclassroom environment (Peregoy & Boyle, 2005; Tomlinson, 1999).Her decision to maintain a listening center links to Ms. Ruız’s belief that

listening offers a potentially rich resource for providing supplementalstrategies to meet the needs of individual learners. A listening center offersmultiple opportunities to support struggling readers and encourage learnersto make sense of what they have heard. For readers who have difficultyfocusing, this teacher knows that simultaneously hearing and seeing thetext can help them to concentrate. Moreover, listening and viewing a book


promotes fluency and reading for enjoyment (Routman, 1999). Addition-ally, in terms of second language learning, listening provides a strong link tolanguage development. Providing learners with a variety of focused listeningtasks via audio devices allows them to listen and replay as needed. This teacherknows that understanding what is said helps to provide important models forlanguage use. In this listening center, learners will participate in one-way taskswhere the listener is asked to respond (verbally or in writing) either abouteveryday conversational topics or informational topics. In daily life, one-waylistening is generally very difficult because the listener doesn’t have theopportunity to ask for clarification (e.g., listening to the news). However, thecenter is structured so that the learner can replay the message as needed. As afollow-up activity in class, the teacher will guide students through two-waylistening activities where they have a chance to ask for clarification, signal thatthey do not understand and self-advocate (Gibbons, 2002).Issues of large class size, increasing numbers of students who experience

emotional and/or behavioral challenges and classes with vast abilitydifferences create a heightened need for increased effectiveness in managingclassroom behaviors (Sobel, Taylor, & Wortman, 2006). Ms. Ruız favors aclassroom management approach that emphasizes the importance of self-regulation, community building, and social decision-making (Weinstein et al.,2004). With expectations of what is ‘‘appropriate behavior’’ being culturallyinfluenced, potential conflicts are likely to occur when teachers and studentscome from different cultural backgrounds and share distinct life experi-ences. Teachers will continue to face greater instructional, behavioral, andclassroom management challenges as they strive to accommodate theincreasing diversity of students’ learning styles and behavioral needs(Larrivee, 2005). These issues are further magnified by insufficient opportu-nities to learn and practice the necessary social competencies and commu-nication skills under the typical management routines found in today’sdemanding classrooms (Harriott & Martin, 2004). This classroom teacherunderstands these concerns and has planned to ensure that the school-widesocial skills initiative is reinforced in her classroom. She appreciates thatclassroom rules need to be positively worded and personalized by students toensure their ownership. Rather than focusing on students’ negative behaviorsor characteristics, this teacher emphasizes students’ strengths and progress.

Well, the morning bell has rung, class has begun, and Ms. Ruız istransitioning to her literacy block. As we shift our focus to the lesson,take note of the bulletin board up front that is labeled ‘‘OurSchedules’’ and the calendar display with the daily classroom routine.


To the right of the calendar, a small digital and analog clock (withmovable hands) is displayed. To the left of the calendar is a three-pocket plastic pouch labeled, ‘‘Days-in-School.’’ Drinking straws areplaced in each pocket to depict the ones-tens- and hundreds. A blackand white number line runs the length of the front of the room and asmall school shaped magnet is placed on the number corresponding tothe current days-in-school. An erase board lists today’s schedule for allacademics and specials.

Recognizing the strong correlation between print-rich environments andliteracy development as shown in the research, this teacher is strategicallyusing the environment print in the classroom to support both readingand math literacy (Krashen, 1996). Students are presented with authenticpurposes for reading (e.g., the schedule and the calendar) and formanipulating the analog clock, the calendar, and the numerals correspondingwith the dates of the month (figuring out the time, the number of days spentin school, etc.). Real reading and real numeracy seem to abound in thisclassroom. In this case, the environmental print ismuchmore than decorative;it serves as supplemental reinforcement of current curricular content.

Back in the classroom, we notice that just below today’s schedule, isthe focus for today’s lesson:

� Today’s focus: Story elements� Essential Question: What are key elements to literature? How doelements of literature engage and hold the attention of readers? Whatconnections can youmake to the character and events in the literature?� Standard: Third grade language arts standard 6—Students read,understand, and interpret literature as a record and expression ofhuman experience.And 3rd grade history standard 3—Students understand that societiesare diverse and have changed over time.� How does this lesson fit into unit content? This content supports ourcontinued study of literature as an expression of human experiencesituated within a diverse and changing society.� Language Objective: Students will be able to describe the maincharacter using their spoken and written language.� Learner Outcome: Students will be able to record in writingdescriptors of the main character’s personality, appearance, andpersonal situation.


The Learner and the Curriculum

In literacy, students have been focused on recognizing and applying storyelements in their reading and writing. Using multicultural children’sliterature, students have read and discussed several books with the themeof quilts to support their reflection of family and cultural history, lifeexperiences, and personal attributes. Shortly after the start of the schoolyear, the teacher introduced the concept of quilts in a read-aloud of TheKeeping Quilt (Polacco, 2001). The story of a Russian family’s quilt that wasused for the Sabbath table cloth, a wedding canopy, and a baby blanket,prompted students’ reflections and memories of their own life experiences.Throughout this unit, the teacher implemented a series of lessons integratingliterature, literacy, and art which facilitated students’ preliminary verbal andwritten sharing about their lives, families, cultures, and special memories. Aspreviously mentioned, students took home a handout on ‘‘Exploring ourown cultures, families, and stories’’ and completed this with their family’sassistance (see Fig. 8.1). Eventually, each student created an individual quiltsquare that became part of a larger classroom quilt. Students shared orallyand in writing about the design and significance of their quilt squares. Theseactivities allowed the teacher and students to access a deeper understandingof each other’s backgrounds and experiences. Moreover, it promptedstudents to interact with their families, to recall and share interestingmemories and life stories, and to read and respond to the children’sliterature about life stories grounded in quilts. Last but not least, making aclass quilt instilled a strong sense of community in the classroom.

Let’s listen in to the classroom interactions. Ms. Ruız is starting thelesson by prompting students to recall what it is that good readers do.‘‘Hello good readers! Who remembers what good readers do? Marcos,I see your hand is raised, please tell us your idea. [Marcos responds.]Yes, you’re right on target! Marcos tells us that good readers makeconnections to what they know. They visualize and ask themselvesquestions. Can anyone add to Marcos’ information?’’ The teacherlooks to Gabriela whose hand is raised, but when she calls on her,Gabby is speechless. ‘‘OK Gabby, take time to gather your ideas, andI’ll come back to you.’’ Another student shares that good readerspredict and verify predictions. ‘‘Yes, very good. Let’s see if we canremember two more things that good readers do. Gabriela, have youremembered what you want to say?’’ This time Gabby speaks up andshares that good readers figure out what to do when they don’t


understand and decide what is important about the parts they dounderstand. Ms. Ruız replies, ‘‘Excellent, I like how you areremembering many of the thinking strategies that help our compre-hension. Well, good readers, do you remember the story map we usedlast week with Shota’s Star Quilt?’’

Language Objective and Evidence of Student Understanding

Recently, the class worked with elements of story using the picture book,Shota’s Star Quilt (Bateson Hill, 2001), the story about the power ofquilting, family and cultural heritage, and community activism as revealedby a young Lakota girl, her family, and friends. Concurrently with thereading of this text, the teacher supported an embedded application ofreading comprehension strategies (see Fig. 8.3). After the initial and follow-up reading aloud of the story, the teacher facilitated the completion of astory map graphic addressing: setting, main characters, problem, andresolution. While there are many formats of story maps, the format selectedby students was a pinwheel-type visual. Jutting out from the center of thepinwheel are five spokes. At the end of each ‘‘spoke’’ were labels identifyingeach story element, such as setting, characters, main events, problem, andresolution (see Figs. 8.4 and 8.5 for Story Map choices). Ms. Ruız chose torepeat what Marcos shared since he spoke in a quiet voice. She does notmake a habit of repeating what students have said since she noticed earlierin the year that when she frequently repeated what students said, childrenstopped listening to each other and waited to hear what she said. She waspleased to see Grabiela’s hand raised since she is a student who rarelyparticipates. Gabriela is an English language learner and is hesitant to speakup in a whole class discussion. So, when Gabriela raised her hand Ms. Ruızwas thrilled to call on her. Seeing that Gabriela froze and had nothing tosay, Ms. Ruız suspected with some additional time to think throughher words and ideas, Gabby would be ready to share. For today’s lesson, theteacher has determined that the class was ready to be introduced tocharacter development and characters descriptors supported with a graphicsimilar to the familiar story map visual.

‘‘So, tell me, good readers. What did the story map help you do?’’(see Fig. 8.6 for completed story map). Students replied that the maphelped them remember parts of the story, decide what was mostimportant, and stay focused on the story elements, and summarize the


Thinking Comprehension Strategies

Strategy Good thinkers….. Visual CueBuilding backgroundKnowledge(Text-to-self, Text-to-text, Text-to-world)

Make connections towhat they already know.

Prioritizingimportance

Can key informationfrom less importantdetails.

Questioning Are curious about whatthey are reading.

Predicting Forecast and see what iscoming.

Inferring Make assumptions orsuggestions based on theauthor’s clues or thepictures or their ownexperiences.

Summarizing Select the main pointsand recap them in anorganized way.

Visualizing Think about pictures intheir head.

Understanding Recognize and areaware of the topic.

Fig. 8.3. Reading-Thinking Strategies.


Story Map

Title of Book ___________________________________________________________

Author(s) ___________________________________ Your Name________________

Setting:

Main Characters:

Statement of the problem:

Event 1:

Event 2:

Event 3:

Event 4:

Event 5:

Statement of the solution:

Story theme (What is this story really about?):

Fig. 8.4. Story Map Graphics, Example 1.


story. ‘‘Congratulations! That answer really demonstrates that youunderstand the parts of a story and how a story map supports ourunderstandings. Now, let me tell you about what we are going to dotoday.’’

Story Map

Author(s) __________________________________ Your Name________________

Characters:

Time/Place:

Problem/Goal:

Main Event: Main Event: Main Event:

Resolution:

Title of Book __________________________________________________________

Fig. 8.5. Story Map Graphics, Example 2.


‘‘Today, we will focus on just one aspect of story elements and that ischaracter. What are some words we might use to describe a characteror a person?’’ Students’ replies included descriptors like nice, friendly,tall, strong, and fast runner. The teacher listed students’ preliminaryresponses on a poster paper for all students to see. ‘‘That is a greatstart! Now, just for a minute, let’s think back to other characters wehave read about recently, and please help me describe them.’’ Theteacher showed Clara from Sweet Clara and the Freedom Quilt(Hopkinson, 2003) and students generated descriptors about thisfamiliar character such as seamstress, slave, smart, talented, patient,hopeful, brave, and risk-taker. The teacher added simplistic symbolsalong side each descriptor to support the 2 or 3 students who arereading at a primer level. This activity provided the teacher with aquick informal assessment of students’ understandings of characterand personal descriptors. ‘‘Ok, now let’s return to Shota’s Star Quilt.

Story Map

TITLE

"Shota&theStarQuilt"

SETTING

MinneapolisPineRidgeReservation

SOLUTION

- Quilting- Solidarity- Friendship- Activism

MAIN

CHARACTERS

- Shota- Esther- Unci

- StarMan

PROBLEM

Redevelopment

Fig. 8.6. Completed Story Map Graphic.


I’d like for you to think about how we could describe three characterswho we have come to know very well in this story.’’

Ms. Ruız shows students visuals of three key characters in Shota’s StarQuilt (Bateson Hill, 2001)—Starman, Shota, and Unci (Shota’s grand-mother, Rose Flying Eagle). Together with the class, they point outdescriptorsof eachof these three characters.Then, using ablank charactermap, the Ms. Ruız focuses on Shota as her model. ‘‘Ok, listen to me as Ithink aloud about the picture I have in my head of Shota. Help me thinkabout descriptors about Shota and the role she plays in the story.’’ Acouple of times, Ms. Ruız talks about how she is having to infer personalattributes from Shota’s actions in the story. Here again, Ms. Ruız addssimple symbols for each descriptor so all learners in the classroom aresupported. For example, for Shota’s bravery,Ms.Ruız uses the symbol ofa ‘‘muscle arm.’’ She also distinguishes between examples and non-examples to help students’ understanding of personal attributes anddescriptors. Eventually,Ms.Ruız asks students touse their individualdry-erase boards. ‘‘Ok everyone, using your own whiteboard, write your owndescriptor of Shota and hold it up when you are done!’’ Using students’written responses as another informal assessment, Ms. Ruız clarifies forthe few studentswhoneed input, then she adds students’ descriptors to thecharacter web visual she is creating with the input of the entire class.

Ms. Ruız recognizes the strength of a gradual release of responsibility.She understands the value of providing students with a model that involvesguided-practice prior to students working independently on a similar task.Her approach to using symbols along with word descriptors for personalattributes provides support for all learners, including English languagelearners who may need the symbol to fully understand the descriptive word.By building from the familiar towards the new, Ms. Ruız is supportingstudents’ conceptualization of new information so that they can apply it in ameaningful way. Her plan to have students ‘‘give it a try’’ using the whiteboard provides her with an opportunity for informal formative assessmentof individual’s understandings:

‘‘I can see from thewords youhavewritten on thewhite boards,what youunderstand about Shota’s personality traits. Nice work! Now, take amoment to reflect on two other characters from Shota’s Star Quilt, StarMan and Unci. Close your eyes for five seconds and think abouteverything you remember about those two characters. [five seconds pass.]


Doyouhave somedescriptors inmind that describe these twocharacters?Keep these in your mind and listen carefully now for your next steps.’’

Ms. Ruız explained that students would be breaking into fourcooperative learning groups with assigned responsibilities. ‘‘Materialsmanagers, raise your hands. Ok, now listen carefully. When groupwork begins, your responsibility will be to pick up the color-coded clipboard, which has a blank copy of the character map, a list ofdescriptor choices to get you started, and a marker. Each group willhave 10–12 minutes to review the descriptor list, brainstorm additionaldescriptors, discuss and decide which descriptors describe thecharacter assigned to your group, and complete the character map.’’Before students divide into groups, Ms. Ruız has a few reminders forthe whole class. ‘‘Remember writers, if you finish before we are readyfor group to share, you should choose how to maximize your time.Refer to the ‘When I’m Done’ poster if you need a reminder of whatthat should look like.’’ Students divide into four groups and beginworking intently in small groups as the teacher circulates around theroom to observe and support students’ progress. After groups havediscussed for four to five minutes, the teacher interrupts, ‘‘Ladies andgentlemen, FREEZE! By now, each group should have at least one totwo descriptors selected and written. Thank you!’’ As Ms. Ruızcontinues to monitor each group’s progress, she places tokens in aplastic baggie that is positioned in the center of each group’s table.Group tokens are given for appropriate collaborative behaviors andcan be redeemed at the end of the day for a motivator such as a ‘‘nohomework’’ coupon.

When time is up, the two ‘‘character alike’’ groups merge to discuss thedescriptors they had selected for their character map. Next, a representativefrom each of the four groups is identified to serve as reporter to share thegroup’s character map to the whole class. But first, the teacher speaks up:

‘‘Readers and Writers, could I please have your attention? Before eachreporter shares their group’s responses, I’d like them to select the typeof follow-up feedback they are seeking from the other class members.’’The teacher then motioned to the poster labeled, ‘‘Options forProviding Feedback’’ that displayed three symbols with an accom-panying word and explanation (see Fig. 8.2). Each group selected theirfeedback choice and the sharing began.


After each group had verbally shared, Ms. Ruız told students to usetheir writing journal and proceed with their written response.‘‘Remember students, the purpose of this part of the lesson is foreach of you to create a character map and sentence describing four tofive descriptors about your own character, that means YOU!Remember, you have now discussed and described several charactersfrom stories we’ve read and you have a list of descriptors as well asstrategies that can help you. You are welcome to refer to the charactermaps that your group created as well as the descriptor lists. If you areunsure about getting started, please see me and we will talk about acharacter pyramid that you could use in your writing journal (see Figs.8.7 and 8.8). Last, please remember that after you have completed

Fig. 8.8. Character Map of Clara.

Fig. 8.7. Character Map.


your journal, include feedback about your level of understanding (anup arrow for ‘‘I get it,’’ a down arrow down for ‘‘I’m confused,’’ and aquestion mark for ‘‘I think I understand but I still have questions’’ (seeFig. 8.9).

Learners thrive when they feel welcome, safe, and supported. In alearning community where anxiety is kept low, and motivation and self-esteem are kept high, students see their attributes, experiences, andstrengths used as a foundation for future learning. Ms. Ruız has set up thestudents for success using a carefully sequenced and scaffolded lessonbased on content that is grounded in multicultural children’s literaturewhere each student has the change to see some aspect of their livesreflected. Caring and a caring environment provide the ‘‘foundationalpillar of effective teaching and learning’’ (Gay, 2010b, p. 62). In itsabsence, inequities soar in the area of educational opportunities andachievement results, in particular, for ethnically, linguistically, culturally,and/or academically diverse learners. As teachers attempt to create such anenvironment in the classroom, they must bring a commitment to the ethicof caring and to building a caring classroom community (Sergiovanni,1994; Weinstein et al., 2004).

Fig. 8.9. Feedback Symbols for Understanding.


CONCLUSION

Culturally responsive teaching starts with the learners. Understanding thatinformation about the learners can be used to inform decisions aboutplanning and instruction, teachers have the opportunity to consider theinterplay of curriculum, content, and the cultures reflected in the classroomof learners. As they use students’ cultural information, life experiences,interests, and preferred learning strategies, teachers come upon ways tomake the curriculum relevant to their students. Working from a strength-based perspective, teachers who acknowledge the resources students bring tothe classroom can accommodate individual learners by adapting theinstruction so that it builds on students’ strengths and needs. As such,teachers can help students move from what they know to what they need toknow and do so in ways that are meaningful for student.


1. What are examples of literature that you can incorporate into a lesson thatwould support students to understand the pluralism of today’s world,respect the diversity of today’s society, and see themselves in a positive light?

2. Building on the ‘‘Friendship’’ activities that Ms. Ruız incorporates intoher classroom, what sorts of things do you do to encourage learners tofind value in looking for their commonalities and differences?

3. How is attention distributed in your classroom? How do you refer to thestudents in your classroom? Are first names, last names, or nicknamesused, how often? Are whole group references to ‘‘ladies and gentleman’’or ‘‘third graders’’ or ‘‘readers and writers’’ used? Record a typicallesson, then play back the recording and tally who was called on, forwhat purpose, and in what way. What does the teacher’s distribution ofattention reveal and what will you do differently based on those results?

4. As a youth, were there students from a range of cultural, racial/ethnic orreligious backgrounds, or students learning a second language or studentswith special needs in the classrooms you experienced as a student? Howwere these students treated? In what ways might these students have seenthemselves reflected in the literature used in the classroom?


CHAPTER NINE

GRADE 5 MATHEMATICS LESSON

WITH A CULTURALLY

RESPONSIVE FOCUS

INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, explicit strategies such as (1) creating a classroomenvironment to support a social context that fosters language development,(2) selecting materials that build on and expand students’ cultural framesof reference, and (3) managing the classroom with strategies to engagelearners and support their self-advocacy were illustrated in a 3rd gradeliteracy lesson. We will move now to a 5th grade classroom where studentsare involved in a mathematics lesson. The issue of teacher and studentdemographics is addressed and instructional strategies related to the languageof mathematics. The teacher also incorporates environmental print, groupingarrangements, and materials rooted in community assets highlighted inmathematics instruction.

TEACHER PROFILE

After graduating from college with a Bachelor’s degree in Marketing, I took ajob at a small advertising agency as a junior account coordinator. I had theopportunity to work on campaigns for some big name clients. However, I foundthat dedicating 50–60 hours a week advancing pizza sales left me feelingexhausted and unfulfilled. Frequent conversations with my former roommatewho was teaching in a local high school connected the dots for me about whatmight truly make me happy.

After I completed my program in elementary education I was offered aposition in a 5th grade classroom in a school that was struggling to make

157

academic gains. While I felt as though my licensure program prepared me toteach the required content, I was nervous about the students and their families.The school community was very different from both the one I grew up in andthe one where I completed my student teaching. I was raised in a Jewishcommunity in the suburbs in a middle-class, two parent family with a sister andtwo brothers. I went to the neighbor elementary, middle and high schooland genuinely appreciate the many opportunities that my parent provided. Myfather worked in the automobile industry and my mother worked part-time asa receptionist in a real estate office. They were able to financially help all oftheir kids with college and continue to play an active role in all of our lives.Certainly, the world I grew up in is not the same one that my students aregrowing-up in. I’m in my sixth year of teaching and just like in my previousyears, I see that the students [in my class] come from very diversebackgrounds. In my current classroom, several are learning English, a fewhave special needs, while others are identified as gifted. I remember thinkingthat several of my teachers from elementary school were boring and I vowed tonot be that sort of teacher. How are my desires to be that engaging,approachable teacher going to mesh with the realities of my classroom?

– Ms. Jennings, Grade 5 teacher

Just as Ms. Jennings expressed anxiety regarding the school communityand her ability to create a nurturing and engaging classroom, she realizedthat beginning with the classroom environment provides a tangible startingplace for teachers to consider what to include in their classroom designs andpractices that will signal acceptance and support for a wide range ofstudents’ diverse cultural backgrounds and abilities (Drucker, 2005). Avariety of data-gathering measures were used to capture and critique Ms.Jennings conscious journey towards responsive teaching (Taylor & Sobel,2003; Sobel, Taylor, & Wortman, 2006).


Ms. Jennings’ classroom provides a clear illustration of the rich diversity atCesar Chavez Elementary School in the Mountain School District. In Ms.Jennings’ 5th grade class, a look at the 29 students reveals a fairly evendistribution in gender, with 13 females and 16 males. Compiled ethnicitydocumentation submitted by students’ guardians lists two students asAfrican American, 11 students as Hispanic, one student as Asian American,and 15 students as European American. Religious profile data identified twostudents as Jewish, one student as Buddhist, and 14 students as Christian,


while 12 student files did not indicate a religious affiliation. This classroomis home to three students with identified gifted needs, of whom one isAfrican American and two are European Americans. Of the five studentsidentified with a disability, three are Hispanic (two are native Englishspeakers and one is a native Spanish speaker) and two are EuropeanAmerican. Those disabilities include one student with Autism SpectrumDisorder, three students with a learning disability, and one student with abehavioral disorder. A total of nine students have been identified as needingan individualized literacy plan, as they are reading below grade level,including one African American student, five Hispanic students (of whomfour receive English language services and one has a learning disability), andfour European American students.

