Culture, Parenting and Child Development:

Is There an Optimal Developmental Trajectory ?

Cigdem Kagitcibasi

Koc University, Istanbul, Turkey

ACEVConcluding Meeting of the “QualiFLY” Project

Istanbul, May 22-25, 2007

Development of Competence and of Self

- Focus on Disadvantage

- Focus on Social Change / Immigration

• Understand, Explain, Predict

• Ascertain Problems and Mismatches

• Help Promote Well-Being

Parenting in low SES homes

Low level of emotional support and cognitive stimulation

Variations in parental involvement

Cognitively stimulating home environment significant above and beyond SES

Amount of mother-child verbal interaction

Child Outcome

1/3 to 1/2 of the disadvantage in verbal and math skills

disparities in achievement

Child cognitive development

vocabulary/concept formation of Turkish immigrant children in Holland.

Korenman (1995)

Eccles and Harold (1993); Epstein (1990)

Gottfried, Fleming and Gottfried (1998)

Leseman (1993)Van Tuijl & Leseman (2004)

account for

lead to

account for

for

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETENCEImportance of Proximal Environment

The policy implications have to do with early cognitive enrichment and education programs to support parents and other caretakers to provide more stimulating environments to young children.

A very important issue here is social change – The world’s population is fast becoming less rural and

more urban.

What was adaptive in rural context may not be adaptive in urban life.

Urbanization of Populations

Urban Shift in Developing Countries for Young Population (age 10-19)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

10-1

9 ag

e g

rou

p p

op

ula

tio

n

(mill

ion

)

urban

rural

• Given the increasing similarity in urban life styles in the world, and particularly with the expansion of public education, some common standards of competence are emerging

• We can contribute significantly to the enhancement of the developmental trajectories of children and youth.

IMPLICATIONS FOR APPLICATION: EARLY ENRICHMENT as AN EXAMPLE

Concerted efforts have been expended in many countries to provide deprived children with early enrichment that would enhance their ability to benefit from formal schooling.

The research program from Turkey and its resultant program applications to be presented here derive from a 22-year longitudinal study, including an original 4-year longitudinal study and its first and second follow-up, known as the Turkish Early Enrichment Project (TEEP).

THE TURKISH EARLY ENRICHMENT PROJECT

(TEEP)

LONG-TERM EFFECTS, POLICY AND APPLICATIONS

Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman(2001), Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman(2001), Applied Applied Developmental Psychology, 22,Developmental Psychology, 22, 333-361 333-361Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman & Cemalcilar (submitted)Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman & Cemalcilar (submitted)

Background

• Low SES•Low Education

Mediating variableMother-Child Interaction

• Direct attention given to the child• Communication with the child• Satisfaction with the child• Expectation of obedience/autonomy

Outcome:

Child’s cognitive development,

school performance,

socioemotional development

Mother Training

• Promoting child’s cognitive development• Promoting child’s socioemotional development• Empowerment of the mother• Building communication skills

THE TURKISH EARLY-ENRICHMENT PROJECT(TEEP)

DESIGN OF TEEP STUDY

Number of subjects in each group

EducationalDay-care

CustodialDay-care

HomeCare

Total

Age of child 3 yr. 5 yr. 3 yr. 5 yr. 3 yr. 5 yr.

Mother training

11 16 23 17 16 7 90

No Mothertraining

18 19 30 35 34 29 165

Total 29 35 53 52 50 36 255

FIRST FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF TEEP

1992ADOLESCENTS (13-15 years of age)

Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman(2001), Kağıtçıbaşı, Sunar, Bekman(2001), Applied Applied Developmental Psychology, 22,Developmental Psychology, 22, 333-361 333-361

PRIMARY SCHOOL GPA’S

5

5.5

6

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

Turkish Mathematics OverallAcademic

Mother TrainedNot Trained

t= 3.08, p<.002, t= 3.01, p<.003, t=2.82, p<.005

MEA

NS

CO

RES

STANDARDIZED WISC-R VOCABULARY SCORES

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

Mother-trained Non-trained

MEA

N S

CO

RES

F (2, 216) = 2.16, p< .032

IS ADOLESCENT STILL IN SCHOOL?