The needs of all of the nine students on individualized literacy plans inMs. Jennings’ class are addressed in small-group guided reading instruction.Students with English language needs receive a combination of services,including ‘‘push-in’’ support, through which an ELL teacher provides small-group remedial instruction in writing. Reading instruction is provided on alimited, regular basis by the support of the ELL teacher or a bilingualparaeducator, a specially trained classroom aide who assists during literacyinstruction, serving as a resource to support and reinforce students’ nativelanguage in their language development.

RESEARCH FOUNDATIONS IN MATHEMATICS


Alarmingly English language learners not yet proficient in English are oneof the lowest achieving populations in both reading and mathematics(Reardon & Galindo, 2009; Reardon & Robinson, 2008). Research effortsin both mathematics education and the intersections of schooling and culturehave made important contributions towards the development of a morecomplex understanding of the relationbetween culture, race, andmathematicslearning (Nasir, 2002).

Understanding issues that contribute to poor mathematical performanceoutcomes of individuals from diverse backgrounds has led to the examinationof factors related to differential treatment and denied opportunity insocioeconomic and educational contexts (Jones, 1993; Ladson-Billings,1994a, 1995; Oakes, 1990a, 1990b; Tate, 1994, 1995). Orr (1987) sought todetermine if cultural and linguistic barriers hinder African Americanstudents’ performance in mathematics by examining learning styles and theuse of African American English. Perceived underperformance due to

Grade 5 Mathematics Lesson with a Culturally Responsive Focus 159

linguistic complexity has been determined to be a major contributing factor(Solano-Flores & Trumbull, 2008; Willner, Rivera, & Acosta, 2008). Rivera,Collum, Willner, and Sia (2006) have investigated needed ‘‘ELL-responsive’’testing accommodations aimed at providing linguistic support intended toaddress unnecessary linguistic complexity. Robinson (2010) found that testtranslations provided ELL students with enhanced opportunities todemonstrate their mathematical knowledge and encouraged policy makersto add translations as a recommended accommodation.

Important research efforts (e.g., Frankenstein, 1997; Ladson-Billings,1994b, 1995) have focused attention on multicultural and culturallyresponsive pedagogy in mathematics by examining the compatibility ofstudent academic needs and learning styles with current curriculum andpedagogical practices. Ladson-Billings (1994b/2009) found that successfulteachers of African American students use students’ real-life experiences as alegitimate part of the official curriculum. Frankenstein’s (1997) investigationsreveal that if mathematics curricula and pedagogy are not connected to therealities of student’s lives, students may not be able to fully engage as thelearning is not seen as worthy or meaningful. Frankenstein (1997) clarifies,‘‘Knowledge is not created and recreated in fragmented forms in which schoolsubjects are presented, mathematics occurs in contexts integrated with otherknowledge of the world’’ (p. 13). Ensign (2003) further recommends thatencouraging students to write about the context in which their personal mathoccurs provides teachers the springboard to discuss societal influences on themath that students experience daily such as the value of goods and services. AsEnsign (2003) maintains, ‘‘This can help extend mathematics beyondmechanically learning to solve school mathematics problems to include acritical approach to the culture in which mathematics occurs in their lives’’(p. 422). Martin (2000) describes the concept of mathematical identity as anindividual’s perceived competence about her/his mathematical capabilities,motivation to secure mathematics knowledge, and the belief about bothopportunities and constraints that exist to participate in such learning.Martin(2000) argues that explanations for mathematics success and failure amongAfrican-American youth are directly linked to sociohistorical, community,family, school, and intrapersonal contexts.

CLASSROOM TOUR

Envision now that you are walking through the 5th grade classroom atCesar Chavez Elementary. You are greeted by Ms. Jennings, who is at thedoorway welcoming students as they enter the room.


As you enter the classroom, you see a large bulletin board with acalendar display calendar, and to the right of the calendar, awhiteboard lists today’s schedule for all academics and specials.Directly in the center of the whiteboard, a color poster of runners atthe starting line of a race is posted near the heading, ‘‘Let’s get started.On your mark, get set, go!!!’’ is written within a colored border. Todaythe following prompt is provided: ‘‘I am a day of the week. I comeright after and right before days that have the same number of lettersin their names (English spelling) as each other. What day am I?’’

Students are seated at round tables that hold 4–5 students and thereare 2 groupings of 3 desks that allow for two groups of 3 students tocollaborate in a smaller grouping.


Environment/Environmental Print

The 5th grade classroom offers a visually stimulating and welcomingenvironment that greets and engages students as they enter. Students’ gaze isimmediately drawn to the daily schedule as they begin to independentlypreview the day’s activities. Students’ actions reveal that they know theroutine of beginning each day with a ‘‘Let’s get started’’ activity as theybegin referring to the calendar to decipher the problem-solving message.

Scanning the room, your eyes are drawn to the brightly colored ‘‘MathCentral’’ area that fills most of the side wall. As depicted in Fig. 9.1, aseries of posters border the Math Central area. On the left, the topposter describes steps for problem-solving, another displays visualillustrations of fractions, and a third poster shows common measure-ments. A teacher-made poster focused on ‘‘place value’’ (i.e., Thevalue of a digit as determined by its position in a number) is displayedin the center of the visual, along with a set of twelve color-codedhomework folders. To the right, Ms. Jennings has posted a largeprobability chart. A number line runs the length of the wall and abulletin board displays student work samples that have incorporatedwriting into math story problems. A rolling cart filled with multi-sensory materials is positioned in the Math Central area.

The classroom environment and the environmental print provided in theMath Center areas serve important instructional purposes. Ms. Jennings


stresses the importance of her students learning to attend to the language ofmathematics as students attempt to derive meaning from that language. Oneproblem that students with language differences or academic challengeswrestle with is the understanding of how words are used in mathematicalword problems, and what specific operations are implied by those words.For example, a problem that states a specific overall quantity and requestsunstated information regarding each one or for one, certainly seems to beimplying some type of division operation, and students need to learn to usesuch cues in determining how to solve the problem. Ms. Jennings presentedstudents with the following problem: Maria made 57 bracelets and wants togive the same number of bracelets to each of her six friends. How manybracelets did she give each friend? Did she have any left over? Vaughn, Bos,and Schumm (2006) recommend that problem-solving be taught, cautioningthat explicit strategies and practice will require a considerable investment oftime. Ms. Jennings has invested just such time by training her students torefer to the problem-solving poster for help with remembering to use a four-step strategy to solve word problems:

1. Think about the problem;2. Create a plan by deciding which operation to use;3. Do the problem by first writing the math sentence;4. Check every step of your work.

Fig. 9.1. Math Central.


The prominently displayed poster provided to assist students withunderstanding place value serves as yet another example of the use ofenvironmental print. Place value is a concept that is linked to our base10 system, and students must learn this concept as they use numbers of morethan one digit. The large color poster included on the Math Central wallhelps students accurately group and identify numbers at multiple-digit levels(e.g., 6,000þ 700þ 50þ 4¼ ?). Ms. Jennings’ chart illustrates the impor-tance of organizing information in clear, sequential ways. Her laminatedposter is designed as an interactive teaching tool where sample numbers canbe written under the corresponding digit.

Instructional Adaptations

Providing practice in key math concepts is paramount in Ms. Jennings’planning, as she knows that practice is essential for students to exhibit highlevels of accuracy consistently and across multiple problem types (Vaughnet al., 2006). In organizing math practice, the color-coded folders within theMath Central area house daily homework drills, with the top folder holdingcopies of work from yesterday’s lesson, the middle folder holding today’swork, and the bottom folder holding tomorrow’s work. To supportindividualized and independent math practice, each student is designatedone of the four colors, which signify mathematics problems at differentlevels of difficulty that have been matched to students’ differentiated abilitylevels. Students have also been taught to access the folders and necessarymaterial to make up work after any absences from school. Tomlinson (2001)cautions that teachers often expect far too little of students who arestruggling with language and academic tasks. Ms. Jennings concurs withTomlinson’s assertion that students, and, specifically, ELL students, are theones who absolutely must be provided with supported activities forcontinued practice. For students with second language needs, Ms. Jenningsfollows Tomlinson’s suggestion that students be allowed to have readyaccess to information in their first language and provides strong supportsystems for translating, through use of bilingual dictionaries and onlinetranslation sites. Ms. Jennings uses math practice ‘‘assignment timelines’’ toallow students to initially express ideas in their first language and thento later express them into the second language.

Helping students to move from concrete to abstract learning begins byproviding manipulative and interactive opportunities to integrate newmathematical concepts (Peterson Miller, 2009). Ms. Jennings’ well-stocked


cart of math manipulatives helps her promote the idea that mathematicaloperations have meaning. To help teach and reinforce important mathconcepts, Ms. Jennings’ cart is stocked with both commercially purchasedand teacher-made resources, including: containers of simulated coins andbills (representing international currency), small digital and analog clocks(with movable hands), flash cards (all directions are translated into Englishand Spanish), a deck of cards, rulers, protractors, tape measures, measuringcups, a five-pound scale, graph paper, puzzles, games, and calculators(some designed with enlarged keys and very basic functions and others thatperform more sophisticated calculations). In addition, Ms. Jennings’ cartcontains arithmetic vocabulary elaboration cards (a set in English andSpanish), decimal squares, base 10 blocks, and fraction blocks and pegs.

On the far wall that houses the Math Central materials, an observerwill see a bulletin board with the title, ‘‘MY COMMUNITY ISFILLED WITH MATHEMATICS.’’ An array of color photographsof the local community (e.g., street signs, an arch over the door of abakery, the roman numerals on a building of worship, equipment at apark) are displayed each within a creative geometrically designedborder made of construction paper. To the left of the bulletin boardhangs a teacher-made poster entitled, ‘‘Meet women mathematicianswho overcame great odds’’ (see Fig. 9.2, note alterations have beendone to classroom print artifacts).

Community Involvement

For teachers to genuinely teach in culturally responsive ways, they mustbecome familiar with their students’ communities in order to furtherincorporate relevant experiences and resources into school practices (Saifer,Edwards, Ellis Ko, & Stuczynski, 2011; Ford, 2004; Sleeter, 2001).Ms. Jennings is very forthright in acknowledging that the community inwhich she is teaching is dramatically different from the one she grew up inand the one where she currently resides. To aid her in beginning to know herstudents’ community, she committed to authentically spending time in thecommunity by regularly shopping in the local markets, taking an exerciseclass at the recreation center, dining at nearby restaurants, and attendinglocal events (e.g., fairs, speakers at the library, or sporting events). As shewalked about the community, she took photographs of buildings, parks,and streets and then began to analyze how these community assets could be


Elena Cornaro Piscopia (1646–1684) was an Italian mathematician and theologian. She was a child prodigy who studied many languages, composed music, sang and played many instruments, and learned philosophy, mathematics and theology. She was the first woman to have earned a doctoral degree. She was lecturer in mathematics at the University of Padua.

Sophie Germain (1776–1830) was a French mathematician. After discovering geometry, she taught herself mathematics, and also Latin and Greek so that she could read the classical mathematics texts. Her parents opposed her study and tried to stop it, so she studied at night. They took away candles and forbid nighttime fires, even taking her clothes away, all so that she could not read at night. Her response: she smuggled candles, she wrapped herself in her bedclothes. She still found ways to study. Finally the family gave in to her mathematical study. Her work was foundational to the applied mathematics used in construction of skyscrapers today, and was important at the time to the new field of mathematical physics, especially to the study of acoustics and elasticity.

Mary Fairfax Somerville (1780–1872) was a Scottish and British mathematician known as the “Queen of Nineteenth Century Science,” she fought family opposition to her study of math, and not only produced her own writings on theoretical and mathematical science, she produced the first geography text in England.

Sofia Kovalevskaya (1850–1891) was a Russian mathematician. She escaped her parents’ opposition to her advanced study by a marriage of convenience, moving from Russia to Germany and, eventually, to Sweden, where her research in mathematics included the Koalevskaya Top Theorem.

Ada Lovelace (1815–1852) was a British mathematician. She was the only legitimate daughter of Byron, the poet. Her translation of an article on Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine includes notations (three-fourths of the translation!) that describe what later became known as a computer and as software. In 1980, the Ada computer language was named for her.

Amalie Emmy Noether (1882–1935) was a German, Jewish, American mathematician. Noether escaped Germany when the Nazis took over, and taught in America for several years. Albert Einstein called Noether the most significant creative mathematical genius thus far produced since the higher education of women began.

Euphemia Haynes earned a doctorate degree in mathematics from Catholic University of America (CUA) in 1943, becoming the first black woman to receive a Ph.D. degree in mathematics. She had a distinguished career in Washington teaching in the public schools of Washington, DC for forty-seven years and serving as the first woman chair ofthe DC School Board where she was central to the integration of the public schools. She was a professor of mathematics at Miner Teachers College and at the District of Columbia Teachers College.

Lenore Blum finished high school at the age of 16, after which she excitedly applied to Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who turned her down for the first of several attempts to enroll. She began college at Carnegie Tech in Pittsburgh studying first architecture and then math, her real love. For her third year, she enrolled at Simmons, a women’s college in Boston, only to find the math courses not challenging enough. She cross-registered at MIT, her first successful foot-in-the-door attempt, and received her Ph.D. in mathematics from M.I.T. in 1968. Blum was one of the recipients of the 2004 Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics and Engineering Mentoring.

Meet women mathematicians who overcame great odds

Fig. 9.2. Female Mathematicians.


used within her classroom or with her students by their families. Herphotographs of local stores, a local church, street signs, and an area parkwere hung on the wall and Ms. Jennings regularly uses those visuals asprompts in her instruction. For example, in a recent lesson on shapes shereferred to the distinct angle on the steeple of the local church.

Ms. Jennings appreciated the importance of planning for ways that herstudents can learn about and look up to mathematicians (Johnson, 2000;Saifer et al., 2011). To provide motivational messages about howmathematics has opened doors to professions and careers, Ms. Jenningshas invited speakers who represent diverse linguistic and cultural groupsinto her classroom. The creation of the Meet Women Mathematiciansposter is an effort on Ms. Jennings’ part to illustrate the numerousachievements of individuals who have traditionally been underrepresentedin the field of mathematics. She researched books and Internet sites andcaptured key biographical profiles and positive contributions of womenmathematicians, then synthesized the information onto laminated cardswith velcro backing so she can easily change the profiles.

During today’s lesson, Ms. Jennings conducted a math review lessonbased on students’ performance on yesterday’s homework. Aftermodeling the steps to solving a fractions problem, the teacherinformed the students that they were to move to cooperative learninggroups to work on a fractions word problem. Ms Jennings clarified,‘‘Imagine you have just eaten pizza at Antonio’s’’ (here she moves tothe color photograph of a local pizzeria). You are to work together tosolve the problem: Five friends are eating personal pan pizzas. Juanhas 3/5 left, Jack has 1/3 left, Danielle has 4/5 left, Maddie has 2/3 left,and Coleman has 2/5 left. Rank order who ate the most pizza. From adecorated coffee can, the teacher began to pull popsicle sticks onwhich students’ names were written, in order to determine thecomposition of the heterogeneous teams. Each of the five teams wasprovided with a clear overhead transparency and a colored marker.

Next, Ms. Jennings stated, ‘‘Okay mathematicians, today you are toparticipate in a think-pair-share session. You must work together tofigure out how to solve the problem with words, pictures, or symbols.You are all responsible for learning the strategy that your groupselects for solving this problem, a spokesperson from your group needsto be ready to present to the entire class. In front of you, you will eachfind a different colored circle. Who can tell me in your own words thefirst three things your group needs to do?’’


Ms. Jennings uses vocabulary elaboration in her teaching. In addition tonumber concepts, algorithms, and procedures, she knows that her studentsmust also learn and apply many specialized terms (e.g., addend, sum,multiplier, quotient, difference, product, and divisor). Ms. Jennings hasprovided direct instruction tying mathematical vocabulary to the conceptsthey are intended to represent, using strategies described by Mastropieri andScruggs (2009). For example, in the review of homework, to help studentsremember that the multiplier is the number on the bottom of a multiplicationproblem, next to the multiplication sign (when presented vertically), she hasdrawn the multiplication sign to represent a pair of pliers. The pliers showwhich number is the multiplier. For a division problem, quotation marks areplaced on the quotient. These are examples of how Ms. Jennings increasesboth thememorability and the comprehensibility of input.Ms. Jennings makesa conscious effort to ensure that her instructions are always communicated ina clear, explicit manner and in more than one modality (e.g., verbal, visual(pictures), and textual (written words)).

Grouping Strategies

Ms. Jennings has structured the classroom so that students are encouragedto talk and collaborate with each other. This teacher displayed highexpectations in a respectful way when referring to her students as‘‘mathematicians.’’ She uses the classroom environment to support studentlearning and interactions. She understands that heterogeneous groups are apotentially rich resource for providing supplemental strategies to meet theneeds of individual learners. Such groupings offer multiple opportunities tosupport students and encourage learners to make sense of what they haveheard. For students who have difficulty focusing, reading, or writing, thisteacher knows that simultaneously hearing the discussions and seeing thework can help them to concentrate. In terms of students who are learning intheir second language (English), Ms. Jennings knows it is crucial to providemodels for language use. The cooperative learning model of think-pair-share (McTighe & Lynam, 1988) requires students to follow the three stepsof: (a) think, (b) pair, and (c) share. During the think step, students listen to aquestion or presentation about a mathematical situation, then think abouthow they might solve the problem. This process time is essential for studentswith learning and language needs to allow them to sequence their thoughtsand select vocabulary. During the pair step of the model, students can listento and share their ideas regarding a solution with their peers, allowing


students to practice vocabulary and skills in a safe and manageable, small-group environment. Finally, in the share step, students share their paireddiscussion within a larger group. During the presentation, Ms. Jenningsreminds students that there is more than one way to solve a problem. Thoseexperiences of students working together help reinforce her ongoing effortsto nurture a caring, supportive classroom environment where variedopinions and perspectives are valued.

Two students paraphrase the directions provided in the following way:one repeats them in English, and another student paraphrases thedirections in his native language and gestures to key areas around theroom so that several speakers of the same native language integratedaround the room benefit from his explanation. Then, Ms. Jenningscontinues: ‘‘Once each group has solved the problem, I’ll use myspinner to determine which group presents in what sequence. If youare selected to come to the overhead projector, your team members arewelcomed to join you so that if you get stuck, you can ask a peer.Remember, though, everyone in your group must understand thestrategy and be able to demonstrate their understanding verbally orvisually.’’

Ms. Jennings again demonstrates a management approach that empha-sizes the importance of community building and social decision-making.Cooperating learning provides students opportunities to interact withstudents across a range of diverse backgrounds and contributes towardsbuilding a greater sensitivity to students with special needs (Gay, 2010a).Cooperative learning has been found to promote relationships amongstudents from diverse backgrounds, broaden students’ ability to see otherperspectives, and promote self-esteem (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). Thesestructured arrangements also helped students understand the reasons behindtheir decisions to implement a particular strategy to solve a problem.Implementing cooperative learning practices in mathematics requires thatteachers structure the group to promote a group effort towards meeting theacademic goal (Polloway, Patton, & Serna, 2008). The benefits of sharedresponsibility and rewards are another reason Ms. Jennings strategicallymaximized cooperative learning opportunities. This teacher knows thatstating, modeling, and paraphrasing the steps to the math problem is crucialbefore students are able to independently practice it. Multiple, differentiatedopportunities for students to practice this skill of reviewing the steps of aproblem are stressed, allowing for additional oral language for those


students with learning and language differences (Routman, 1999). Thisstrategy is especially suited to supporting the language development of allstudents and specifically ELL students.

Students eagerly engaged in the activity as the teacher moved aboutmonitoring progress. After 10–15 minutes, she prompted students tomove towards closure. Ms. Jennings then asked each group to designatewhich student was to come to the overhead projector as their teamrepresentative. She used the spinner to determine which group wouldpresent and in what order.

After each team had verbally explained how they had solved theproblem, students were told to use their math journal and to proceedin writing their response or displaying it visually with key conceptwords attached to each visual. The teacher clarified: ‘‘The purpose ofthis part of the lesson is for each of you to create your own shortconstructed written response or labeled visual. As you explain yourstrategy, you are also required to identify at least one example of whenand where you might use this strategy out in the community. Take alook at our math in the community photos to remind you of where yourstrategy might be used. It is important to write in complete sentences.You have now heard and seen many different ideas and strategies thatcan help you. You are welcome to refer to the notes on your team’soverhead transparency if you need them. For those of you needingassistance with a sentence starter, please refer to the writing promptsposters.’’

This teacher shows that she values multiple means of evidence to ensurethat her students understood the math problem by providing studentsopportunities to demonstrate their understanding through verbal expres-sion, drawing, and/or writing. Providing choice in student-generatedwork allows for multiple modes of expression and ultimately contributesto increased student ownership. The teacher’s beliefs in differentiationcontinue to drive her decision-making around the instructional lesson.

As Ms. Jennings concludes the lesson, she states, ‘‘Last, pleaseremember that after you have completed your response, you are toprovide your feedback and self-assess your work using the four-pointrubric sheet that you will find in the folder on the supplies shelf. You’llhave time to discuss your feedback and self-assessment with me duringconference time later this afternoon.’’


Student self-assessments further support them in monitoring their ownprogress. Meeting individually with a student to discuss their work, behavior,or interests has a powerful and positive impact. The teacher favors aclassroom management approach that emphasizes the importance of self-regulation, community building, and social decision-making. She appreciatesthat work products need to be personalized by students to ensure theirownership. Of equal importance, Ms. Jennings provides students withscaffolded supports and tools to ensure that they meet her high expectations.

CONCLUSION

Responsive teaching calls for teachers to create respectful, inclusive,supportive environments in which authentic learning communities can befostered. Such classroom communities support a climate for teaching andlearning that is purposeful and caring and instills a set of values grounded inthe principles of tolerance, acceptance, and understanding. Jones and Jones(2010) maintain that because building a positive classroom community andresponding to student needs is heavily influenced by contextual factors aswell as each teacher’s personal history, teacher reflection must be a priority.

The compounding factors that involve teacher and student demographicsillustrative by the disparity between student and teacher ethnicity is indicativeof the overall ethnic gap within the U.S. public schools. National trendsindicate that well over 86% of the current teaching force is White,monolingual, and female (Darling-Hammond et al., 2002). Banks (2006)predicts that this trend will continue for some time yet, due to the enrollmentof primarily white, female teachers being prepared for classroom teachingpositions. However, based on the overall diversification of the nation’spopulation, the diversity within the schools must be given urgent attentionand response from educators to ensure that teachers are empowered to meetthe sociocultural learning needs of their ethnically diverse student population(Banks, 2006; Banks et al., 2005). Delpit (1995) asks educators to engage inreflection to examine their own attitudes towards different ethnic, racial,gender, and social class groups. As a European American, Ms. Jennings hascommitted to such self-analysis as she continually strives to know each of herstudents and the richness of their community.

Today’s teachers must advocate for the elimination of social inequitieswhile also delivering effective, inclusive instruction that informs andempowers all students (Cummins, 1996). A powerful way for that advocacyto be realized is through the daily teaching practices and behaviors displayed


in a strategically crafted classroom environment. Responsive teachingencompasses much more than the items displayed on a classroom wall, yet akeen awareness of specific exemplars of responsiveness is a beginning pointin moving towards individual teaching excellence. As seen in this scenario,Ms. Jennings acknowledged the mismatch between herself and her studentsand carefully designed her classroom environment and planned her teachingpractices in ways that demonstrated her acceptance and support for the widerange of students’ diverse cultural backgrounds and abilities.


1. As a youth, what were your educational experiences in a math class?What were some of your most positive learning experiences in a mathclass and what were some of your most challenging learning experiences?

2. Do you have a favorite teacher from your early years in school? If so,what was it about that teacher that attached you to her/him? How hasknowing that individual affected you?

3. What is an example of a lesson in which you used the student’s familyculture to differentiate for that student?

4. What is one of your most successful math lessons? What could be done toenhance the lesson making it more responsive to your students’ broadcultural backgrounds?

5. Technological advances have changed learning in many of today’sclassrooms. With Ms. Jennings’s classroom in mind, imagine that 12 ofthose 29 students have home computers. How would you plan for parent/family communication and homework expectations?

6. How do you plan using cooperative learning arrangements? Considerhow you might enhance your practices with specific recommendedresources from The Essential Elements of Cooperative Learning in theClassroom (ERIC Digest; http://www.eric.edu.gov/PDFS/ED370881.pdf).


http://www.eric.edu.gov/PDFS/ED370881.pdf

CHAPTER TEN

GRADE 9 SCIENCE LESSON WITH A

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE FOCUS

INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, we illustrated explicit strategies such as (1)highlighting language forms, functions, and vocabulary elaboration char-acteristic of math content, (2) implementing the curriculum with links tolearners’ cultural frames of reference, and (3) using community resources andlocal culture to meaningfully support students’ understanding of content in a5th grade math lesson. We will move now to a 9th grade classroom wherestudents are involved in a chemistry lesson. Issues related to positiverelationships among students and between the teacher and students, groupingarrangements, checks for student understanding, and instructional materialsthat accommodate varied learning styles are highlighted to illustrate waysteachers can use students’ cultural frames of reference and backgroundknowledge to guide their instruction and implementation of curriculum inways to maximize science relevance for all students.

TEACHER PROFILE

Chemistry is my passion. As kid, I spent hours creating experiments and tryingto figure out why baking soda mixed with vinegar fizzes, so teaching science isthe perfect fit for me. I completed my secondary science teaching licensureprogram as part of my undergraduate degree at a university in a large urbancity in the eastern portion of the U.S. but I knew I didn’t want to start teachingbefore I had an opportunity to travel. I’ve been teaching in the United Statesfor six years, with an additional five years of teaching experience in Peru andEcuador during my time in the Peace Corps. I’m currently enrolled in an online

173

graduate program where I’m working towards a Master’s degree in schooladministration. I’m hoping to move into a principal position within three to fiveyears. In addition to working as a chemistry teacher, I serve as the sciencedepartment chair and am the faculty advisor for the global learner club.

Growing up in a large city, I feel very comfortable working in a school likeWillow Creek High School but my experiences in the Peace Corps were trulylife-changing. I returned home not only fluent in Spanish, but with a deepappreciation for the privileges I was raised with. I now appreciate the arduoustask of learning a new language and how easy it is to get down on yourselfwhen so many people in your world don’t understand you when you talk orwrite. I now understand that I have never worried about having enough food toeat, or clothes to wear. Indeed the only worries I ever had about my healthdealt with trying to avoid going to a dentist. While my eyes were opened in thePeace Corps, they have been widened even more by working at Willow CreekHigh School. Here we are smack-dab in the middle of a major metropolitanarea, but many of my students and their families struggle with basic needs likehousing, food and health care. My job is demanding. There are days when Ithink I’m more of a therapist or social worker than a teacher. The increasingpressures related to students’ needs and school-wide accountability during atime of diminishing resources are high stress producers, yet I’m committed tothe life of an educator.

– Martin Avery, Chemistry teacher, Willow Creek High School


All classes at Willow Creek High School follow a ‘‘modified block’’ schedulein which classes meet for 55 minutes on Monday, Tuesday, and Friday andfor a 90-minute block with half of the classes meeting on Wednesday and theother half on Thursday. Mr. Avery typically reserves that weekly 90 blockclass for more involved labs and class presentations. The students inMr. Avery’s 9th grade chemistry classes represent typical freshmen. Histhird period chemistry has 30 students, 18 males and 12 females. Compiledethnicity documentation lists three students as African American, 10students as Hispanic, and 17 students as European American. Religiousprofile data identifies three students as Jewish, and 11 students as Christian,while 16 student files did not indicate a religious affiliation. This classroomis home to two students with identified gifted needs, of whom one isHispanic and one is European American. Of the six students identified witha disability, three are Hispanic and three are European American. Those


disabilities include one student who uses a wheelchair for her physicaldisability, four students with a learning disability, and one student with abehavioral disorder.

RESEARCH FOUNDATIONS IN SCIENCE


Science classrooms are places to build deep understandings about our world(Zimmerman & Stage, 2008); however, Duschl, Schweingruber, and Shouse(2007) uphold that science education in the United States does not leveragethe knowledge and capabilities students bring to the classroom and thisproblem is evenmore profound for students fromdiverse backgrounds.Manyteachers struggle to address science content while simultaneously planning forthe needs of ELL students and unfortunately some teachers fail to even realizethe importance of doing so (Bryan & Atwater, 2002; Rodriquez & Kitchen,2005). As discussed earlier in Chapter Two, the social and cultural nature oflearning is directly linked to student learning. Zimmerman and Stage (2008)stress that this theoretical premise applies directly to science education,‘‘Teaching and learning science must take into account the social dynamics ofclassrooms (for example, teacher as authority figure, gender interactions),cultural expectations of the individuals and the teachers, religious back-grounds, school district policies, and even national views and expectations’’(p. 182). Students’ self-perceptions about their identification as a sciencelearner have been found to correlate to their understanding of science content.In a large, urban, largely minority-attended high school, Brown (2004) foundindividual students, though clearly on the verge of scientific understanding,purposefully chose not to use scientific language to avoid losing credibilitywith their peers. It is important for teachers to understand how factors such associal and cultural norms influence student’s engagement in science in theclassroom. Buxton, Lee, and Santau (2008) examined this issue anddemonstrated that focused professional development interventions had apositive effect on teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, and practices in scienceinstruction and English language development for ELL students. Theiryearlong intervention consisted of curriculum materials for students andteachers, as well as workshops for teachers.

The field of science offers vast opportunities to maximize the insights andperspectives of diverse cultures around the world. Miller-Lachmann andTaylor (1995) recommend initiating study on the topic of the origins of the

Grade 9 Science Lesson with a Culturally Responsive Focus 175

universe and humankind with offering students creationmyths from a varietyof cultures. They further advocate for environmental issues being taught witha multicultural approach by exploring various cultures’ environmentalcontroversies as they affect different cultures explaining that ‘‘Contemporarybooks about environmental issues as they relate to diverse cultures allowchildren to see how cultures have adapted traditional beliefs to the challengesof the present’’ (p. 335). Freeman, Freeman, and Mercuri Kerman’s (2001)examination of practices in one of the authors’ classrooms where newcomerSpanish-, Mexteco-, and Triqui-speaking students studied revealed keystrategies integrated into the science curriculum. The authors contend that ateacher’s careful consideration of organizing curriculum around themes helpsher use the content to draw on students’ backgrounds allowing them to makesense of content. Such a link to content results in students beingmore engagedwhich ultimately leads to successful learning experiences for them. In thismultiage 4-5-6 grade classroom, the teacher began the school year with a uniton plants and seeds as a way of taking advantage of the fact that many of hermigrant students had strong agricultural and farming backgrounds. Shecrafted a home interview form about plant growth and plant care in areaswhere families had lived and worked and found that the importance of thisintroductory activity could not be underestimated.

Given that the four major language areas (vocabulary, syntax, semantics,and discourse features) are essential to the study of science, challenges related toELL students learning scientific definitions and complex structures of scientifictexts exist andmust be planned for (Diaz-Rico &Weed, 2010). Bravo, Hiebert,and Pearson (2007) explored the relationship between a set of Spanish/Englishcognates that have the potential for assisting Spanish/English bilinguals’experiences with science texts. The researchers point out that Spanish andEnglish share many cognates within science vocabulary, including some thatare highly frequent in Spanish but less frequent in English. Consequently,Spanish/English bilinguals possess a linguistic resource that includes manywords that, while commonplace in Spanish (e.g., enfermo), are reserved forscientific and academic registers in English (e.g., infirm). Bravo and colleagues(Bravo et al., 2007) found that for first language Spanish speakers these wordsmight well aid students in accessing core English words and in gainingunderstandings of science texts. Additionally, an analysis of the frequency ofkey vocabulary in three science units revealed a substantial number of thesefrequency-imbalanced cognate pairs.

Incorporating writing has been found to be an important way for studentsto connect with the language used in science content. Klentschy (2005)recommended the use of a science notebook for collecting facts, predictions,


and conclusions. ‘‘A science notebook is a central place where language, data,and experience work together to formmeaning for the student’’ (p. 24). Olsonand Loucks-Horsley (2000) noted that ‘‘learner-centered environments inwhich teachers build new learning on the knowledge, skills, attitudes, andbeliefs that students bring to the classroom are critical to science learning ofEnglish language learners’’ (p. 122). Instructional strategies involvingmodeling, scaffolding, evaluation, and peer collaboration (Thornburg &Karp, 1992); hands-on curriculum (Stephens, 2001); and cooperative learning(Hirst & Slavik, 1990) for science instruction have proven to be effective in forELL students, especially when knowledge of students’ home language andculture is incorporated.

In a research report prepared for the Noyce Foundation in 2008, Cervetti,Bravo, Duong, Hernandez, and Tilson (2008) conducted an extensive reviewof research on effective and proven instruction for English languagelearners. Their report outlines a set of four principles that help make scienceinstruction accessible for English language learners. These principles centeron accommodations for vocabulary, discourse, writing, and reading.Reyhner and Davison’s (1993) investigations and a review of the literatureyielded recommendations to improve the education of ELL students inscience. They encourage teachers to (1) relate science instruction to the out-of-school life of the students, (2) recognize and study how different culturesclassify natural phenomena and have different scientific world views, (3) useteaching methodologies that contextualize science content (e.g., providescience terminology in native language and present science concepts sostudents have interest and familiarity), (4) present scientific concepts in waysthat are consistent with the students’ learning style, (5) be aware of andattend to affective factors in their students’ lives (e.g., student relationships),and (6) provide writing development activities for their ELL students.Reyhner and Davisons’ (1993) recommendations align closely withprinciples of culturally responsive pedagogy.

CLASSROOM TOUR

Although not originally built as a fully equipped lab classroom, Mr. Avery’s9th grade chemistry class is an amply stocked, comfortable, and engagingsetting.

Entering the classroom, one’s gaze is drawn to a large sciencevocabulary word wall where arrays of individual index cards are


positioned around colorful pictures of beakers and microscopes. Eachcard highlights one word with an accompanying definition in Englishand Spanish translations. Latin and Greek scientific terms (e.g.,photosynthesis) are broken into words that students understand to aidthem in making connections. Behind his desk is a ‘‘Meet Mr. Avery’’bulletin board displaying photographs of his family, his travels,favorite quotes and comic strips, and cards from current and formerstudents. Near his desk, Mr. Avery has a posted schedule of hisavailability to meet with students and a poster articulating beginningand end of class procedures. Other age-appropriate, colorful, science-related posters are displayed about the room. In the front of theclassroom, a chart labeled, Writing Tips provides guidelines forsummarizing and editing. Five large rectangular shaped tables arearranged in the center of the room, six computers line the back wall ofthe classroom, a table for lab demonstration purposes is positioned inthe front of the room and multiple built-in cabinets store texts withaudio-recorded read-along books, science equipment and supplies.

A listing of the key features of daily lessons is highlighted on the frontboard. The following information is provided:

� Lesson Title: Periodic table designs� Essential Question: How can a periodic table be organized?� Standard: Ninth grade Chemistry science standard 2: Describingand explaining properties of substances (e.g., relationships in theperiodic table).� How does this lesson fit into unit content? This content provides anintroduction to a three-week unit on the periodic table.� Language Objective: The student will be able to describe the periodictable using science vocabulary (periodic table, element, scientist).� Learner Outcome: Students will articulate a sound rationale for theirorganizational design.

As students enter the classroom, individual students are observed to pick-up a ‘‘TeamMembers’’ file folder under the 3rd Period materials sectionof a box near Mr. Avery’s desk and lay it on a group table. Each foldercontains cardboard name plates with each student’s name and picture.Students position their card in front of them.Mr. Avery begins class withtaking attendance on his computer and signals for student attention bylowering the volumeonprerecordingmusic that has beenplaying. ‘‘Giventhat today is a Thursday, we’ll begin class with the selection of this week’s


MVP award.’’ Reaching his hand into a fish bowl on his desk, Mr. Averydraws a slip of paper and announces, ‘‘Everyone, join me congratulatingMario on being selected as ourMost Valued Player. As I set things up onthe award board, please feel free to write a note of appreciation.’’ Mr.Avery grabs a file folder holding individual student photographs andmoves to a bulletin board where aMVPAward sign is posted. As he pullsMario’s photo and positions it in the center of the MVP sign, studentstake a sticky note from the supply baskets in the center of their tables andbegin towrite. Eight studentsmove to the board and they read aloud theiracknowledgement as they place their note on the sign.


Positive Standards for Classroom Behavior

Mr. Avery uses the quick, five-minute weekly MVP award activity as a wayto build community among his students. He believes that every studentneeds to be recognized in positive ways hence he has taught his students toacknowledge each other by providing personalized messages that applaudeach other. In the words of Miller-Lachmann and Taylor (1995), ‘‘Linguisticdiversity among students calls for attention to promoting positive relationsbetween these students and others as well as between students and staff’’(p. 187). Promoting those positive relationships while supporting students’primary language and culture are factors that contribute to school success(Holt, 1993). Wong Fillmore (1991) reported that Latino students learnedsignificantly more English in classrooms where reciprocal interaction withteacher and peers was promoted. Mr. Avery makes ample use of studentphotographs and management routines in activities such as the MVP asopportunities to support essential relationship building interactions.

‘‘I appreciated hearing that comment from Sam about Mario’scommitment on the school’s soccer team. Characteristics likededication and determination are important in life. Sit back andlisten as I read about the work of one dedicated chemist who is makinga difference in world.’’ Today Mr. Avery used the book Real WorldDrug Discoveries: A Chemist’s Guide to Biotech (Rydzewski, 2008)from which he proceeds to read a selected interview with a well-knownexpert in the field where insightful comments about a cutting edgedrug discovery were made.


Instructional Materials

To highlight the work of diverse scientists around the world, Mr. Averyfrequently reads a section from a short story or biographical sketch to hisstudents. Mr. Avery believes that reading aloud gives student an opportunityto hear a proficient reader, to get a sense of the content, and to listen to and seea teacher model thinking aloud about the reading. Anstrom (1999) clarifiesthat in a think-aloud, teachers can demonstrate how in reading they monitor asequence of events, identify foreshadowing and flashback, visualize a setting,critique a character, comprehend the mood or theme, recognize symbols, andpredict next steps. Mr. Avery created a ‘‘Scientists’’ poster on which anassortment of book covers is captured. Selected copies of those books areprominently displayed on the top shelf of a nearby bookshelf. Mr. Averybelieves that keeping adolescents engaged requires him to use meaningful,age-appropriate material. He wants to demonstrate to his students that he isnot only aware of the contributions of scientists from diverse backgrounds,but he values and respects the advances those individuals have made toscience. To further engage his students, Mr. Avery believes in personalizingscience and bringing it alive for his students by having them verballycommunicate about current controversial issues so he structures debate-styleformats to stimulate student interest and develop critical thinking skills. Hethoughtfully selects content and uses read-aloud activities to frame an issuewith an introduction, a summary, and a set of challenge questions to fostercritical thinking. Saifer et al. (2011) maintain that when teachers makecurriculum relevant to students they bring depth and breadth to learning bypromoting critical thinking skills. Mr. Avery does this by using materials tobuild and connect schema, providing his students with an organizationalstructure to help them record and organize new concepts.

Mr. Avery explains that the periodic table of elements is an importanttool used in the science of chemistry and that today’s lesson willprovide them with an introduction to its contents and organization.Distributing one language poster to each of the five table groups heexplains, ‘‘Today we are going to discuss five elements. I want yourgroup to use your assigned vocabulary poster to guide the discussionof your element. You will find the element name, its definition, anexample of how the word could be used in a sentence, and arepresentation of the item. Discuss the card at your table. Shareexamples of where you see that element or how that element is used.’’Each of the selected elements: aluminum, gold, silver, helium, and


carbon was presented with an accompanying item(s) that the studentcould see and touch. For example a piece of foil was affixed to thealuminum card; a souvenir nugget of gold, a Mexican peso coin forsilver, a balloon for helium, and a piece of charcoal for carbon.Following the small group team discussions, Mr. Avery had onemember designated as the ‘‘reporter’’ verbally summarize theconversation at the table.

Mr. Avery believes that opportunities for verbal discussion are critical tothe oral language development supports for native speakers of English andELL students. He appreciates the importance of students needing time totalk about a topic as focused conversations assist them in considering howthey can use new vocabulary. Diaz-Rico and Weed (2010) discuss the needfor matching instruction to students’ second language levels or academicabilities. In this lesson, Mr. Avery’s language cards are augmented by realobjects and frequent repetition of the new vocabulary to help beginning levelELL students, while the activity itself is structured to engage all students inopportunities to speak with greater complexity.

‘‘Now that we’ve discussed five elements found on a periodic table, we’regoing to take a look at a few periodic tables but first I’d like to introduceall of you to Mr. Dmitri Mendeleev who was born at Tobolsk, Siberia in1834 and died in 1907.’’ Here Mr. Avery holds-up a black and whitephotograph he secured from the Internet of Mr. Mendeleev whileclarifying, ‘‘Mr. Mendeleev studied science at St. Petersburg andgraduated in 1856. Mr. Mendeleev was a university professor and isbest known for his work on the periodic table. He actually created anumber of different versions of periodic tables and arranged the elementsin order of atomic weight and grouped them by similar properties. Hethought that much was still to be learned in chemistry and predicted theexistence and properties of new elements.’’ Mr. Avery went on to explainthat Mr. Mendeleev’s perspectives were not always accepted and that hewithstood criticism and ridicule for his innovative thinking. Pointing to alarge periodic table hanging on the wall, Mr. Avery clarifies that theorganization of such tables can happen in many different ways, ‘‘Toappreciate that there are indeed many different types of periodic tables,I’d like to show you just a few that I recently found on the Internet’’. Mr.Avery hands a plastic model to one of the students with a learningdisability, while he uses his computer and flashes a display of colorpictures taken from the Internet depicting a wide assortment of periodictables, such as one showing video game characters, 3D crystals, plastic


tiles from a game board, and cupcakes decorated with colored-coordinated frosting. Other illustrations included drawings in the shapeof a galaxy, a pyramid, and a computer keyboard.

Mr. Avery plans for ways that content can be delivered in multiple modesso it is accessible to his students with a wide range of abilities, disabilities,interests, and previous experiences. Audio-taped read-along books areavailable for check out. His clear communications and use of multiple visualexamples help to ensure that content is understandable and complete. Also,his sensitive awareness to one student’s needs to feel or touch materials helpsher maintain attention. Diaz-Rico and Weed (2010) explain that the realitiesof working with ELL students who may also have a special education needsuch as those with a learning disability add tremendous complexity to thesecond-language-acquisition challenges these learners already face. Thoseauthors recommend the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL)be incorporated to guide the instruction of ELL students. As described byDiaz-Rico and Weed (2010), the application of UDL goes beyond merelyphysical access for all students (e.g., wheelchair ramps or enlarged print)ensuring access to information, resources, and tools for students with a widerange of abilities, disabilities, ethnic backgrounds, language skills, andlearning styles. Rose and Meyer (2002) clarify that the ‘‘universal’’ inuniversal design does not imply one most advantageous strategy foreveryone, rather ‘‘The central practical premise of UDL is that a curriculumshould include alternatives to make it accessible and appropriate forindividuals with different backgrounds, learning styles, abilities, anddisabilities in widely varied learning contexts’’ (p. 70). In this classroom,Mr. Avery designs multiple ways for chemistry students to accessinformation at the onset as opposed to returning after the lesson toprovided catch-up explanations. In today’s lesson, he incorporates what hecalls the ‘‘back story’’ by having a pictures and biographical informationabout Dmitri Mendeleev ready. He wants his students to understand thatthere are important stories behind things (e.g., the periodic table) and thatby understanding the individual, in this case Mr. Mendeleev, they will betterappreciate the product that was created.