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

Mother-trained Non-trained

PER

CEN

TO

F Y

ES

RES

PO

NS

ES

X2= 9.57 P< .002%86 %67

SECOND FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF TEEP

2004YOUNG ADULTS (25-27 years of age)

(Kagitcibasi, C, Sunar, D., Bekman, S, & Cemalcilar, Z., 2006, submitted)

School attainment of those who either had attended an educational child care

center and/or their mothers had training (I) and those who had no early

intervention (NI)

School attainment

11.21

10.26

8

9

10

11

12

I NI

[ANCOVA F(1, 127) =3.218, p=.07 ]

University attendance of those who either had attended an educational child care center

and/or whose mothers had training .

attending university

44.1

26.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

I NI

per

cen

tag

e

[X2=4.432, df=1, p=.03 ]

Vocabulary test performance by home based education

[ANCOVA F(1 ,98) =3.362, p=.09]

17,53

16,19

15

16

17

18

19

20

MT NMT

Age of beginning gainful employment

age of beginning gainful employment

17.53

16.19

15

16

17

18

19

I NI

F(1 ,121) =4.708, p=.03

Occupational status

occupational status

3.94

3.21

1

2

3

4

5

I NI

[F(1,128) =4.130, p=.04]

Computer ownership

owns a computer

44

24

0

10

20

30

40

50

I NI

pe

rce

nta

ge

[X2 =5.981, df=1, p=.014]

Credit card ownership

has credit card

70

52

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

MT NMT

per

cen

tag

ee

[X2 =3.955, df=1, p=.047]

• Much can be accomplished by reaching children early in life to build both environmental and individual capacity that can be sustained over time. Improving the environment, while enhancing individual cognitive performance, helps in turn to support that performance further, in a synergistic interaction.

• Our accumulated knowledge and insights can

provide us with possibly universal standards of competence and healthy human development.

GENERAL POLICY IMPLICATIONS

TARGET

DURATION

FORM

MOTHERS WITH 5 YEAR OLD CHILDREN

GROUP DISCUSSIONS

25 WEEKS

MOTHER CHILD EDUCATION PROGRAM

By 2005, 350,000 women + children reached. Extensions to Europe (Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, France) and to Arab countries (Bahrain,

Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia)

TV adaptation on national and international Turkish Public Television

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF

The Basic Thesis

Autonomy and Relatedness are two basic needs.

Therefore, an Optimal Developmental Trajectory should include both.

While, all societies manage to meet these two basic needs,

Autonomy has been prioritized in the Western World and in Psychology

- reflected in an emphasis on individual independence, agency, privacy...

- often at the expense of interpersonal relatedness

What is the underlying reason?

Not evolutionary, which rather stresses the survival value of cooperation and relatedness in humans and other primates (Euler et al, 2001; Guisinger & Blatt, 1994).

It is cultural ... Western Individualism as a ‘Cultural Affordance’ (Kitayama, 2002; Poortinga, 1992).

Yet, it is neither logically nor psychologically necessary for Autonomy to mean Separateness if we recognize the existence of two distinct dimensions:

Agency:

Autonomy Heteronomy

(dependency)

Interpersonal Distance:

Separateness Relatedness

A Conceptual Model of Different Types of Selves

Autonomous-Separate self

Heteronomous-separate self

Autonomous-related self

AGENCY

INTERPERSONAL DISTANCE

Heteronomous-related self

Autonomy

Heteronomy

Separation Relatedness

This conceptualization renders viable The Autonomous-Related Self

Despite the consensual agreement that Autonomy and Relatedness are basic needs, this self construal has not been readily recognized in psychology, even in cross-cultural psychology.

Yet, this model promises to be a healthy integration.

Kagitcibasi, C. (2005). Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context: Implications for self and family. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36, 4, 403-422.

The two dimensions of interpersonal distance and agency can indeed fit together, loading on the same factor, in sociocultural contexts, such as in Northern Europe (Beyers et al., 2003), where being both autonomous and separate is valued, but not in other sociocultural contexts where being connected is valued and does not imply lacking autonomy. (Kagitcibasi, 2005)

CONTRASTING VIEWS ON RELATIONS WITH PARENTS AS PRECURSORS OF

HEALTHY AUTONOMY

• Distancing (detachment) necessary for autonomy

— Psychoanalytic (A.Freud,

1958; Mahler, 1972;Blos, 1979; Hoffman, 1984; Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986)

Confounds agency and interpersonal distance dimensions

• Close relation (attachment) necessary for autonomy

— (Grotevant & Cooper, 1986; Ryan et al, 1989, 2000; Quintana & Kerr, 1993; Schwartz, 2000; Schmitz & Baer, 2001; Grossman, et al, 1999)

Integrates agency and interpersonal distance dimensions

versus

A second Thesis:

In conjunction with social change (esp. urbanization and immigration), Family changes, too.

From the Model of Total Interdependence to the Model of Psychological / Emotional Interdependence. This model includes both relatedness and autonomy.