‘‘As you can see, there are multiple ways for a periodic table to beorganized. I’d like all of you to work together to create your ownorganizational plan for a periodic table. After my directions, I want thematerials manager to come up here and grab one of these baggies for theirteam.’’ Holding up a baggie, he continues ‘‘In each of the bags youwill find92 different colored and sized pieces. These are actually paint sample cards


that I was given at the hardware store on Elmhurst Street. Teams are todetermine how these paint samples can beorganized. The ‘‘builder’’ in yourteam should be sorting and positioning the pieces. The ‘‘facilitator’’ needsto keep everyone on track as to ensure that all team member voices areheard. The ‘‘timekeeper’’ needs to keep things moving as you have only 20minutes to create your team plan. The ‘‘note-taker’’ needs to observe andrecord key comments, questions or points of clarification thatmembers arediscussing so the ‘‘reporter’’ will be ready to verbally synthesize theinformation to the whole class. Following those report-outs, each of youwill use your science notebooks to summarize your plan. Please refer to theSteps to Summarizing chart on the wall to ensure that you adequatelyexpress the message of your team. I want to encourage you to refer to thesummarizing scoring rubric to ensure you have a complete response.’’ Mr.Avery moves to the summary chart and reviews the key summarizingcomponents that have been taught in students’ language arts classes andare reinforced in all content classes: telling, describing, explaining,instructing, persuading, and recounting. ‘‘Alright, before the ‘‘materialsmanagers’’ begin to move, turn to your neighbor on your right and reviewthe directions I’ve just given for this activity.’’

Grouping Arrangements

As seen in Ms. Jennings mathematics lesson, Mr. Avery values the benefitsof cooperative learning arrangements. Jones (2011) points out thatencouraging group inquiry through cooperative learning is beneficial forELL students. It is imperative that students get to know each other early on,and unfortunately many students learning English are isolated from theirEnglish-speaking peers in early grades or during start of the year activities.One could only imagine the poor outcomes of the paint sample activity ifteam members did not feel comfortable with each other. As a classroommanagement strategy, the teacher appreciates that even high school studentsneed to be taught the responsibilities associated with the specific cooperativelearning roles and checks for student understanding must be embedded inthe activity expectations. In today’s lesson, Mr. Avery strategically assignedthe role of ‘‘builder’’ to a student with learning disabilities who needs addedkinesthetic involvement to stay on task, while an ELL student who needspractice with verbal language has the role of scaffolded ‘‘reporter’’ where hecan rely on notes to help with his class presentation.


Mr. Avery believes that he can contribute to increased student motivationand success by responding effectively to their preferred approach tolearning. Gardner (2006) has suggested that attention to the varied forms ofintelligence (logical mathematical, body kinesthetic, naturalist, interperso-nal, intrapersonal, visual special, musical rhythmic, and verbal linguistic) isessential in planning. Gardner points out that most individuals possess eachof those intelligences but in different amounts and that teachers focusprimarily on the verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligences. Headvocates that all students, especially those with linguistic and academicneeds, will be better able to learn and demonstrate their knowledge usingmultiple forms of intelligence. With this in mind, Mr. Avery’s classroom andinstructional lessons incorporate visual aids (posters, charts, highlightedcolor-coding, photographs, and realia, or real items) and opportunities forkinesthetic involvement through predetermined cooperative learning roles.

Evidence of Student Understanding

A key feature of culturally responsive instruction for inclusion is continuousstudent assessment. Diaz-Rico and Weed (2010) recommend that testing bean integral part of a learning environment that encourages ELL students toseek meaning and use a second language to fulfill academic and personalgoals. Mr. Avery is committed to planning for meaningful ways to check thathis students’ understand and are able to demonstrate learning. His uses ofauthentic assessments that link directly from classroom activities allow hisstudents to share in the process of critiquing their work. Mr. Averyincorporates multiple strategies (e.g., questioning, cooperative learning,written responses, turn-to-a-partner, and rubrics to guide student work) thatare directly related to classroom performance; this permits him to providemediation to students in need. Attention to the individual student needs of hislearners is evident in the differentiated supports that were available forproducing a written summary. Maximizing the benefits of science notebooks,Mr. Avery has created a number of ways for his students to demonstrate theirlearning. His required products have flexible requirements and expectationsso that each student’s learning can be assessed as accurately as possible forthat student (Tomlinson, Brinijoin, & Narvaez, 2008). While all are requiredto produce a summary, the actual product looks different. Some studentsmerely provide a written response to the prompt on a blank sheet in theirnotebook. Others are provided with a notebook that contains bolded lines toguide their writing. One student’s notebook contains pages designed with


three bullet points where he writes one-word responses, and another student’snotebook has large boxes in which she provides a drawing.

CONCLUSION

Mr. Avery has made a concerted effort to embed important elements ofculturally responsive teaching throughout his planning and instruction. Hisfocus on building relationships is woven into his daily practice. He takes thetime to learn about his students and structures activities where they can inturn learn about each other. Mr. Avery knows that one of the most importantabilities of a well-educated student is to think critically so his planning is donein ways to promote logical inquiry and reasoning. Students are prompted toengage in artistic creation and problem-solving as fundamental parts of theirlearning. His commitment to supporting language development is evident inthe ways he orchestrates opportunities for verbal communication while healso takes advantage of multicultural literature. Mr. Avery’s knowledge ofand genuine appreciation for his students’ interests and learning styles areevident in the ways he incorporates assessment and reflection.

As noted previously in Chapter Three, there are over 10.6 million school-agechildren whose primary language is not English (National Center forEducation Statistics, 2007). A disturbing fact in many schools across theUnited States is that students who are ethnic and racial minorities as well asELL students are disproportionately placed in special education programs(Gargiulo & Metcalf, 2010). This concerning pattern has persisted for over 40years with enduring and serious outcomes (Artiles & Zamora-Duran, 1997;Blanchett, Mumford, & Beachum, 2005). With an aim towards educating allstudents in the general education classroom coupled with U.S. legislativemandates that students with disabilities be involved in and progress in thegeneral education curriculum, Gargiulo and Metcalf (2010) maintain thatteachers are searching for ways to (1) adapt curriculum, (2) modifyinstructional strategies, and (3) assess students in ways that permit them todemonstrate their mastery of what they’ve been taught. They concur withOrkwis (2003) that UDL offers great promise as an educational model fordesigning instructional methods, materials, activities, and evaluation proce-dures in the quest to assist students withwide differences in their abilities to see,hear, speak, move, read, write, understand English, attend, organize, engage,and remember. Given the rich diversity of Willow Creek High School,Mr. Avery is committed to ensuring that his instructional practices areculturally affirming, sensitive, and reaffirming. As mentioned in Chapter One,


some ethnic groups are overrepresented in special education programs. Assuch, Mr. Avery is committed to maximizing culturally responsive practices soevery one of his students gets what they need; he knows some of his students areat-risk of a misidentification due to the language they speak or their ethnicity.


1. Consider how Mr. Avery checks for students’ understanding. How is theuse of checks for understanding reflected in your current teachingpractices?

2. Describe a teacher that you most highly admire. Describe the things she/he does that are culturally responsive.

3. Consider how you build relationships and a sense of community in theclassroom. How do you show your students that their abilities, interests,and cultures are valued?

4. Consider how issues of positive behavior supports are managed in yourselected school. Begin by identifying a classroom rule or procedure thattruly benefits students as opposed to one that is primarily reflective of theteacher’s historical practices. What are different ways classroom freedomis encouraged without infringing on the rights of other students? What isan example of a specific intervention that has helped the student learnbetter, as opposed to just eliminating the disruptive behavior?


PART FOUR

SUPPORTING TEACHERS’

GROWTH IN CULTURALLY

RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

Photo 4. Who are we? What factors contribute to our cultural identity?

CHAPTER ELEVEN

MENTORING AND SUPPORTING


TEACHING PRACTICES

INTRODUCTION

The previous three chapters have taken us on a journey of sorts through theclassrooms of three different teachers each of whom is committed to culturallyresponsive teaching and taking steps to operationalize it. They acknowledgethat culturally responsive pedagogy is not a teachingmethod or a defined set ofpractices. Yet, their goal is still to teach in culturally responsive ways. Towardsthis goal, they are attempting to begin with the fundamental principles oflearning that are particularly essential for effective teaching. First, under-standing that learners arrive at the classroom with prior knowledge and lifeexperiences, these teachers have planned curriculum implementation withlearner information in mind. They have selected materials with attention tostudents’ interests and backgrounds, keeping in mind students’ culturalperspectives along with the local culture when choosing a lens for filtering thecontent. Learner background information has informed teachers’ decisionsabout the classroom organization and environment. Each classroom isorganized to support a community of learning that allows for quietindependent learning, small-group interactions, and whole class discussions.

Second, a strength of each teacher is their ability to select and useorganizational structures to present content and to support students’application of the content in meaningful ways. From advance organizers tostory maps to think-pair-share and beyond, each teacher provided multiplesupports to help students use knowledge conceptually in order to apply it andmake sense of it in the classroom and beyond the classroom. Third, theteachers’ instructional strategies and adaptations reveal an understanding

189

that learning is more effective for learners when they understand how theylearn and how to manage their own learning across different content areas.Integrated in the 3rd grade classroom organization and climate is the need forstudents to make choices, be involved learners, and make decisions that arepositive for their learning experiences and the learning of their peers.Additionally, the 3rd grade teacher presented her class with different formatsfor the story map allowing students to select the format and visual organizerthey preferred. In the 5th grade math class, the teacher anticipated students’learning preferences when planning for them to produce written responses.

Reflecting on the three scenarios, we return to the principles and definitionof culturally responsive pedagogy. Bearing inmind that it is not a simple set ofpractices ormaterials to be secured and implemented, we revisitGay’s (2010b)definition that culturally responsive pedagogy is ‘‘using the cultural knowl-edge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles ofculturally diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to andeffective for them’’ (p. 31). Those teachers who gather students’ informationand use it to engage learners as they deliver instruction, can effectively supportthe learners’ grasp of new concepts and content inways to ensure real learning.

Understanding that culturally responsive pedagogy is a contextual andsituational process for both learners and teachers, we reflect on the ways thesethree classroom teachers recognized, acknowledged, and built on students’background knowledge, skills, and life experiences. What did the teachersconsideras theyplanned instructionandselectedmaterials?What steps did theytake to make the classroom a validating learning community for all students,and specifically, students whose backgrounds and life experiences wereincongruent with their own? How did they monitor their personal tendencyto gravitate towards familiar frames of reference when selecting contentmaterials, visual displays, reading texts, learning strategies, and literature?What did they do to ensure authenticity and accuracy when selecting culturalframes of reference andmulticulturalmaterials?Reflecting on thework of thesethree teachers as revealed through the scenarios offers valuable insights. In thefollowing section, we use the organizational framework that evolved out of ourworkwith classroom teachers committed to implementingculturally responsivepedagogyas a structure for reflecting on theways the teachers attempted tohelpstudents find relevance in the curriculum, content, and learning experiences atschool. InChapter Six,weprovided adetailed descriptionof the 12 componentsincluded in the organizational framework. In Chapter Eleven we provide abrief overview of the components included in the Organizational Frame-work (See Table 11.1), followed by a series of learning experiences to assistreaders’ reflection and analysis of the three scenarios (starting on page 194).


Table 11.1. Organizational Framework: A Lens for Reflecting onClassrooms and Instruction for a Culturally Responsive Perspective.

Components Description

Learner Considerations Who is the learner?

� Name, age, gender, grade� Native language, primary culture, family members at

home, home context� Previous experience with school, literacy and learning,

academic success� Self esteem, attitudes towards reading and school,

preferences for learning� Background knowledge, broad cultural background,

lived experiences

Environment/Environmental Print How has the teacher used the environment to create a

context that signals a valuing of diverse cultures and

perspectives; a commitment to equity; and a community

of learners?

� Learners thrive in a safe, supportive classroom

environment.� Students need to know that they are welcome and safe

from negative repercussions in the classroom.� Students will thrive when their attributes, strengths,

cultures, languages, abilities, and experiences are

recognized, viewed as resources, and used as a

foundation for future learning. (Bridges, 1995)

Curriculum Considerations How can the teacher implement the curriculum in a way

that is meaningful to this group of learners?

� Content standards and benchmarks� Potential links to learners’ perspectives or cultural lens

of students in class� Potential links to students’ reality/local culture� Potential links to cultural legacies and/or

contributions of individuals who share primary

culture of students in class

Language Objective What language forms and functions are characteristic

of specific academic disciplines?

� Content vocabulary� Language forms characteristic of a certain academic

discipline� Language functions characteristic of a certain

academic discipline

Mentoring and Supporting Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices 191

Table 11.1. (Continued )


Social Context/Grouping Strategies What consideration does the teacher give to designing the

opportunity for learners to interact, talk, and confer?

� Social interaction fosters development of language

and thought� Learners’ interactions with more capable peers

supports learning� Exposure to English increases in structured

interactions

Content/Instructional Materials From what cultural lens or perspective can the content be

presented in order to enhance a meaningful learning

experience?

� Selection of content in alignment with students’ prior

knowledge and cultural perspectives� Consider materials that build on students’

background knowledge and expand their frames of

reference� Consider instructional materials that are age-

appropriate and support students’ preferred learning

strategies� Consider instructional materials that support ELL

students’ use of listening, speaking, reading, and

writing

Scaffolding/Instructional Adaptations In what ways is the teacher helping to make the content

accessible to learners so that they can develop

understandings they could not develop independently?

� Determine students’ preferred learning strategies� Determine students’ strengths and needs� Consider and select adaptations or supports that will

allow student to engage in the content or learning

experience

Distribution of Attention What are the strategies the teacher uses to attend to each

student in ways that are equitable and respectful of

students’ cultural background and needs?

� Learn about the background and personality of each

learner� Gather information about cultural norms for

interactions, communication, and adult-student

norms


Table 11.1. (Continued )


Checking for Understanding/Evidence

of Student Understanding

What are the strategies the teacher uses to ascertain if

students understand the content and learning task?

� Learn about the background, personality, learning

needs, and preferred modes of learning of each learner� Allow learners to use preferred modes of learning to

show their understandings

Classroom Behavior/Managing the

Classroom

What are the strategies the teacher uses to structure the

classroom for learners to engage as in a community of

learning where teaching can be effective?

� Learn about the background, personality, learning

needs, and preferred modes of learning of each learner� Gather information about cultural norms for

interactions, communication, and adult-student

norms� Anticipate and plan for students to be active learners

in a learning community

Connecting with Family, Community,

and Local Culture

What strategies does the teacher uses to build rapport

with students’ families and learn about their local

community culture?

� Learn about the background and family of each

learner� Gather information about the local community (if

teacher does not reside there) and plan for ways to use

this information meaningfully integrated into lessons� Complete a community/neighborhood walk or drive

where the school is located and/or where the students

live� Periodically frequent community/local establishments

where students and their families participate

Teacher’s Personal/Professional

Growth

What steps does the teacher take to continue learning

and growing as a cultural being? What opportunities

does the teacher take (or make) for professional

development?

� Deepen understandings of cultural features and

perspectives� Continue learning about the cultural backgrounds

represented in the diverse student population� Set professional goal and locate related professional

development opportunity


USING THE ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK

TO REFLECT ON THE CLASSROOM

Given that culturally responsive teaching is not a set of practices or prescribedcurriculum, we offer readers the opportunity to reflect on the work of the threeteachers highlighted in the recent scenarios. We encourage the reader to stepback and reflect on each scenario holistically using the organizationalframework for the purpose of contemplating the teachers’ decisions, intentions,and logistics made towards their goal of culturally responsive teaching.

As you revisit excerpts from each of the scenarios, take time to respond tothe questions noted below the excerpt.

REFLECTING ON THE LITERACY SCENARIO

EXCERPT #1 FROM LITERACY SCENARIO

Approaching the classroom, you can see that the creative quilt does, infact, cover the entire door. Composed of individual student quilt piecesunited to form a bold numeral 3, the quilt tells the story of students’families, favorite foods, hobbies, and interests. Book covers ofmulticultural children’s literature border the quilt display. Some ofthe book titles include: Dia’s Story Cloth (Cha, 1994) and WhisperingCloth (Deitz Shea, 1996) (both texts are about story-telling quilts fromthe Hmong culture); Shota Star Quilt (the power of quilting andcommunity activism as told by a young Lakota girl); Sweet Clara andthe Freedom Quilt (Hopkinson, 2003) (quilts used as maps to guideAfrican American slaves to the Underground Railroad); and TheKeeping Quilt (Polacco, 2001) (a Russian family’s quilt used for theSabbath table cloth, a wedding canopy, and a baby blanket).During the initial lesson used to launch this unit, students were

welcomed by the numeral 3 shape on the classroom door with thecolorful border consisting of book covers. Students then created andcontributed individual squares to complete the classroom quilt.Ms. Ruız rooted the individual quilt-making in a language/literacyexperience that students to inquire, discuss, write, and share about


aspects of their family history, cultural history, life experiences, andpersonal attributes (see Fig. 8.2). Moreover, the teacher used the art-and literacy-based sharing experience to gain valuable knowledgeabout the students, their cultural backgrounds, and their families.

1. In what ways does this lesson excerpt reflect Ms. Ruız’s attempt tooperationalize culturally responsive pedagogy?

2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMs. Ruız attended to? Why? How?

3. Consider the logistics of implementing this lesson; what information-gathering, planning, and materials preparation may have occurredbeforehand?

4. Consider what you would do differently from Ms. Ruız. Why?5. How do you use the classroom environment and environmental print to

support students’ attributes, strengths, cultures, etc.?


As we continue to maneuver through Ms. Ruız’s classroom, we look tothe left side of the room where we see centered above the windows thatrun along the side of the room a sign that says, ‘‘Friends look for allkinds of ways to be kind to each other’’ and a poster with the word‘‘Friends’’ translated in a variety of languages representative of theschool community. Along each side of the sign, you see a creativedisplay of self-portraits of classroom friends with student-generateddescriptions responding to ‘‘Who am I today?’’ This description will berevisited and revised at key times throughout the year so that studentscan update ‘‘Who they are’’ to support the notion that we all change asdoes our cultural identity.


2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMs. Ruız attended to in this excerpt? Why? How?



4. Consider what you would do differently from Ms. Ruız. Why?5. How do you integrate the learner information and cultures in the

classroom context?


‘‘Readers and Writers, could I please have your attention? Before eachreporter shares their group’s responses, I’d like them to select the typeof follow-up feedback they are seeking from the other class members.’’The teacher then motioned to the poster labeled, ‘‘Options forProviding Feedback’’ that displayed three symbols with an accom-panying word and explanation (see Fig. 8.1). Each group selected theirfeedback choice and the sharing began.After each group had verbally shared, Ms. Ruız told students to use

their writing journal and proceed with their written response.‘‘Remember students, the purpose of this part of the lesson is foreach of you to create a character map and sentence describing 4 to 5descriptors about your own character, that means YOU! Remember,you have now discussed and described several characters from storieswe’ve read and you have a list of descriptors as well as strategies thatcan help you. You are welcome to refer to the character maps that yourgroup created as well as the descriptor lists. If you are unsure aboutgetting started, please see me and we will talk about a characterpyramid that you could use in your writing journal (see Fig. 8.7). Last,please remember that after you have completed your journal, includefeedback about your level of understanding (an up arrow for ‘I get it,’ adown arrow down for ‘I’m confused,’ and a question mark for ‘I thinkI understand, but I still have questions’)’’ (see Fig. 8.8).


2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMs. Ruız attended to in this excerpt? Why? How?



4. Consider what you would do differently from Ms. Ruız. Why?5. How do you scaffold to maximize students’ access to content and adapt

instruction in the classroom context?

REFLECTING ON THE MATH SCENARIO

EXCERPT #1 FROM MATH SCENARIO

Scanning the room, your eyes are drawn to the brightly colored ‘‘MathCentral’’ area that fills most of the sidewall. As depicted in Fig. 9.1, aseries of posters border the Math Central area. On the left, the topposter describes steps for problem-solving, another displays visualillustrations of fractions, and a third poster shows common measure-ments. A teacher-made poster focused on ‘‘place value’’ (i.e., the valueof a digit as determined by its position in a number) is displayed in thecenter of the visual, along with a set of 12 color-coded homeworkfolders. To the right, Ms. Jennings has posted a large probability chart.A number line runs the length of the wall and a bulletin board displaysstudent work samples that have incorporated writing into math storyproblems. A rolling cart filled with multisensory materials is positionedin the Math Central area.On the far wall that houses the Math Central materials, an observer

will see a bulletin board with the title, ‘‘MY COMMUNITY ISFILLED WITH MATHEMATICS.’’ An array of color photographsof the local community (e.g., street signs, an arch over the door of abakery, the roman numerals on a building of worship, equipment at apark) are displayed each within a creative geometrically designedborder made of construction paper. To the left of the bulletin boardhangs a teacher-made poster entitled, ‘‘Meet women mathematicianswho overcame great odds’’ (see Fig. 9.2).


1. In what ways does this lesson excerpt reflect Ms. Jenning’s attempt tooperationalize culturally responsive pedagogy?

2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMs. Jennings attended to? Why? How?


4. Consider what you would do differently from Ms. Jennings. Why?5. How do you use the classroom environment and environmental print to



During today’s lesson, Ms. Jennings conducted a math review lessonbased on students’ performance on yesterday’s homework. Aftermodeling the steps to solving a fractions problem, the teacherinformed the students that they were to move to cooperative learninggroups to work on a fractions word problem. Ms. Jennings clarified,‘‘Imagine you have just eaten pizza at Antonio’s (here she moves tothe color photograph of a local pizzeria). You are to work together tosolve the problem: Five friends are eating personal pan pizzas. Juanhas 3/5 left, Jack has 1/3 left, Danielle has 4/5 left, Maddie has 2/3left, and Coleman has 2/5 left. Rank order who ate the most pizza.From a decorated coffee can, the teacher began to pull popsicle stickson which students’ names were written, in order to determinethe composition of the heterogeneous teams. Each of the five teamswas provided with a clear overhead transparency and a coloredmarker.Next, Ms. Jennings stated, ‘‘Okay mathematicians, today you are to

participate in a Think-Pair-Share session. You must work together tofigure out how to solve the problem with words, pictures, or symbols.You are all responsible for learning the strategy that your group selectsfor solving this problem, a spokesperson from your group needs to beready to present to the entire class. In front of you, you will each find adifferent colored circle. Who can tell me in your own words the firstthree things your group needs to do?’’


1. In what ways does this lesson excerpt reflect Ms. Jennings’s attempt tooperationalize culturally responsive pedagogy?

2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMs. Jennings attended to in this excerpt? Why? How?


4. Consider what you would do differently from Ms. Jennings. Why?5. How do you integrate the learner information, cultures, and community

in the classroom context?


Two students paraphrase the directions provided in the following way:one repeats them in English, and another student paraphrases thedirections in his native language and gestures to key areas around theroom so that several speakers of the same native language integratedaround the room benefit from his explanation. Then, Ms. Jenningscontinues: ‘‘Once each group has solved the problem, I’ll use myspinner to determine which group presents in what sequence. If you areselected to come to the overhead projector, your team members arewelcomed to join you so that if you get stuck, you can ask a peer.Remember, though, that everyone in your group must understand thestrategy and be able to demonstrate their understanding verbally orvisually.’’

1. In what ways does this lesson excerpt reflect Ms. Jennings’s attempt tooperationalize culturally responsive pedagogy?

2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMs. Jennings attended to in this excerpt? Why? How?


4. Consider what you would do differently from Ms. Jennings. Why?5. How do you scaffold to maximize students’ access to content and adapt



REFLECTING ON THE SCIENCE SCENARIO

EXCERPT #1 FROM SCIENCE SCENARIO

Entering the classroom, one’s gaze is drawn to a large sciencevocabulary word wall where arrays of individual index cards arepositioned around colorful pictures of beakers and microscopes. Eachcard highlights one word with an accompanying definition in Englishand Spanish translations. Latin and Greek scientific terms (e.g.,photosynthesis) are broken into words students understand to aidthem in making connections. Behind his desk is a ‘‘Meet Mr. Avery’’bulletin board displaying photographs of his family, his travels,favorite quotes and comic strips, and cards from current and formerstudents. Near his desk, Mr. Avery has a posted schedule of hisavailability to meet with students and a poster articulating beginningand end of class procedures. Other age-appropriate, colorful, science-related posters are displayed about the room. In the front of theclassroom, a chart labeled, Writing Tips provides guidelines forsummarizing and editing. Five large rectangular shaped tables arearranged in the center of the room, six computers line the back wall ofthe classroom, a table for lab demonstration purposes is positionedin the front of the room and multiple built-in cabinets store textswith audio-recorded read-along books, science equipment, andsupplies.

1. In what ways does this lesson excerpt reflect Mr. Avery attempt tooperationalize culturally responsive pedagogy?

2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMr. Avery attended to? Why? How?


4. Consider what you would do differently from Mr. Avery. Why?5. How do you use the classroom environment and environmental print to




Mr. Avery explains that the periodic table of elements is an importanttool used in the science of chemistry and that today’s lesson willprovide them with an introduction to its contents and organization.Distributing one language poster to each of the five table groups heexplains, ‘‘Today we are going to discuss five elements. I want yourgroup to use your assigned vocabulary poster to guide the discussion ofyour element. You will find the element name, its definition, anexample of how the word could be used in a sentence, and arepresentation of the item. Discuss the card at your table. Shareexamples of where you see that element or how that element is used.’’Each of the selected elements: aluminum, gold, silver, helium, andcarbon was presented with an accompanying item(s) that the studentcould see and touch. For example, a piece of foil was affixed to thealuminum card; a souvenir nugget of gold, a Mexican peso coin forsilver, a balloon for helium, and a piece of charcoal for carbon.Following the small-group team discussions, Mr. Avery had onemember designated as the ‘‘reporter’’ verbally summarize theconversation at the table.

1. In what ways does this lesson excerpt reflect Mr. Avery’s attempt tooperationalize culturally responsive pedagogy?

2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMr. Avery attended to in this excerpt? Why? How?


4. Consider what you would do differently from Mr. Avery. Why?5. How do you integrate the learner information, cultures, and community

in the classroom context?


As you can see, there are multiple ways for a periodic table to beorganized. I’d like all of you to work together to create your own


organizational plan for a periodic table. After my directions, I want thematerials manager to come up here and grab one of these baggies fortheir team.’’ Holding up a baggie, he continues ‘‘In each of the bags youwill find 92 different colored and sized pieces. These are actually paintsample cards that I was given at the hardware store on Elmhurst Street.Teams are to determine how these paint samples can be organized. The‘builder’ in your team should be sorting and positioning the pieces. The‘facilitator’ needs to keep everyone on track to ensure that all teammember voices are heard. The ‘timekeeper’ needs to keep things movingas you have only 20 minutes to create your team plan. The ‘note-taker’needs to observe and record key comments, questions or points ofclarification thatmembers are discussing so the ‘reporter’ will be ready toverbally synthesize the information to the whole class.Following those report-outs, each of you will use your science

notebooks to summarize your plan. Please refer to the Steps toSummarizing chart on the wall to ensure that you adequately expressthe message of your team. I want to encourage you to refer to thesummarizing scoring rubric to ensure you have a complete response.’’Mr. Avery moves to the summary chart and reviews the keysummarizing components that have been taught in students’ languagearts classes and that are reinforced in all content classes: telling,describing, explaining, instructing, persuading, and recounting.‘‘Alright, before the ‘materials managers’ begin to move, turn toyour neighbor on your right and review the directions I’ve just givenfor this activity.’’

1. In what ways does this lesson excerpt reflect Mr. Avery’s attempt tooperationalize culturally responsive pedagogy?

2. Using the organizational framework, what components do you thinkMr. Avery attended to in this excerpt? Why? How?


4. Consider what you would do differently from Mr. Avery. Why?5. How do you scaffold to maximize students’ access to content and adapt


A daily aim for every teacher is to establish and maintain a learningenvironment that fosters both effective and efficient instruction while


maintaining and nurturing a positive social culture for students. Yes, it’s ajuggling act as every minute of every hour teachers are faced with split-second decisions about what to say and do depending on what students areor are not doing. Throughout this book we have discussed the dimensions ofclassroom life as they are directly influenced by the social and culturalbackground of students. Our discussion of the varied components ofculturally responsive pedagogy and accompanying exemplars is provided asa guide to illuminate recommended practices. Nonetheless, while ourindividual components are examined separately, there is significant overlapof the application of strategies in real classroom settings. We provide threeadditional forms as tools designed to scaffold further examination of thecomponents by the reader (see Appendix A for Forms A, B, and C). Forexample, in the science lesson, Mr. Avery knew his learners and thatknowledge helped him decide on grouping arrangements where he was thenable to personalized the group roles in ways that allowed him to take fulladvantage of his students’ strengths and focus on their needs. While each ofthe components can be analyzed separately, a holistic scrutiny of how theyoverlap and complement each other is recommended. Forms A, B, and Care provided to aid teachers, staff developers, and administrators to morecritically analyze the scenarios using the organizational framework of 12components.

SUPPORTING TEACHERS IN THEIR JOURNEY

TOWARDS CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

Focused educational observation and mentoring of teachers’ professionaldevelopment serve to promote excellence in instruction for all learners. Suchsupport is essential if schools are to gain headway in preparing apredominantly monolingual European American teaching force to teachdiverse student populations. With an emphasis on the collaborative natureof this direction of professional development, our hope is that teachers,teacher educators, and school administrators can come to understand thatculturally responsive pedagogy is ‘‘at once a routine and a radical proposal’’(Gay, 2010b, p. 26). Gay explains that it is routine in that it filterscurriculum content and teaching strategies through the cultural frames of allstudents in order to make content meaningful for all students, not justEuropean American middle-class students. Such has been the practicehistorically relevant to curriculum and content used with middle-class


European Americans. It is long overdue for this routine to be in place for alllearners in U.S. schools. Gay contends that culturally responsive pedagogyis radical because it moves from implicit to explicit the pivotal role of culturein teaching and learning, thereby placing full responsibility on educationalinstitutions to accept the viability of ethnic-group cultures in improvingstudent achievement and learning outcomes.

Objective, differentiated observation instruments that can be used toguide and support teachers towards culturally responsive teaching areneeded. In our work with teachers and school districts, we were called on todevelop a customized guide focused on observing, supporting, andmentoring teachers’ professional activities towards addressing the needs ofa diverse student population. After reviewing various observations tools, wedeveloped an observation tool with the goal of operationalizing a schooldistrict’s diversity teaching standard (e.g., in statements such as: The teachershall demonstrate competency in valuing and promoting understanding ofdiversity). Our collaboration resulted in the district administration adoptingthe observation tool which was piloted with district principals and teachers(Sobel, Taylor, & Anderson, 2003). Since then we adapted the tool andreported on a reliability study (Taylor & Sobel, 2007). Recently adaptedonce again to reflect a more complete perspective of culturally responsivepedagogy, we provide the Culturally Responsive Mentoring and CoachingTool here with guidelines for ways teachers, teacher educators, and schooladministrators can use it to support teachers’ understandings andimplementation of culturally responsive pedagogy (see Appendix B,Form D).

Good teaching is responsive instruction in which teachers provideinstructional strategies and curriculum consistent with students’ lifeexperiences, prior knowledge, and frames of reference and filtered throughstudents’ cultural lens. Effective teachers are effective for a variety ofreasons. The Culturally Responsive Mentoring and Coaching Toolillustrates a variety of key elements of culturally responsive pedagogy, andsupports discussion about:

� preparations and information-gathering prior to planning and instruc-tion;� decisions about curriculum, content, and selection of materials;� planning and rationale for defining language objectives and setting up theenvironment in the classroom;� providing social contexts for learning and language use, includinggrouping strategies;


� using student information in the process of planning for scaffolding andinstructional adaptations;� strategies for distributing the teachers’ attention equitably to all students;� checking students’ understandings and planning learning experiences thatprovide evidence of student understanding;� strategies for setting up classroom patterns and routines that supportpositive classroom management;� innovative and culturally responsive ways to connect with families, localculture, and the students’ community; and� continued personal and professional growth in the area of culturalawareness and culturally responsive pedagogy.

The Culturally Responsive Mentoring and Coaching Tool is not intendedto be used in one setting but to be distributed across multiple settings.Ideally, each of the three parts is to be used as a stand-alone application,discussion, or coaching tool. For that matter, any individual item in the toolcan be highlighted and serve as the focus for reflection and discussion. If theteacher is working with a mentor/coach, the pair ought to collaborativelydetermine which part(s) of the tool to use in one setting.

In perusing the tool (see Appendix B, Form D), notice that Part 1 servesas a guide for the preliminary information-gathering and planning thatoccurs prior to a teacher’s planning and implementing a lesson. Elements ofPart 1 include: gathering learner data, establishing the environmentand environmental print in the classroom, curriculum considerations, anddetermining language objectives. Each of these four items can be discussedindividually or collectively. We recommend starting with the individuallearners and learner information as this data will significantly influence theteacher’s plans and decisions relevant to environment, curriculum imple-mentation, and the language objective.

Part 2 of Form D spans two pages and includes eleven items that highlightareas of the classroom environment, instruction, and classroom interactions.While Part 1 addresses environment from the planning perspective, Part 2prompts observation and reflection of the realized environment as itfunctions to support teaching and learning. Discussion prompts also turnthe teacher’s and mentor/coach’s attention to the ways social context andgrouping strategies have been put in place to support students’ opportunitiesto interact, talk and confer. Teachers are encouraged to reflect on the extentto which the context supports interactions among heterogeneous groupings(students of different cultures mixed, students of different language abilities


mixed, students of difference ability levels mixed, etc.). Other areas addressedin Part 2 include:

� how content and/or instructional materials are presented from a culturallens, perspective, or frame of reference that is relevant to the learners;� the ways content is made accessible to learners so that they can developunderstandings they could not do independently;� strategies the teacher uses to distribute her/his attention equitably to allstudents;� the established routines or standards the teacher has for engaging studentsin a community of learning in positive and respectful ways; and,� the variety of ways and communication modes the teacher uses to interactwith students;

Part 3 of Form D provides four prompts to guide a conversation betweenmentor/coach and teacher. Question prompts address structures or activitiesthe teacher currently has in place to encourage interactions across diversecultural, language, or gender groups in the classroom. Many times studentswill need structures to support interactions across cultural or languagegroups. Knowing the strong indicator that parent involvement has onstudent achievement and successful experience in school, teachers are askedto reflect on their efforts to welcome parents and community members intothe classroom, including building rapport with parents and families of thestudents in their classroom. Many urban schools and communities are oftenviewed from deficit perspectives, created by stereotypical images of students,their families and communities. Therefore, understanding the connectionsthat the community has to the schools gives a teacher a more holistic view ofstudents, their cultures, and the knowledge they bring to the classroom(Sleeter, 2001). Maximizing the community provides opportunities forteachers to examine the student’s world outside the context of theclassroom, giving teachers the opportunity to discover and explore thecultural assets that exist within their students’ local communities.

Understanding that culturally responsive pedagogy is a philosophygrounding one’s approach to teaching, we encourage teachers andmentor/coaches to discuss the activities, learning experiences, professionaldevelopment or readings that have peaked the teacher’s interest andknowledge of principles of equity. An especially valuable discussion will behow these experiences have increased the participants’ understandings abouttheir attitudes and beliefs regarding culturally responsive planning forstudent achievement. As a final important point, we strongly encourage theteacher and mentor/coach to reflect on and articulate the explicit goals and


plans which they both have for advancing their personal and professionalgrowth in the area of culturally responsive pedagogy.

CONCLUSION

Teachers who are knowledgeable about the ways behavior, language,learning and teaching are culturally bound, gain insights and question howand why their own cultural frames of reference might contribute towardsthem misinterpreting students’ interactions, communications and expecta-tions. They come to understand that when teachers and students bringdiffering, sometimes conflicting, cultural experiences into the classroom,there is the possibility of cultural incongruence. When teachers recognize theways culture influences how one thinks, believes and behaves, they begin tounderstand how culture affects their own teaching and learning as well astheir expectations about teaching, learning and classroom interactions.Culture is at the center of all we do in education. Understanding how culturecan manifest itself in the classroom context is an important step foreducators to take towards comprehending the ways cultural incongruencecan influence a learner’s academic achievement.

As we bring closure to this journey, we are challenged to look critically atwhat we are doing relevant to culturally responsive pedagogy—in our ownteaching as well as our work in teacher education. We call on you to accessthe professional development resources provided in this text towards thegoal of teaching in ways that genuinely reflect that your students’ livesmatter. Each of us must be a part of making a difference.

A caring, competent, and qualified teacher for every child is the most important

ingredient in education reform.

— National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (1996)


1. Work your way through using the Organizational Framework (ChaptersSix and Eleven) by selecting one or two components on which to focus.Using information from a selected classroom, examine the ways and theextent to which the teacher has organized classroom instruction and theenvironment to support pedagogy that is culturally responsive.


2. Using Form A, provided in the Appendix A, revisit one of the threescenarios provided in Chapters Eight, Nine, and Ten. Examine thescenario using the Organizational Framework, and reflect on the ways inwhich and the extent to which each component was implemented by theclassroom teacher. Then place a ‘‘X’’ in the cell of the componentimplemented in the focus scenario.

3. Using Form B, compare and contrast your responses with the authors’responses. What are one or two examples of ways the teacher hasimplemented each component? Take time to discuss these examples alongwith any discrepancies between your responses and those of the authors.

4. Using Form C, focus on one scenario and review the exemplars noted forthe implementation of each component. To what extent do you agree thatthe exemplars identified in Form C illustrate an application of thecomponents articulated in the Organizational Framework? Whatadditional exemplars of the components did you notice being imple-mented in the scenario?

5. What ideas do you have for extending any one of the three scenarios andenhancing the implementation of culturally responsive pedagogy in thelesson?

6. Examine the Culturally Responsive Mentoring and Coaching Tool(Form D, Appendix B). Understand that the authors’ intent for the toolhas multiple applications. Review Parts 1, 2, and 3 of the form, and selectone part that is a relevant area of focus for your current context andneeds. Taking the perspective of a teacher, gather information andarticulate a response relevant to the teacher’s classroom context. Takingthe perspective of an administrator or staff developer, identify specificitems and consider options for supporting teachers understanding andgrowth around culturally responsive pedagogy.


REFERENCES

Agarwal, R., Epstein, S., Oppenheim, R., Oyler, C., & Sonu, D. (2010). From ideal to practice

and back again: Beginning teachers teaching for social justice. Journal of Teacher

Education, 61(3), 237–247.

Alim, H. A., & Baugh, J. (2007). Talkin Black talk: Language, education, and social change.

New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Alliance for Excellent Education. (2008, March). Fact sheet: How does the United States stack

up? International comparisons of academic achievement. Washington, DC. Available at

www.all4ed.org. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

Anstrom, K. (1999). Preparing secondary education teachers to work with English language

learners: Social studies. NCBE Resource collection series no. 12. Washington, DC:

National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. Available at www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/

resource/ells/social.htm. Retrieved on January 15, 2011.

Antunez, B., & Menken, K. (2001). An overview of the preparation and certification of teachers

working with Limited English Proficient (LEP) students. National Clearinghouse for

Bilingual Education, Washington, DC. ED-99-CO-0007.

Aragon, J. (1973). An impediment to cultural pluralism: Culturally deficient educators

attempting to teach culturally different children. In: M. S. Stent, W. R. Hazard &

H. N. Rivlin (Eds), Cultural pluralism in education: A mandate for change (pp. 77–84).

New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Artiles, A. J., & Ortiz, A. A. (2002). English language learners with special education needs:

Identification, assessment and instruction. Washington, DC: Center for Applied

Linguistics.

Artiles, A. J., & Zamora-Duran, G. (1997). Disproportionate representation: A contentious and

unresolved predicament. In: A. Artiles & G. Zamora-Duran (Eds), Reducing

disproportionate representation of culturally diverse students in special and gifted education

(pp. 1–6). Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.

Au, K. (1993). Literacy instruction in multicultural settings. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich.

Ballantyne, K. G., Sanderman, A. R., & Levy, J. (2008). Educating English language learners:

Building teacher capacity. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English

Language Acquisition. Available at http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/practice/mainstream_

teachers.html. Retrieved on March 2, 2011.

Banks, J. A. (1993). Multicultural education as an academic discipline.Multicultural Education,

39(Winter), 8–11.

Banks, J. A. (1994). Multiethnic education: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

Banks, J. A. (2002). An introduction to multicultural education (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

Banks, J. A. (2006). Cultural diversity and education foundations, curriculum and teaching

(5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

209

http://www.all4ed.org

http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/resource/ells/social.htm

http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/resource/ells/social.htm

http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/practice/mainstream_teachers.html

http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/practice/mainstream_teachers.html

Banks, J. A. (2007). An introduction to multicultural education (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

Banks, J., Cochran-Smith, M., Moll, L., Richert, A., Zeichner, K., LePage, P., Darling-

Hammond, L., Duffy, H., & McDonald, M. (2005). Teaching diverse learners. In:

L. Darling-Hammond & J. Bransford (Eds), Preparing teachers for a Changing World:

What teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 232–274). SanFrancisco,CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bateson Hill, A. (2001). Shota and the star quilt. London, UK: Zero to Ten Publishers.

Baxter, L. A. (1993). Content analysis. In: B. Montgomery & S. Duck (Eds), Studying

interpersonal interaction (pp. 239–254). New York, NY: Gilford.

Bishop, R. S. (1997). Selecting literature for a multicultural curriculum. In: J. H. Violet (Ed.),

Using multiethnic literature in the K-8 classroom. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.

Blanchett, W., Mumford, V., & Beachum, F. (2005). Urban school failure and disproportion-

ality in a post-Brown era. Remedial and Special Education, 26(2), 780–781.

Bloom, B. S., Davis, A., & Hess, R. (1965). Compensatory education for cultural deprivation.

New York, NY: Routledge.

Borko, H., Liston, D., & Whitcomb, J. A. (2007). Apples and fishes: The debate over

dispositions in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 58(5), 359–364.

Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In: J. G. Richardson (Ed.), The handbook of theory

and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Westport, CT: Greenwood

Press.

Boykin, A. W. (1994). Afrocultural expression and its implications for schooling. In:

E. R. Hollins, J. E. King & W. C. Hayman (Eds), Teaching diverse populations:

Formulating a knowledge base (pp. 243–256). Albany, NY: State University of New York

Press.

Bravo, M. A., Hiebert, E. H., & Pearson, P. D. (2007). Tapping the linguistic resources of

Spanish/English bilinguals: The role of cognates in science. In: R. K. Wagner,

A. E. Muse & K. R. Tannenbaum (Eds), Vocabulary acquisition: Implications for

reading comprehension (pp. 140–156). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Bridges, L. (1995). Creating your classroom community. Los Angeles, CA: Stenhouse Publishers.

Brisk, M. (Ed.) (2007). Language, culture, and community in teacher education. New York, NY:

Routledge.

Brown, B. A. (2004). Discursive identity: Assimilation into the culture of science and its

implications for minority students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(8),

810–843.

Brown, J. S., Collines, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.

Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32–42.

Bryan, L. A., & Atwater, M. M. (2002). Teacher beliefs and cultural models: A challenge for

science teacher preparation programs. Science Education, 86, 821–839.

Burnette, J. (2000). Assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse students for special

education eligibility. ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, Council

for Exceptional Children, Arlington, VA ED449637.

Buxton, C., Lee, O., & Santau, A. (2008). Promoting science among English language learners:

Professional development for today’s culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms.

Journal of Science Teacher Education, 19, 495–511.

Capps, R., Fix, M., Murray, J., Ost, J., Passel, J., & Herwantoro-Hernandez, S. (2005). The new

demography of America’s schools: Immigration and the no child left behind act.

Washington, DC: Urban Institute.


Caro-Bruce, C., Flessner, R., Klehr, M., & Zeichner, K. (2007). Creating equitable classrooms

through action research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Carter, R. T. (1995). The influence of race and racial identity in psychotherapy: Toward a racially

inclusive model. New York, NY: Wiley.

Cartledge, G., Gardner, R., & Ford, D. Y. (2009). Diverse learners with exceptionalities:

Culturally responsive teaching in the inclusive classroom. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson, Inc.

Case, K. A., & Hemmings, A. (2005). Distancing strategies: While women preservice teachers

and antiracist curriculum. Urban Education, 40(6), 606–626.

Cervetti, G. N., Bravo, M. A., Duong, T., Hernandez, S., & Tilson, J. (2008). A research-based

approach to instruction for English language learners in science. Report prepared for

the Noyce Foundation. Available at http://www.scienceandliteracy.org/research/

researchandresources. Retrieved on March 5, 2011.

Cha, D. (1994). Dia’s story cloth. New York, NY: Lee & Low Books, Inc.

Chubbuck, S. M. (2010). Individual and structural orientations in socially just teaching:

Conceptualization, implementation, and collaborative effort. Journal of Teacher

Education, 61(3), 197–210.

Cochran-Smith,M.,&Zeichner,K.M. (2005).Studying teacher education: The report of theAERA

panel on research and teacher education (pp. 1–36). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline. Cambridge, MA: The

Belknap Press.

Colorado. (2011). Colorado: The official state web portal. Available at http://www.colorado

.gov/cs/Satellite/CO-Portal/CXP/1165693060239. Retrieved on January 7, 2011.

Colorado Department of Education. (2000). Performance-based standards for Colorado

teachers. Denver, CO: Colorado Department of Education. Available at http://

www.cde.state.co.us/cdeprof/download/pdf/li_perfbasedstandards.pdf. Retrieved on

January 6, 2011.

Colorado Department of Education. (2004). Evaluation of linguistically diverse specialist:

Bilingual education. Denver, CO: Colorado Department of Education. Available at

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdeprof/download/pdf/addendwksheets/lingdiversebilingual.

pdf. Retrieved on January 6, 2011.

Colorado Department of Education. (2007). English language acquisition unit report on English

learners in Colorado. Denver, CO: Colorado Department of Education.

Colorado Department of Education. (2009). Colorado accommodations manual for English

language learners: Selecting and using accommodations for instruction and assessment

(3rd ed.). Denver, CO: Colorado Department of Education. Available at http://www.cde.

state.co.us/cde_english/download/Resources-Links/2009-2010ELLAccommodationsManual.

pdf. Retrieved on December 5, 2010.

Colorado Department of Education. (2010a). Colorado education statistics and data. Denver,

CO: Colorado Department of Education. Available at http://www.cde.state.co.us/index_

stats.htm. Retrieved on December 28, 2010.

Colorado Department of Education. (2010b). Pupil membership. Denver, CO: Colorado

Department of Education. Available at www.cde.state.co.us/cdereval/rv2010pmlinks.

htm. Retrieved on December 5, 2010.

Colorado Department of Education. (2011). About the Colorado Department of Education

(CDE). Denver, CO: Colorado Department of Education. Available at http://

www.cde.state.co.us/cdecomm/aboutcde.htm. Retrieved on March 1, 2011.

References 211

http://www.scienceandliteracy.org/research/researchandresources

http://www.scienceandliteracy.org/research/researchandresources

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdeprof/download/pdf/li_perfbasedstandards.pdf

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdeprof/download/pdf/li_perfbasedstandards.pdf

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdeprof/download/pdf/addendwksheets/lingdiversebilingual.pdf

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdeprof/download/pdf/addendwksheets/lingdiversebilingual.pdf

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cde_english/download/Resources-Links/2009-2010ELLAccommodationsManual.pdf

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cde_english/download/Resources-Links/2009-2010ELLAccommodationsManual.pdf

http://www.cde.state.co.us/index_stats.htm



http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdereval/rv2010pmlinks.htm

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdereval/rv2010pmlinks.htm

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdecomm/aboutcde.htm

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdecomm/aboutcde.htm

http://www.ccsso.org/Documents/2010/Model_Core_Teaching_Standards_DRAFT_FOR_PUBLIC_COMMENT_2010.pdf

http://www.ccsso.org/Documents/2010/Model_Core_Teaching_Standards_DRAFT_FOR_PUBLIC_COMMENT_2010.pdf

Commins, N. L., & Miramontes, O. B. (2006). Addressing linguistic diversity from the outset.

Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 240–246.

Council of Chief State School Officers. (CCSSO). (2010, July). Interstate teacher assessment and

support consortium (InTASC) model core teaching standards: A resource for state

dialogue (draft of public comment). Washington, DC: Author. Available at http://www.

ccsso.org/Documents/2010/Model_Core_Teaching_Standards_DRAFT_FOR_PUBLIC_

COMMENT_2010.pdf. Retrieved on March 13, 2011.

Cross, W. E., Jr. (1991). Shades of black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia,

PA: Temple University Press.

Cruickshank, D. R., Metcalf, K. K., & Jenkins, D. B. (2011). The act of teaching. New York,

NY: McGraw Hill.

Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational

success for language minority students. In: California State Department of Education

(Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3–49). Los

Angeles, CA: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State

University.

Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse society.

Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.

Dantas-Whitney, M., & Rilling, S. (2010). TESOL classroom practice series: Authenticity in

language classroom and beyond: Children and adolescent learners. Alexandria, VA:

TESOL Publications.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2004). Learning to teach for social justice. In: L. Darling-Hammond,

J. French & S. Garcia-Lopez (Eds), Learning to teach for social justice (pp. 1–7). New

York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2008). Teaching and learning for understanding. In: L. Darling-

Hammond, B. Barron, P. D. Perason, A. H. Schoenfeld, E. K. Stage, T. D. Zimmerman,

G. N. Cervetti & J. L. Tilson (Eds), Powerful learning: What we know about teaching for

understanding (pp. 1–9). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Teacher education and the American future. Journal of Teacher

Education, 61(1–2), 35–47.

Darling-Hammond, L., French, J., & Garcia-Lopez, S. P. (2002). Learning to teach for social

justice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Deitz Shea, P. (1996). Whispering cloth. Honesdale, PA: Boydes Mills Press.

Delgado-Gaitan, C., & Trueba, H. (1991). Crossing cultural borders: Education for immigrant

families in America. Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York, NY: The

New Press.

Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A reinstatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the

educative process. Boston, MA: Heath Press.

Diamond, B. J., & Moore, M. A. (1995). Multicultural literacy: Mirroring the reality of the

classroom. New York, NY: Longman.

Diaz-Rico, L. T., & Weed, K. Z. (2010). The crosscultural, language, and academic development

handbook: A complete K-12 reference guide. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Dillon,S. (2010).Newchallenges forObama’s educationagenda in the faceof aG.O.P.house.Available

at http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/12/us/politics/12education.html?ref¼arneduncan.

Retrieved on December 11, 2010.


http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/12/us/politics/12education.html?ref=arneduncan



http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/education/04educate.html?ref=arneduncan




Dillon, S., & Lewin, T. (2010). Education chief vies to expand U.S. role as partner in local

schools. Available at http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/education/04educate.html?

ref¼arneduncan. Retrieved on December 15, 2010.

Dinham, S. (2008). How to get your school moving and improving. Melbourne, Australia: ACER

Press.

Donovan, M. S., & Bransford, J. D. (Eds). (2005). How students learn: Science in the classroom.

Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Drucker, M. J. (2005). What reading teachers should know about ESL learners. Colorado

Reading Journal, 16, 43–50.

Duschl, R. A., Schweingruber, H. A., & Shouse, A. W. (Eds). (2007). Taking science to school:

Learning and teaching science in grades K-8. Washington, DC: National Academies

Press.

Elementary Secondary Education Act. (1995). Cross-cutting guidance for the elementary and

secondary education act – September 1996. Available at http://www2.ed.gov/legislation/

ESEA/Guidance/intro.html. Retrieved on March 16, 2011.

Ensign, J. (2003). Including culturally relevant math in an urban school. Educational Studies,

34, 414–423.

Erickson, F. (2002). Culture and human development. Human Development, 45(4), 299–305.

Escamilla, K. (2009). Guidebook on designing, delivering, and evaluating services for English

learners. Available at http://www.cde.state.co.us/cde_english/download/Resources

Links/Final_12_1_10%20Guidebook%2009-10.pdf. Retrieved on December 15, 2010.

Falvey, M. A., & Givner, C. C. (2005). What is an inclusive school. In: R. A. Villa &

J. S. Thousand (Eds), Creating an inclusive school (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association

for Curriculum and Supervision.

Flippo, R. (2003). Assessing readers: Qualitative diagnosis and instruction. Portsmouth, NH:

Heinemann.

Flippo, R., Hetzel, C., Gribouski, D., & Armstrong, L. A. (1997). Creating a student literacy

corps in a diverse community. Phi Delta Kappan, 78(8), 644–646.

Ford, B. A. (2004). Preparing special educators for culturally responsive school-community

partnerships. Teacher Education and Special Education, 27(3), 224–230.

Francis, D. J., Rivera, M., Lesaux, N., Kieffer, M., & Rivera, H. (2006). Practical guidelines for

the education of English language learners: Research-based recommendations for

instruction and academic interventions (Book 1 of 3). Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research

Corporation, Center on Instruction. Available at http://www.centeroninstruction.org/

files/ELL1-Interventions.pdf. Retrieved on December 1, 2010.

Frankenstein, M. (1997). In addition to mathematics: Including equity issues in the curriculum.

In: J. Trentacota (Ed.),Multicultural and gender equity in the mathematics classroom: The

gift of diversity (pp. 10–22). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Freeman, Y. S., Freeman, D. E., & Mercuri Kerman, S. (2001). Keys to success for bilingual

students with limited formal schooling. Bilingual Research Journal, 25(1&2), 203–213.

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Seabury Press.

Freire, P. (1994). The pedagogy of hope: Reliving pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY:

Continuum Publishing Group.

Futrell, M. H. (2010). Transforming teacher education to reform America’s P-20 education

system. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(5), 432–440.

Futrell, M. H., Gomez, J., & Bedden, D. (2003). Teaching the children of a new America: The

challenge of diversity. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(5), 381–385.

References 213

http://www2.ed.gov/legislation/ESEA/Guidance/intro.html





http://www.cde.state.co.us/cde_english/download/ResourcesLinks/Final_12_1_10%20Guidebook%2009-10.pdf

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cde_english/download/ResourcesLinks/Final_12_1_10%20Guidebook%2009-10.pdf

http://www.centeroninstruction.org/files/ELL1-Interventions.pdf

http://www.centeroninstruction.org/files/ELL1-Interventions.pdf

http://lmri.ucsb.edu/publications/05_listening-to-teachers.pdf

http://lmri.ucsb.edu/publications/05_listening-to-teachers.pdf

Galda, L., Cullinan, B. E., & Strickland, D. S. (1997). Language, literacy and the child (2nd ed.).

Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.

Gandara, P. (1995). Over the ivy walls: The educational mobility of low-income Chicanos.

Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Gandara, P., Maxwell-Jolly, J., & Driscoll, A. (2005). Listening to teachers of English

Learners. Santa Cruz, CA: Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning. Available at

http://lmri.ucsb.edu/publications/05_listening-to-teachers.pdf. Retrieved on December

1, 2010.

Garcia, E. (2002). Student Cultural Diversity: Understanding and meeting the challenge (3rd ed.).

Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Garcia, E., Arias, M. B., Murri, N. J., & Serna, C. (2010). Developing responsive teachers: A

challenge for a demographic reality. Journal of Teacher Education, 61, 132–142.

Garcia, P., & Potemski, A. (2009). Key issue: Recruiting teachers for schools serving English

language learners.Washington, DC:National Comprehensive Center for TeacherQuality.

Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligences: New horizons. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Gargiulo, R. M., & Metcalf, D. (2010). Teaching in today’s inclusive classrooms: A universal

design for learning approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (1st ed.).


Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education,

53(2), 106–116.

Gay, G. (2010a). Acting on beliefs in teacher education for cultural diversity. Journal of Teacher

Education, 61(1–2), 143–152.

Gay, G. (2010b). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.).


Gay, G., & Howard, T. C. (2000). Multicultural education for the 21st century. The Teacher

Educator, 36(1), 1–16.

Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding language, scaffolding learning: Teaching second language

learners in the mainstream classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (2003). Looking in classrooms (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

Graddol, D. (2006). English next. British Council Learning. Available at http://www.

britishcouncil.org/learning-research-englishnext.htm. Retrieved on May 8, 2011.

Grant, C. A., & Secada, W. (1990). Preparing teachers for diversity. In: W. R. Houston,

M. Haberman & J. Sikula (Eds), Handbook of research on teacher education (2nd ed.,

pp. 747–760). New York, NY: Macmillan.

Grant, C. A., & Sleeter, C. E. (1996). After the school bell rings. London, UK: Routledge

Falmer.

Grant, C. A., & Sleeter, C. E. (2007). Doing multicultural education for achievement and equity.

New York, NY: Routledge.

Greater London Authority. (2006). Black teachers in London. (020-7983-4100). Mayor of

London Report. London, UK: Greater London Authority.

Gutierrez, K. D., & Rogoff, B. (2003). Cultural ways of learning: Individual traits or repertoires

of practice. Educational Researcher, 32(5), 19–25.

Habboush, M. (2010, January 4). UAE ‘‘needs long-term solutions to population imbalance.’’

The National. Available at http://www.thenational.ae/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID¼/

20100105/NATIONAL/701049876/0/Feature. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.


http://www.thenational.ae/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100105/NATIONAL/701049876/0/Feature

http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2009/01/08/17training.h28.html

http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2009/01/08/17training.h28.html

http://idea.ed.gov/

http://idea.ed.gov/

http://idea.ed.gov/

http://idea.ed.gov/

http://idea.ed.gov/

Hadderman, M. L. (1988). State vs. local control of schools (ERIC Digest Series No.24). Eugene,

OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management (ERIC Document Reproduction

Service No. ED 422 600).

Hall, S., & Moats, L. (1999). Straight talk about reading: How parents can make a difference in

the early years. Lincolnwood, IN: Contemporary Books.

Harp, B., & Brewer, J. (2005). The informed reading teacher: Research-based practice. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Harper, C., & deJong, E. D. (2004). Misconceptions about teaching English language learners.

Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 48(2), 152–162.

Harriott, W. A., & Martin, S. S. (2004). Using culturally responsive activities to promote

social competence and classroom community. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(1),

48–54.

Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms.

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Helms, J. E. (Ed.) (1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research and practice.

Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Helms, J. E. (1994). Racial identity and ‘‘racial’’ constructs. In: E. J. Trickett, R. Watts &

D. Birman (Eds), Human diversity (pp. 285–311). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Henslin, J. M. (2004). Essentials of sociology: A down-to-earth approach (5th ed.). Boston, MA:

Pearson.

Hill, D., Stumbo, C., Paliokas, K., Hansen, D., & McWalters, P. (2010). State policy

implications of the model core teaching standards. (InTASC draft discussion document).

Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.

Hirst, L. A., & Slavik, C. (1990). Cooperative approaches to language learning. In: J. Reyhner

(Ed.), Effective language education practices and native language survival (pp. 133–142).

Choctaw, OK: Native American Language Issues.

Hollins, E. R. (2008). Culture in school learning: Revealing the deep meaning. New York, NY:

Routledge.

Hollins, E. R., & Guzman, M. T. (2005). Research on preparing teachers for diverse

populations. In: M. Cochran-Smith & K. M. Zeichner (Eds), Studying teacher education:

The report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education (pp. 477–548). Mahwah,

NJ: Erlbaum.

Holt, D. (1993). Cooperative learning: A response to linguistic and cultural diversity. Language in

Education: Theory and Practice Series. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on

Languages and Linguistics.

Honawar, V. (2009). Training gets boost. Education Week, 28(17). Available at http://

www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2009/01/08/17training.h28.html. Retrieved onMarch 4, 2011.

Hopkinson, D. (2003). Sweet Clara and the freedom quilt. New York, NY: Random House

Children’s Book.

Hopstock, P., & Stephenson, T. (2003). Native languages of limited English proficient students.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Howard, G. R. (2006). We can’t teach what we don’t know: White teachers, multiracial schools

(2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Howard, T. C. (2010). Why race and culture matter in schools: Closing the achievement gap in

America’s classrooms. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Hudelson, S. (1987). The role of native language literacy in the education of language minority

children. Language Arts, 64, 827–841.

References 215

http://www.co-operation.Org/pages/overviewpaper.html

http://www.co-operation.Org/pages/overviewpaper.html

Individuals with Disabilites Education Act. (IDEA). (2004). Building the legacy 2004. Available

at http://idea.ed.gov/. Retrieved on March 10, 2011.

Irvine, J. J. (2003). Educating teachers for diversity: Seeing with a cultural eye. New York, NY:

Teachers College Press.

Irvine, J. J. (2009). Relevant: Beyond the basics. Teaching Tolerance, 36, 1–4.

Irvine, J. J., & Armento, B. J. (2001). Culturally responsive teaching: Lesson planning for

elementary and middle grades. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.

Jimenez, R. T., & Rose, B. C. (2010). Knowing how to know: Building meaningful relationships

through instruction that metes the needs of students learning English. Journal of Teacher

Education, 61(5), 403–412.

Johnson, D. T. (2000, April). Teaching mathematics to gifted students in a mixed-ability

classroom. ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, Council for

Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Dr., Reston, VA (ED 441302).

Johnson, L. (2002). ‘‘My eyes have been opened’’: White teachers and racial awareness. Journal

of Teacher Education, 53, 153–167.

Johnson, R. T., & Johnson, D. W. (1994). An overview of cooperative learning. In:

J. S. Thousand, R. A. Villa, & A. I. Nevin (Eds), Creativity and collaborative learning:

A practical guide to empowering students and teachers (pp. 31–44). Baltimore, MD:

P. H. Brookes. Available at http://www.co-operation.Org/pages/overviewpaper.html.

Retrieved on December 5, 2010.

Jones, J. (1993). Psychosocial aspects of cultural influences on learning mathematics and

science. In: J. Greeno (Ed.), The challenge in mathematics and science education:

Psychology’s response (pp. 205–236). Washington, DC: American Psychological

Association.

Jones, V. (2011). Practical classroom management. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Jones, V., & Jones, L. (2010). Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of

support and solving problems (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

King, J. E. (1991). Dysconscious racism: Ideology, identity, and the miseducation of teachers.

Journal of Negro Education, 60(2), 133–146.

Klentschy, M. (2005). Science notebook essentials. Science and Children, 43(3), 24–27.

Knopp, T. Y., & Smith, R. L. (2005). A brief historical context for dispositions in teacher

education. In: R. L. Smith, D. Skarbeck & J. Hurst (Eds), The passion of teaching:

Dispositions in the schools (pp. 1–13). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Education.

Kottler, E., & Kottler, J. A. (2002). Children with limited English: Teaching strategies for the

regular classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Kozleski, E. B., Sobel, D. M., & Taylor, S. V. (2003). Addressing issues of disproportionality:

Embracing and building culturally responsive practices. Multiple Voices, 6(1), 73–87.

Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities. New York, NY: Crown.

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. New York, NY:

Pergamon Press.

Krashen, S. D. (1996). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom (Rev. ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Krashen, S. D. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Krater, J., Zeni, J., & Carson, N. D. (1994). Mirror images: Teaching writing in black and white.

Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Kroeber, A. L., & Kluckhohn, D. (1963). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions.

New York, NY: Vintage Books.


http://www.cde.state.co.us/Communications/download/PDF/FTR2009.pdf

http://www.nabe.org

Ladson-Billings, G. (1994a). What we can learn from multicultural education research.

Educational Leadership, 51(8), 22–26.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1994b/2009). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American

children (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American

Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465–491.

Land, D. (2002). Local school boards under review: Their role and effectiveness in relation to

students’ academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 72(2), 229–278.

Larrivee, B. (2005). Authentic classroom management: Creating a learning community and

building reflective practice. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Lee, C. D. (2004). Double-voiced discourse: African American vernacular English as resource in

cultural modeling classrooms. In: A. Ball & S. Freedman (Eds), Bakhtinian perspectives

on language, literacy, and learning (pp. 129–147). Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Lee, C. D. (2007). Culture, literacy and learning: Blooming in the midst of the whirlwind.


Lorde, A. (1982). Zami: A new spelling of my name. Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Press.

Losen, L., & Orfield, G. (2002). Racial inequality in special education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.

Lowery, L. (1980). Teacher talk in the classroom. Lecture given at the University of California,

Berkeley, CA. Cited in Peregoy & Boyle (2008).

Lucas, T., & Grinberg, J. (2008). Responding to the linguistic reality of mainstream classrooms:

Preparing all teachers to teach English language learners. In: M. Cochran-Smith,

S. Feiman-Nemser & D. J. McIntyre (Eds), Handbook of research on teacher education

(3rd ed., pp. 606–636). New York, NY: Routledge.

Lucas, T., Villegas, A. M., & Freedson-Gonzalez, M. (2008). Linguistically responsive teacher

education. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(4), 361–373.

Martin, D. B. (2000).Mathematics success and failure among African-American youth. Mahwah,

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Marx, S. (2000). An exploration of preservice teacher perceptions of second language learners in

the mainstream classroom. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 5, 207–221.

Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2009). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective

instruction (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

McEachron, G., & Bhatti, G. (2005). Language support for immigrant children: A study of

state schools in the UK and US. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 18, 164–180.

McGraner, K. L., & Saenz, L. (2009). Preparing teachers of English language learners.

Washington, DC: National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality.

McLaren, P. (1989). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of

education. White Plains, NY: Longman.

McLaren, P. (2003). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of

education (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

McLeod, M. (2002). Determining appropriate referral of English languge learners to special

education. Washington, DC: National Association for Bilingual Education. Available at

http://www.nabe.org. Retrieved on March 10, 2011.

McTighe, J., & Lynam, F. G., Jr. (1988). Cueing thinking in the classroom: The promise of

theory-embedded tools. Educational Leadership, 47(7), 18–24.

McWhorter, J. (2000). Losing the race. New York, NY: Free Press.

References 217

http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm

Miller-Lachmann, L., & Taylor, L. S. (1995). Schools for all: Educating children in a diverse

society. Albany, NY: Delmar.

Milner, H. R. (2010). What does teacher education have to do with teaching: Implications for

diversity studies. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2), 118–131.

Miniwatts Marketing Group. (2010, November 20). Internet usage statistics: World Internet

users and population stats [Data file]. Available at http://www.internetworldstats.com/

stats.htm. Retrieved on March 11, 2011.

Mizell, H. (2010, July). Change we can believe in. Presentation at the National Staff

Development Council’s Summer Conference. Seattle, WA.

Moll, L. C. (1994). Literacy research in community and classrooms: A sociocultural approach.

In: R. B. Ruddell, M. R. Ruddell & H. Singer (Eds), Theoretical models and processes of

reading (pp. 179–207). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Moll, L. C., & Gonzalez, N. (1994). Lessons from research with language-minority children.

Journal of Reading Behavior, 26, 439–456.

Moll, L., & Gonzalez, N. (2004). Engaging life: A funds-of-knowledge approach to

multicultural education. In: J. A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds), Handbook of research

on multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 699–715). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Monroe, C. R. (2005). Understanding the discipline gap through a cultural lens: Implications

for the education of African American students. Intercultural Education, 16(4), 317–330.

Morales, R. (2000). Effects of teacher preparation experiences and students’ perceptions related

to developmentally and culturally appropriate practices. Action in Teacher Education,

22(2), 67–75.

Nasir, N. (2000). Points ain’t everything: Emergent goals and average, and percent

understanding in the play of basketball among African American students. Anthropology

and Educational Quarterly, 31(3), 283–305.

Nasir, N. (2002). Identity, goals, and learning: Mathematics in cultural practice. Mathematical

Thinking and Learning, 4(2 & 3), 91–102.

Nathenson-Mejia, S., & Escamilla, K. (2003). Connecting with Latino children: Bridging gaps

with children’s literature. Bilingual Research Journal, 27(1), 101–116.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). Schools and staffing survey, 1999–2002.

Overview of the data for public, private, public charter, and Bureau of Indian Affairs

elementary and secondary schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Available at http://nces.ed.gov/

surveys/. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2003). Schools and staffing survey, 1999–2002.

Overview of the data for public, private, public charter, and Bureau of Indian Affairs

elementary and secondary schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2006a). The nation’s report card. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP). Available at http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/.

Retrieved on May 8, 2011.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2006b). The nation’s report card: Achievement gaps:

How Black and White students perform on NAEP. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Education, Institute of Education Sciences. National Assessment of Educational

Progress (NAEP). Available at http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/. Retrieved on May

8, 2011


http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/


http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/

http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/

http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/


National Center for Education Statistics. (2006c). The nation’s report card: Common core

of data: Dropouts, completers and graduation rate report. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP). Available at http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/pub_dropouts.asp.

Retrieved on May 8, 2011.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2007a). Condition of education: Racial/ethnic

concentration in public schools. Department of Education. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Available

at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_rcp.asp. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2007b). Condition of education. Department of

Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement. Available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo

.asp?pubid¼ 2007064. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2009). The nation’s report card: Classroom context:

Time spent on language arts. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of

Educational Research and Improvement. Available at http://nationsreportcard.gov/

reading_2009/context_1.asp. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2010). Digest of Education Statistics, 2009 (NCES

2010-013). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement. Available at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/. Retrieved

on March 4, 2011.

National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction

Educational Programs. (2007). Preparing mainstream teachers and secondary content

teachers to teach. Available at www/mcela.gwu.edu/files/uploads/6/2007/NPDLitReview

MainstreamTeachers.pdf. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. (1996). What matters most: Teaching

for America’s future. New York, NY: Teacher’s College, Columbia University National

Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. Available at www.ncate.org/Home/

tabid/680/Default.aspx. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. (2006). Glossary. Available at http://

ncate.org/public/glossary.asp?ch¼ 4. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. (2007). Professional standards for

the accreditation of schools, colleges, and departments of education. Available at http://

ncate.org/documents/standards/unit_stnds_2006. Retrieved on May 8, 2011.

Niemi, H., & Jakku-Sihvonen, R. (2006). In the front of the Bologna Process: Thirty-years of

research-based teacher education in Finland. Cited in Futrell (2010).

Nieto, S. (2002). Language, culture, and teaching: Critical perspectives for a new century.

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Nieto, S. (1999). The light in their eyes: Creating multicultural learning communities. New York,

NY: Teachers College Press.

Nieto, S. (2005). Why we teach. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Nieto, S. (2007). The color of innovative and sustainable leadership: Learning from teacher

leaders. Journal of Educational Change, 8(4), 299–309.

Nieto, S. (2010). The light in their eyes: Creating multicultural learning communities (10th

anniversary ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Nieto, S., & Bode, P. (2011). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural

education (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

References 219

http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/

http://www/mcela.gwu.edu/files/uploads/6/2007/NPDLitReviewMainstreamTeachers.pdf

http://www.ncate.org/Home/tabid/680/Default.aspx



http://www.cde.state.co.us/cde_english/download/Resources-Links/S2041-272X(2011)0000004015

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cde_english/download/Resources-Links/S2041-272X(2011)0000004015

http://www.cec.sped.org/AM?Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=2636

http://sbdp.org/content/atlanta-journal-constitution-article-industry-associations-are-valuable-assets

http://sbdp.org/content/atlanta-journal-constitution-article-industry-associations-are-valuable-assets

http://www.nccrest.org/publications/tools.html

http://www.nccrest.org/publications/tools.html

http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/UNITS/indes.html



http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/seccss.asp?CID=32&DID=37

http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/seccss.asp?CID=32&DID=37

Oakes, J. (1990a). Multiplying inequalities: The effects of race, social class, and tracking on

opportunities to learn mathematics and science. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.

Oakes, J. (1990b). Opportunities, achievement and choice: Women and minority students

in science and mathematics. In: C. B. Cazden (Ed.), Review of research in education

(pp. 153–222). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Office of Language, Culture and Equity, Colorado Department of Education. (2010). Culturally

and linguistically diverse learners in Colorado: A State of the State 2010. Denver, CO:

Colorado Department of Education. Available at http://www.cde.state.co.us/cde_

english/download/Resources-Links/StateoftheState2010.pdf. Retrieved on January 2,

2011.

Ogbu, J. (1987). Opportunity structure, cultural boundaries, and literacy. In: J. Langer (Ed.),

Language, literacy, and culture: Issues of society and schooling (pp. 149–177). Norwood,

NG: Ablex.

Olson, S., & Loucks-Horsley, S. (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards.

Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Orkwis, R. (2003). Universally designed instruction. Available at http://www.cec.sped.org/AM?

Template.cfm?Section¼Search&template¼/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID¼2636.

Retrieved on January 15, 2011.

Orr, E. (1987). Twice as less: Black English and the performance of Black students in mathematics

and science. New York, NY: Norton.

Pai, Y., Adler, S. A., & Shadiow, L. K. (2006). Cultural foundations of education (4th ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Pappamihiel, N. E. (2002). English as a second language students and English language anxiety:

Issues in the mainstream classroom. Research in the Teaching of English, 36, 327–355.

Peregoy, S. (1989). Relationships between second language oral proficiency and reading

comprehension of bilingual fifth grade students. Journal of the National Association of

Bilingual Education, 13(3), 217–234.

Peregoy, S. F., & Boyle, O. F. (2008). Reading, writing, and learning in ESL: A resource book for

teaching K-12 English (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Peterson Miller, S. (2009). Validated practices for teaching students with diverse needs and

abilities (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Polacco, P. (2001). The keeping quilt. St. Louis, MO: Turtleback books (A division of Sanval).

Polloway, E. A., Patton, J. R., & Serna, L. (2008). Strategies for teaching learners with special

needs (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.

Raines, J. (2009). The value of professional organizations. Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Available

at http://sbdp.org/content/atlanta-journal-constitution-article-industry-associations-are-

valuable-assets. Retrieved on January 21, 2011.

Reardon, S. F., & Galindo, C. (2009). The Hispanic-White achievement gap in math and reading

in the elementary grades. American Educational Research Journal, 46(3), 853–891.

Reardon, S. F., & Robinson, J. P. (2008). Patterns and trends in racial/ethnic and socioeconomic

academic achievement gaps. In: H. F. Ladd & E. B. Fiske (Eds), Handbook of research in

education finance and policy (pp. 499–518). New York, NY: Routledge.

Reyhner, J.&Davison,D. (1993). Improvingmathematics and science instruction forLEPmiddle

and high school students through language activities. Proceedings of the 3rd National

Research Symposium on Limited English Proficient Student Issues, II (pp. 549–578).

Washington, DC: United States Department of Education, OBEMLA.


http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_021.asp

http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_021.asp

http://nces.ed.gov.fastfacts/display.asp?id=28









http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/index.html

http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/index.html

Richards, H. V., Artiles, A. J., Klingner, J. & Brown, A. (2005). Equity in special education

placement: A school self-assessment guide for culturally responsive practice. Available at

http://www.nccrest.org/publications/tools.html. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

Riessman, F. (1962). The culturally deprived child. New York, NY: Harper.

Rivera, C., Collum, E., Willner, I. S., & Sia, J. K. (2006). An analysis of state assessment

policies that address the accommodation of English language learners. In: C. Rivera &

E. Collum (Eds), A national review of state assessment policy and practice for English

language learners (pp. 1–173). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Robinson, J. P. (2010). The effects of test translation on young English learners’ mathematics

performance. Educational Researchers, 39(8), 582–590.

Rodriquez, A., & Kitchen, R. S. (Eds). (2005). Preparing prospective mathematics and science

teachers to teach for diversity: Promising strategies for transformative action. Mahwah,

NJ: Erlbaum.

Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age. Universal design for

learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and schools: Using social, economic, and educational reform to close

the Black-White achievement gap. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.

Routman, R. (1999). Conversations: Strategies for teaching, learning, and evaluating. Ports-

mouth, NH: Heinemann.

Rydzewski, R. M. (2008). Real world drug discovery: A chemist’s guide. Oxford: Elsevier.

Saifer, S., Edwards, K., Ellis, D., Ko, L., & Stuczynski, A. (2011).Culturally responsive standards-

based teaching: Classroom to community and back (2nd ed.). ThousandOaks, CA: Corwin.

Schultz, E., Neyhart, T. K., & Reck, U. M. (1996). Swimming against the tide: A study of

prospective teachers’ attitudes regarding cultural diversity and urban teaching. Western

Journal of Black Studies, 20(1), 1–7.

Sergiovanni, T. (1994). Building community in schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Sirotnik, K. A. (1993). Society, schooling, teaching and preparing to teach. In: J. I. Goodlad,

R. Soder & K. A. Sirotnik (Eds), The moral dimensions of teaching (pp. 296–327). San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Slavin, R. E., Karweit, N. L., & Madden, N. A. (1989). Effective programs for students at risk.

Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Sleeter, C. E. (2001). Preparing teachers for culturally diverse schools. Journal of Teacher

Education, 52, 94–106.

Sleeter, C., & Grant, C. A. (2003). Making choices for multicultural education: Five approaches

to race, class, and gender (4th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.

Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (2008). Turning on learning: Five approaches for multicultural

teaching plans for race, class, gender, and disability (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Sobel, D. M., & Taylor, S. V. (2006). Blueprint for the responsive classroom. Teaching

Exceptional Children, 38(4), 28–35.

Sobel, D., Taylor, S. V., & Anderson, R. A. (2003). Shared accountability: Developing an

observational tool for evaluating diversity-responsive teaching. Teaching Exceptional

Children, 35(6), 46–54.

Sobel, D. M., Taylor, S. V., Kalisher, S. M., & Weddle-Steinberg, R. A. (2003). A self-study of

diversity issues: Preservice teachers’ beliefs revealed through classroom practices.

Multiple Voices, 5(1), 1–12.

Sobel, D. M., Taylor, S. V., & Wortman, N. (2006). Positive standards for behavior that

respond to students’ diverse needs and backgrounds. Beyond Behavior, 15(2), 20–26.

References 221

http://www.theeuros.eu/1726-The-Bologna-Accord-Do-we-need,1726.html?lang=fr

Solano-Flores, G., & Trumbull, E. (2008). In what language should English language

learners be tested? In: R. J. Kopriva (Ed.), Improving testing for English language

learners (pp. 168–200). New York, NY: Routledge.

Stephens, S. (2001). Handbook for culturally responsive science curriculum. Available at http://

www.ankn.uaf.edu/UNITS/indes.html. Retrieved on January 17, 2011.

Suzuki, B. H. (1984). Curriculum transformation for multicultural education. Education and

Urban Society, 16, 294–322.

Tate, W. F. (1994). Race, retrenchment, and the reform of school mathematics. Phi Delta

Kappan, 75(6), 477–485.

Tate, W. F. (1995). Economics, equity, and the national mathematics assessment: Are we

creating a national toll road? In: W. Secada, E. Fennema & L. B. Adajian (Eds), New

directions for equity in mathematics in mathematics education (pp. 191–208). New York,

NY: Cambridge University Press.

Taylor, S. V. (2000). Multicultural is who we are: Literature as a reflection of ourselves.

Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(3), 24–29.

Taylor, S. V., & Sobel, D. M. (2001). Addressing the discontinuity of students’ and teachers’

diversity: A preliminary study of preservice teachers’ beliefs and perceived skills.

Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(4), 487–503.

Taylor, S. V., & Sobel, D. M. (2003). Rich contexts to emphasize social justice in teacher

education: Curriculum and pedagogy in professional development schools. Equity &

Excellence in Education, 36, 249–258.

Taylor, S. V., & Sobel, D. (2007). Diversity-responsive assessment tool: Assessing and

mentoring effective teaching in multilingual, multicultural classrooms. In: C. Coombe,

M. Al-Hamly, P. Davidson & S. Troudi (Eds), Evaluating teacher effectiveness in EFL/

SL contexts (pp. 213–231). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Taylor, S. V., & Sobel, D. (2008). Taking action to foster classroom environments that support

culturally responsive classroom management for English language learners. In: T. S. C.

Farrell (Ed.), Classroom management (pp. 7–17). TESOL Classroom Practice Series.

Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages/National Council for Accreditation

of Teacher Education. TESOL/NCATE Standards for P-12 Teacher Education Programs

(2010). Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.

Tellez, K., & Waxman, H. C. (2006). Preparing quality teachers for English language learners:

An overview of the critical issues. In: K. Tellez & H. C. Waxman (Eds), Improving

educator quality for English language learners: Research, policies, and practices (pp. 1–22).

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Terrill,M.M.,&Mark,D. L. (2000). Preservice teachers’ expectation for schools with children of

color and second-language learners. Journal of Teacher Education, 51, 149–155.

TESOL. (2004). Position statement on multilingualism. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to

Speakers of Other Languages, Board of Directors. Available at http://www.tesol.org/

s_tesol/seccss.asp?CID¼32&DID¼37. Retrieved on March 11, 2011.

Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language

minority students’ long-term academic achievement. Santa Cruz, CA: University of

California, Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence.

Thornburg, D. G., & Karp, K. S. (1992). Lessons learned: (Mathematics¼scienceþhigher

order thinking) � second-language learning¼ ? The Journal of Educational Issues of

Language Minority Students, 10(Special Issue, Spring), 159–184.


http://www.cde.state.co.us/FedPrograms/dl/ti_parents_ELLGdbk.pdf

http://www.cde.state.co.us/FedPrograms/dl/ti_parents_ELLGdbk.pdf

http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=12493








Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners.

Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms (2nd ed.).

Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A., Brinijoin, K., & Narvaez, L. (2008). The differentiated school: Making

revolutionary changes in teaching and learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Trent, S. C., Kea, C. D., & Oh, K. (2008). Preparing preservice educators for cultural diversity:

How far have we come? Exceptional Children, 74(3), 328–350.

Trumball, E. (2001). Bridging cultures between home and school. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum.

Uribe, M., & Nathenson-Mejia, S. (2008). Literacy essentials for English language learners. New


U.S. Census Bureau. (2004). Poverty status (Table 21). Digest of Education Statistics. Available

at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_021.asp. Retrieved on March 4,

2011.

U.S. Department of Education. (2001). No Child Left Behind Act (the elementary and secondary

education act). Washington, DC: Author.

U.S. Department of Education. (2008). Fast facts. Washington, DC: National Center for

Education Statistics, Institute for Education Statistics. Available at http://nces.ed.gov.

fastfacts/display.asp?id¼28. Retrieved on January 10, 2010.

U.S. Department of Education. (2010). Elementary and secondary education ESEA reauthoriza-

tion: A blueprint for reform. Available at http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/

index.html. Retrieved March 11, 2011.

Valdes, G. (2001). Learning and not learning English: Latino students in American schools. New


Vaughn, S., Bos, C. S., & Schumm, S. S. (2006). Teaching exceptional, diverse, and at-risk

students in the general education classroom (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Villa, R. A., & Thousand, J. S. (2005). Creating an inclusive school (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA:

Association for Curriculum and Supervision.

Villegas, A. (2007). Dispositions in teacher education: A look at social justice. Journal of

Teacher Education, 58(5), 370–380.

Villegas, A. M., & Lucas, T. (2002). Preparing culturally responsive teachers: Rethinking the

curriculum. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 20–32.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes

(14th ed.). Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.

Walker-Dalhouse, D., & Dalhouse, A. D. (2006). Investigating White preservice teachers’

beliefs about teaching in culturally diverse classrooms. The Negro Educational Review,

57(1–2), 69–84.

Walker Tileston, D. (2010). What every teacher should know about diverse learners. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage.

Walther, P. D., & Boetticher, C. (2008). The Bologna Accord: Do we need a European

university policy? Available at http://www.theeuros.eu/1726-The-Bologna-Accord-Do-

we-need,1726.html?lang¼fr. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

Wang, J., Spalding, E., Odell, S., Klecka, C., & Lin, E. (2010). Bold ideas for improving teacher

education and teaching: What we see, hear, and think. Journal of Teacher Education,

61(1–2), 3–15.

References 223

Wang, M. C., & Gordon, E. W. (Eds). (1994). Educational resilience in inner-city America:

Challenges and prospects. Hillside, NJ: Erlbaum.

Warofsky, M. (1973). Models. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.

Waterman, R. A. (2006). Breaking down barriers, creating space: A guidebook for increasing

collaboration between schools and the parents of English language learners. Denver,

CO: Colorado Department of Education. Available at http://www.cde.state.co.us/

FedPrograms/dl/ti_parents_ELLGdbk.pdf. Retrieved on March 1, 2011.

Weinstein, C. S., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004). Toward a conception of culturally

responsive classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(1), 25–38.

Wiggins, R. A., & Follo, E. J. (1999). Development of knowledge, attitudes, and commitment to

teach diverse student populations. Journal of Teacher Education, 50(2), 94–105.

Wilkerson, J. R. (2006, April 20). Measuring teacher dispositions: Standards-based or morality-

based? Teachers College Record. Available at http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.

asp?ContentID¼ 12493. Retrieved on March 4, 2011.

Williams, J. A. (2001). Classroom conversations: Opportunities to learn for ESL students in

mainstream classroom. The Reading Teacher, 54, 750–757.

Willner, L. S., Rivera, C., & Acosta, B. D. (2008). Descriptive study of the state assessment

policies for accommodating English language learners. Arlington, VA: GeorgeWashington

University Center for Equity and Excellence in Education.

Wise, A. (2005). Editorial opinion: Teacher standards. U.S. News & World Report, 13(18),

12–16.

Wong Fillmore, L., & Snow, C. (2002). What teachers need to know about language. In:

C. Adger, C. Snow & D. Christian (Eds), What teachers need to know about language

(pp. 7–53). Alexandria, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Wong Fillmore, L. (1991). When learning a second language means losing the first. Early

Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 323–346.

Xu, H. (2000). Preservice teachers integrate understandings of diversity into literacy instruction:

An adaptation of the abc’s model. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(2), 135–142.

Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community

cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91.

Zeichner, K. (2006). Reflections of a university-based teacher educator on the future of college-

and university-based teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 326–340.

Zeichner, K., & Hoeft, K. (1996). Teacher socialization for cultural diversity. In: J. Sikula,

T. Buttery & E. Guyton (Eds), Handbook on research on teacher education (2nd ed.,

pp. 525–547). New York, NY: MacMillan.

Zhao, Y. (2010). Preparing globally competent teachers: A new imperative for teacher

education. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(5), 422–431.

Zimmerman, T. D., & Stage, E. K. (2008). Teaching science for understanding. In: L. Darling-

Hammond, B. Barron, P. D. Pearson, A. H. Schoenfeld, E. K. Stage, T. D. Zimmerman,

G. N. Cervetti & J. L. Tilson (Eds), Powerful learning: What we know about teaching for

understanding (pp. 151–191). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Zollers, N., Albert, L., & Cochran-Smith, M. (2000). In pursuit of social justice: Collaborative

research and practice in teacher education. Action in Teacher Education, 22(2), 1–14.

Zumwalt, K., & Craig, E. (2005). Teachers’ characteristics: Research on the demographic

profile. In: M. Cochran-Smith & K. M. Zeichner (Eds), Studying teacher education: The

report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education (pp. 111–156). Mahwah, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum.


APPENDICES

Photo 5. A street sign welcoming all who enter.

225

APPENDIX A. FORM A.

IDENTIFYING EXEMPLARS OF COMPONENTS IN

ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK

Directions: Place an ‘‘X’’ in the column of the classroom teaching scenarioindicating a corresponding example of a component that was used.

Components Literacy Mathematics Science

1. Learner considerations

2. Environment and environmental print

3. Curriculum considerations

4. Language objective

5. Social context for learning/grouping

strategies

6. Content/instructional materials

7. Scaffolding/instructional adaptations

8. Distribution of attention

9. Checking for understanding/

evidence of student understanding

10. Classroom behavior/managing the

classroom

11. Connecting with family, community,

local culture

12. Teacher’s personal/professional

growth


APPENDIX A. FORM B.

EXEMPLARS OF COMPONENTS PRESENT IN

CLASSROOM TEACHING SCENARIOS

Authors’ responses to corresponding examples of components addressed inthe organizational framework that were used in the classroom teachingscenarios.

Components Literacy Mathematics Science

1. Learner considerations X X X

2. Environment and environmental print X X X

3. Curriculum considerations X X X

4. Language objective X

5. Social context for learning/grouping

strategies

X X

6. Content/instructional materials X X X

7. Scaffolding/instructional adaptations X X

8. Distribution of attention X

9. Checking for understanding/evidence

of student understanding

X X X

10. Classroom behavior/managing the

classroom

X X

11. Connecting with family, community,

local culture

X X

12. Teacher’s personal/professional

growth

X X

Appendices 227

APPENDIX

A.FORM

C.

SAMPLIN

GOFEXEMPLARSIM

PLEMENTED

INCLASSROOM

SCENARIO

S

Components

Literacy

Mathem

atics

Science

1.Learner

considerations

�Profile

ofclass

�Profile

ofclass

�

�Profile

ofclass

�

2.Environmentand

environmentalprint

�Class

quilt

�Class

chant

�Friendship

activities

�

�‘‘Math

Central’’

�Photographsofmath

inthe

community

�

�MVPaward

activity

�Summarizingchart

�

3.Curriculum

considerations

�Multiculturalchildren’s

literature

�Story

mapelem

ents

�

� � �

�Contentread-aloud

activitiesprofilingscientists

from

diverse

backgrounds

�

4.Languageobjective

�Posted

andaligned

with

lessonstandard

5.Socialcontextforlearning/

groupingstrategies

��

Use

ofnamesticksto

determineheterogeneous

teams

� �

�Strategicallyassigned

cooperativelearningroles

maxim

izestudentstrengths

andneeds

�

6.Content/instructional

materials

� � �

�Commerciallypurchased

andteacher-m

ade

resources—international

currency,flash

cardswith

translateddirections

�

�Languagecardsaugmented

byrealobjects

�Varied

examplesofperiodic

tables

� � �


7.Scaffolding/instructional

adaptations

�Listeningcenter

�Questioningandwait-tim

e

provided

toindividuals.

�Differentiated,folders

holdingproblemsofvaried

difficultymatched

to

students’abilitylevels

�Transparency,sentence

starter,andwritingprompts

postersto

support

written

responses

�

�Use

ofthe‘‘back

story’’

technique

8.Distributionofattention

��

�Strategic

questions

�

9.Checkingforunderstanding/

evidence

ofstudent

understanding

�Optionsforstudent

feedback

�Completionofstory

map

andpersonaldescriptors

�

�Explain

personalstrategy

usingacommunityexample

�Self-assessm

ent

�Studentconference

�

�Written

responses

�Turn-to-a-partner

�Rubrics

� �

10.Classroom

behavior/

managingtheclassroom

�Clearexpectationsforcenter

work

�Optionsforother

work

if

timeallows

�

��

Cooperativelearningroles

embedded

inactivity

expectations

�

11.Connectingwithfamily,

community,localculture

�‘‘Exploringourown

cultures,families,and

stories’’activity

�

�Photographsofthelocal

community

�

�Paintsample

cardsfrom

a

localstore

�

12.Teacher’spersonal/

professionalgrowth

�Reflectonthelanguage,

customs,andculturalframes

ofreferencesofher

students

�

�Reflects

onthemismatchof

hersandstudent’s

background

� �

�Reflects

onlearninganew

language

� �

Appendices 229

APPENDIX B. FORM D.

OBSERVATION TOOL TO MENTOR/SUPPORT

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE MENTORING

AND COACHING TOOL

Guidelines for using this tool: The authors intend for this comprehensive toolbe used in multiple applications. Any of the three parts can be used for astand-alone discussion or coaching interaction. Together, the mentor/coachand the teacher collaboratively determine which part(s) of the tool to use inone setting.

Part 1 serves as a guide for preliminary information-gathering and planningthat occurs prior to planning and implementing the lesson. Elementsincluded in Part 1 can be discussed collectively or individually. Werecommend starting with the learners and learner information as this willsignificantly influence plans and decisions relevant to environment,curriculum implementation, and the language objective.

Part 2 highlights classroom environment, instruction, and interactions(items #5 to 16)

Part 3 provides four items to guide conversations between mentor/coachand teacher.


PART 1: THE LEARNER, ENVIRONMENT,

CURRICULUM, AND LANGUAGE

1. Identify the following background information for each student:a. Name, age, gender, grade, family members at home, home contextb. Native language, primary culture, racial/ethnic backgroundc. Previous experience with school, literacy and learning, academic

successd. Self-esteem, attitudes towards reading and school, preferences for

learninge. Background knowledge, broad cultural background, lived experiencesf. Prioritized language objective(s), academic and/or behavior objective(s)

2. Consider ways to design the environment in order to create a context thatsignals a valuing of diverse cultures and perspectives; a commitmentto equity; and a community of learners. Consider ways to utilize theenvironment and environmental print as an additional teacher toreinforce student learning in active ways.

3. Consider ways to implement the curriculum in a way that is meaningfulto the current learners; present content through their cultural filter, lifeexperiences, local culture, cultural legacies, and/or contributions ofindividuals from students’ primary cultures.

4. What language forms and functions are characteristic of the particularsubject content or integrated in the upcoming learning experience?

Appendices 231

PART 2: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

5. Describe the classroom environment and/or environmental print displayedabout the room. How does the environment create a context that signals avaluing of a community of learners; diverse cultures, perspectives, andneeds; a commitment to equity? How does the environment serve as anadditional ‘‘teacher’’ to reinforce student learning in active ways?

6. Use this graphic as an example of a way to sketch the roomwith attention tothe environment, design of groupings, arrangements to support socialcontexts for student learning and interactions (on a larger paper if necessary).

BACK OF ROOM What conclusions would you draw from thisarrangement?

FRONT OF ROOM

7. Describe the social context for learning and grouping strategies thatsupport students’ opportunities to interact, talk, and confer. To whatextent to does the context support interactions among heterogeneousgroupings (students of different cultures mixed, students of differentlanguage abilities mixed, students of difference ability levels mixed, etc.).

8. Describe specific content and/or instructional materials that are presentedfrom a cultural lens, perspective or frame of reference that is relevantto the learners and illustrates a valuing and promoting of culturalresponsiveness (i.e., multicultural literature, realia, manipulatives).

9. What are ways the teacher is making content accessible to learners so thatthey can develop understandings they could not do independently?Integrating students’ preferred learning strategies? Building instructionon specific strengths or needs of particular students? Adapting the lessonfor individual students?


Student Explicit examples of scaffolding or adaptation

Rate items #10 to 14 on a scale of 1 to 3 using the scale noted below.

1=little evidence observed; 2=some evidence observed; 3=strong

evidence observed

10. Teacher distributes his/herattention to all students.

1 2 3 Comments:

11. Teacher attends to studentsin a manner that demonstratesrespect for students’ diverseabilities and experiences.

1 2 3 Comments:

12. Teacher checks understandingof each student to demonstrateunderstanding of given conceptor to carry out expected task(using formative assessment,observation, checklist, etc.).

1 2 3 Comments:

13. Teacher makes instructionalcontent relevant, to students’prior knowledge or lifeexperiences or cultural lens.

1 2 3 Comments:

14. Teacher has established routinesor standards for students engagein a community of learning inpositive and respectful ways.

1 2 3 Comments:

Appendices 233

15. Teacher interacts with students in a variety of ways and communicationmodes. Highlight one to three students and record the number and typesof interactions the teacher has with each student. Tally the specificteacher comments and interactions directed towards each student.

Teacher

interaction

Praise Question Feedback Direction

Giving

Redirection Other

Student name

1.

2.

3.

16. Focus on a small grouping of students or those students clustered at acenter. Describe the types of student to student and student to teacherinteractions you observe during a 5- to 10-minute time period.


PART 3: CONVERSATION PROMPTS

17. Describe specific structures or activities in place to encourageinteractions across diverse cultural, language, or gender groups in theclassroom.

18. What are concrete examples of efforts you have used to illustrate waysyou have welcomed parents and community members into theclassroom, and built rapport with parents and families of the studentsin your classroom? Which efforts have brought you the results you werehoping for? Why?

19. What are examples of ways you have engaged in activities, learningexperiences, professional development, readings, or other that demon-strates your interest and commitment to principles of equity? How havethese experiences increased your understandings regarding the teacherattitude and beliefs about culturally responsive planning for studentachievement?

20. What are explicit goals and plans you have for advancing your personaland professional growth in the area of culturally responsive pedagogy?

Appendices 235

APPENDIX C. COMPILED QUESTIONS FOR

REFLECTION

Chapters Questions for Reflection

Foreword NONE

One

CurrentChallengesandFrameworks

1. Select a school district and one school within thedistrict as your focus. Locate and examinedemographic data for the student population inthe district. To what extent do the studentdemographics reflect the larger communitydemographics where the district is located?

2. Locate and examine demographic data for thestudent population at one school of interest.Compare and contrast the district demographicswith the demographics of the school’s studentpopulation. What trends do you observe? Towhat extent does the school demographic datamatch the district demographic data? Whichdemographic data are similar between thedistrict and school, and which are different?Develop a rationale for why the similarities anddifferences between district demographics andthe school demographics may exist.

3. Consider teacher demographics at the schoolcontext. Which demographic factors do theteachers share in common with the students inthat school? Which factors contrast betweenteachers and students?

4. Reflect on and list the funds of knowledge (Moll& Gonzalez, 1994) that students in thisclassroom bring with them to the schoolcontext. Consider students’ life experiences andpractices, areas of resilience, strengths, andbroad abilities as you develop this list. In whatways might students’ personal and culturalresources—in essence their funds ofknowledge—connect to curricular concepts and



provide real-world examples of curricularconcepts applied within their daily life?

5. Consider the behavioral and communicationpractices expected of students attending thisschool of interest. How are students expected toenter the building? The classroom? How arestudents expected to pass from class to class?What are the expectations aroundcommunication and interpersonal interactionbetween students and teacher? How are studentsexpected to ask questions, relay personalconnections with content, and demonstrate theirunderstandings in class? To what extent do theseschool and classroom expectations revealstudents’ strengths, broad abilities, and funds ofknowledge experienced in their home and dailylives?

Two

TheoreticalFrameworks andResearch

1. As you reflect on the various conceptualizationsof culture presented in Chapter Two, select thedescriptors and features of culture that resonatewith your view of culture.

2. What is your definition of culture? Develop apreliminary draft of your own definition ofculture and discuss it with a friend or colleague.Describe the process you went through todetermine the features of culture included in thedefinition.

3. Explain the ways culture influences yourperspective on family, learning, teaching,schooling, and success.

4. Compare and contract your definition and viewon culture with the broad values, beliefs,behaviors and norms recognized as central tothe societal dominant ‘‘mainstream’’ culture.

Appendices 237


5. Examine and discuss the underlyingassumptions presented in Chapter Two.Construct your own set of assumptions aboutculture, learning, the learner, language, literacy,education, and equity.

Three

ContextualizingStudentAchievement andTeacher Education

1. Collect the most recent available data onstudents’ reading achievement scores distributedacross racial/ethnic groups and for Englishlanguage learners at the school of interest.Examine these data for distinguishing featuresand trends.

2. Collect the most recent available data onstudents’ mathematics achievement scoresdistributed across racial/ethnic groups and forEnglish language learners at the school ofinterest. Examine these data for distinguishingfeatures and trends.

3. With respect to English language learners’ data,inquire about the type, amount, and duration ofESL services these students receive. For thosestudents no longer receiving ESL services,investigate when ELL students weretransitioned out of ESL support services.Compare and contrast these findings with trendsyou noted in students’ reading and mathematicsachievement scores.

4. What type of teacher education program areyou affiliated with, or did you experience in yourteacher preparation? Describe the coursework,readings, and learning experiences used by thisprogram to prepare teachers for a diversestudent population, in particular Englishlanguage learners. To what extent and in whatareas did these experiences prepare you to teacha diverse student population?



5.What do you know about the culturesrepresented in the student population at theschool of interest? Identify the culturalknowledge you have about the three to fourpredominant racial/ethnic/cultural groupsrepresented in the school of interest. List thevalues, beliefs, behaviors, and norms held byeach of these groups.

6. Consider and articulate what you know or canlearn about the cultures’ patterns ofcommunication and interactions including howquestions are asked and answered. Discuss andreflect on your findings relevant to the possibleways these students’ cultures may influence theirlearning experiences at the school of interest.

Four

Culturally ResponsivePedagogy: TheStance fromProfessionalOrganizations

1.What professional development resources wouldyou suggest be used to support all teachers inworking with students from diversebackgrounds, students with diverse needs, andstudents adding English to their linguisticrepertoire?

2. What supports will school administrators andstaff developers need to enhance professionaldevelopment processes to improve instructionfor students from diverse backgrounds, studentswith diverse needs, and students adding Englishto their linguistic repertoire?

3. Administer a tool such as Equity in SpecialEducation Placement: A School Self-AssessmentGuide for Culturally Responsive Practice. Whatdo the results of such a self-assessment revealabout your schools’ ability to ensure equitableaccess to and meaningful participation inquality educational opportunities for individualswith exceptionalities?

Appendices 239


Five

CulturallyResponsivePedagogy: Nationaland State-Levels

1. What financial incentives are available oralready exist within your educationalcommunity (state level, district level) to supportthe development of innovative programs thatenhance the knowledge base about evidence-based practices, and scale up those practices toimprove the achievement for students fromdiverse backgrounds, students with diverseneeds, and students adding English to theirlinguistic repertoire?

2. What supports will school administrators andstaff developers need to implement evaluationprocesses (e.g., daily progress monitoring,running records, etc.) that improve studentinstruction?

3. How might the increased interest and mandatesto use formative and summative studentachievement data inform the realities of theteacher workday? How will insights fromcollaborative data meetings inform teachersplanning? How might meetings be structured?How might teacher evaluation processes be tiedto teachers analyzing and using student data?

4.What recruitment strategies does youreducational community use to secure highlyqualified teachers of students from diversebackgrounds, students with diverse needs, andELL learners?

5. What instructional strategies would you suggestbe used to support all teachers (across contentand grade levels) who have English languagelearners in their classrooms?

Six 1.What reasons led you to choose education asyour profession? What interests and lifeexperiences influenced your choice of an area of



Culturally ResponsivePedagogy: EffectiveTeaching

specialization and the age group of learners youcurrently teach? What are your goals andcommitments towards each student’s future?

2. Consider the racial/ethnic, cultural, religious,gender, socioeconomic factors—to mention afew—that have significantly influenced thegroups with whom you identify. What practicesand values of each of these groups influenceyour perspectives on life and your culturalidentity?

3. Using Howard’s (2006) overview on stages ofracial identity development that is grounded inHelm’s (1994) approach, study each of the sixstages then examine your own life experiencesand racial development. Prepare a writtennarrative regarding your journey and reflectionsas you determined your stage of developmentaccording to Helm’s framework.

4. As you focus on a school context of interest,focus on a group of students in one classroom.Consider and list the life experiences, abilities,and funds of knowledge (Moll & Gonzalez,1994) that these students bring to the schoolcontext, especially students from diversebackgrounds, students with diverse needs, andstudents adding English to their linguisticrepertoire. What are students’ interests and afterschool activities? In what contexts or activitiesare students’ abilities and strengths revealed? Inwhat ways do students apply their interests andlife experiences to concepts taught in the schoolcurriculum? In what ways could curricularconcepts be linked with students’ interests, lifeexperiences, and cultural heritage?

5. Consider students in this classroom, who cometo school with a repertoire of languages or

Appendices 241


language variations. What are the students’abilities in their native language and in English,if their native language is different fromEnglish? To what extent are the studentsbilingual and biliterate? In what ways and inwhich contexts do students use their linguisticrepertoire in school and outside of the schoolcontext? What types of structures could beemployed in the classroom to support a socialcontext that fosters students’ development oflanguage and thought through dyad, smallgroup, and whole group interactions?

6. Reflect on the classroom of interest, whataspects of the classroom environment anddisplays signal a valuing of diverse perspectives,a variety of cultures, and a community oflearners? In what ways does the classroomenvironment function as an additional‘‘teacher’’ or reinforcement of student learning?

Seven

Culturally ResponsivePedagogy:District andSchool Levels

1. Collect/review similar demographic andprogram data focused on ‘‘broad culturaldiversity’’ of students, families, and faculty/staffthat we have presented in this chapter. What arethe current demographics and context of yourschool and district?

2. Examine your district and school missionstatements. How do those missions complementeach other? How do they differ? Identifyexamples of how those missions regarding broadcultural diversity are realized in your school.

3. Consider the ways that academic supports varyacross school districts and individual schools.How do support programs and interventions inacademic courses vary among K-12 schools inyour area?



4. Identify three to five ways that youcommunicate with parents and families. Whichof your practices have been most effectiveespecially with family members whose nativelanguage is different from the language spokenat school? What are ways to enhance yourcommunications with parents and families?

5. Look closely at possible examples of accessinequities. How do you help families accessschool and district resources when they do nothave computer or Internet access?

Eight

Grade 3 LiteracyLesson with aCulturallyResponsive Focus

1.What are examples of literature that you are orcan incorporate into a lesson that supportsstudents in understanding the pluralism oftoday’s world, respect the diversity of today’ssociety, and see themselves in a positive light?

2. Building on the ‘‘Friendship’’ activities that Ms.Ruız incorporates into her classroom, whatsorts of things do you do to encourages learnersto find value in looking for their commonalitiesand differences?

3. How is attention distributed in your classroom?How do you refer to the students in yourclassroom? Are first names, last names, ornicknames used, how often? Are whole groupreferences to ‘‘ladies and gentleman’’ or ‘‘thirdgraders’’ or ‘‘readers and writers’’ used? Tape-record a typical lesson, then play back that tapeand tally who was called on, for what, and inwhat way. What does that distribution ofattention reveal and what will you do differentlybased on those results?

4. As a youth, were there students from a range ofcultural, racial/ethnic, or religious backgrounds,or students learning a second language or

Appendices 243


students with special needs in your classroom?How were those students treated? In what waysdid those students see themselves reflected in theliterature used in the classroom?

Nine

Grade 5 MathematicsLesson with aCulturallyResponsive Focus

1. As a youth, what were your educationalexperiences in a math class? What were some ofyour most positive learning experiences in amath class and what were some of your mostchallenging learning experiences?

2. Do you have a favorite teacher from your earlyyears in school? If so, what was it about thatteacher that attached you to him/her? How hasknowing that individual affected you?

3.What is an example of a lesson in which youused the student’s family culture to differentiatefor that student?

4. What is one of your most successful mathlessons? What could be done to enhance thelesson making it more responsive to yourstudents’ broad cultural backgrounds?

5. Technological advances have changed learningin many of today’s classrooms. With Ms.Jennings’s classroom in mind, imagine that 12 ofthose 29 students have home computers. Howwould you plan for parent/familycommunication and homework expectations?

6. How do you plan using cooperative learningarrangements? Consider how you mightenhance your practices with specificrecommended resources from The EssentialElements of Cooperative Learning in theClassroom (ERIC Digest, http://www.eric.edu.gov/PDFS/ED370881.pdf).

Ten 1. Consider how Mr. Avery checks for students’understanding. How is the use of checks for





Grade 9 ScienceLesson with aCulturallyResponsive Focus

understanding reflected in your current teachingpractices?

2. Describe a teacher that you most highly admire.Describe the things he/she does that areculturally responsive.

3. Consider how you build relationships and asense of community in the classroom. How doyou show your students that their abilities,interests, and cultures are valued?

4. Consider how issues of positive behaviorsupports are managed in your selected school.Begin by identifying a classroom rule orprocedure that truly benefits students asopposed to one that is primarily reflective of theteacher’s historical practices. What are differentways classroom freedom is encouraged withoutinfringing on the rights of other students? Whatis an example of a specific intervention that hashelped the student learn better, as opposed tojust eliminating the disruptive behavior?

Eleven

Mentoring andSupportingCulturallyResponsiveTeaching Practices

1. Work your way through using theOrganizational Framework (Chapters Six andEleven) by selecting one or two components onwhich to focus. Using information from aselected classroom, examine the ways and theextent to which the teacher has organizedclassroom instruction and the environment tosupport pedagogy that is culturally responsive.

2. Using FormAprovided in theAppendixA, revisitone of the three scenarios provided in ChaptersEight, Nine, and Ten. Examine the scenario usingthe Organizational Framework, and reflect on theways and the extent to which each component wasimplementedby the classroom teacher, andplace a‘‘X’’ in the cell of the component implemented inthe focus scenario.

Appendices 245


3. Using Form B, compare and contrast yourresponses with the authors’ responses. What are1 to 2 examples of ways the teacher hasimplemented each component? Take time todiscuss these examples along with anydiscrepancies between your responses and thoseof the authors.

4. Using Form C, focus on one scenario andreview the exemplars noted for theimplementation of each component. To whatextent do you agree with these exemplarsmatching with the components? Whatadditional exemplars did you notice having beenimplemented in the scenario?

5.What ideas do you have for extending any oneof the three scenarios and enhancing theimplementation of culturally responsivepedagogy in the lesson?

6. Examine the Culturally Responsive Mentoringand Coaching Tool (Form D in Appendix B).Understand that the authors intent for the toolhas multiple applications. Review parts 1, 2, and3 and select one part that is a relevant area offocus for your current context and needs. Fromthe perspective of a teacher gather informationand articulate a response relevant to theteacher’s classroom context. From theperspective of an administrator or staffdeveloper, identify specific items, and consideroptions for supporting teachers understandingand growth around culturally responsivepedagogy.