FAMILY MODELS, PARENTING AND THE SELF

Interdependence Independence Psychological interdependence

Parenting style AuthoritarianRelatively permissive

Authoritative

Child rearing orientation

Control / obedience Autonomy / self reliance

Control / autonomy

SelfHeteronomous

RelatedAutonomous

separateAutonomous-related

AGENCY, INTERPERSONAL DISTANCE AND THE TYPES OF SELVES IN CONTEXT

Family model of independence

Self-reliance orientation

Autonomous-Separate self

Hierarchical neglecting family

Neglecting, indifferent orientation

Heteronomous-separate self

Family model of psychological interdependence

Order setting control and autonomy orientation

Autonomous-related self

AGENCY

INTERPERSONAL DISTANCE

Family model of interdependence

Obedience orientation

Heteronomous-related self

Autonomy

Heteronomy

Separation Relatedness

RESEARCH EVIDENCE• Ryan & Lynch (1989) and Ryan et al. (1994) in the U.S. found

positive rather than negative links between relatedness to parents and autonomy in adolescents.

• Kim, Butzel & Ryan (1998) showed a more positive relation between autonomy and relatedness than with separateness in both Korean and American samples.

• Keller et al (2003) found Greek mothers’ interaction styles with infants to lead to autonomy and relatedness but German mothers’ to autonomy and separateness.

• Beyers, Goossens, Vansant, & Moors (2003) found separation and agency as two independent dimensions.

All endorsing the independence of the agency and interpersonal distance dimensions.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE (cont.)

• Beyers, Goossens (1999); Chen & Dornbush (1998); Garber & Little (2001) showed separateness from parents to be associated with developmental problems.

• Chou (2000) in Hong Kong found individuation to be associated with depression in adolescents.

• Phalet & Schonpflug (2001) found among Turkish immigrants in Germany parental autonomy goals do not imply separateness, and achievement values are associated with parental collectivism, not individualism.

• Koutrelakos (2004) found decreasing material but continuing emotional interdependencies in Greek Americans with acculturation.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE (cont.)

• Aydın & Öztütüncü (2001) found depression to be associated with separateness in Turkish adolescents, but not with high parental control.

• Meeus, Oosterwegel & Vollebergh (2002) found with Dutch, Turkish & Moroccon adolescents that secure attachment fosters agency.

• Kwak (2003) in review of research noted the common preference of adolescents for both autonomy and family relatedness.

• Georgas, Berry, Van de Vijver, Kagitcibasi & Poortinga (2006) in a 27-country study of the family found evidence for autonomy and relatedness to coexist in the psychologically interdependent family.

CONTROL and AUTONOMYEmpirical Evidence• Lau et al. (1990)• Lin & Fu (1990)• Cha (1994)• Phalet & Schonpflug (2001)

CONTROL and WARMTH Empirical Evidence• Kağıtçıbaşı (1970)

• Rohner & Pettengill (1985)

• Trommsdorf (1985)

• Ryan & Lynch (1989)

• Kim, Butzel & Ryan (1998)

• Jose et al. (2000)

• Oosterwegel & Vollebergh (2002)

• Kwak (2003)

• Lansford et al. (2003)

• Dekovic, Pels & Model (in press)

Models

Kağıtçıbaşı (1990,1996a,b)

Models

Baumrind (1980, 1989)

Maccoby & Martin (1983)

The implications of these conceptualizations and research for immigration:

Immigration most often involves contact between ‘culture of relatedness’ (immigrants) and individualistic ‘culture of separateness’ (host society).

Ethnic minority parents tend to be labeled ‘authoritarian’ because of strong parental discipline because it appears very controlling (Gonzales, et al, 1996). But, this may be a wrong attribution because there is often also relatedness and warmth (psychological value of children) in the Family Model of Psychological Interdependence, especially with increased education.

Ethnic Minority Research in Europe and the U.S. point to:

Closely-Knit family relations and Parental control together with care (warmth)

Chao (1994) Smetana & Gaines (1999) Jose et al. (2000) Kwak (2003) Lansford et al. (2003) Dekovic et al. (2005)

Dekovic, Pels & Model (2006) study as a case in point:

• Six major ethnic groups in the Netherlands (including also the native Dutch)

• General finding: Parents who use strong discipline (authoritarian control) can also be warm and supportive .. ‘An unlikely combination.’

• Why unlikely? Because of the assumption that parental control means parental rejection (hostility) and suppression of autonomy, based on an individualistic view assuming that permissive, independence oriented parenting which leads to separation and individuation promotes autonomy.

Adaptation is a key concept in understanding content of change through acculturation

But a corresponding demand for separateness not found (Kwak, 2003; Buriel et al., 2005)

Autonomous-Related Self Implicated

Environmental demands

Social comparison Processes

adolescents’ demands

for more autonomy

(Kwak, 2003; Phinney, 2005)}

The Explanatory Factor Underlying the Findings: Family Model of Psychological Interdependence

• Where autonomy and control coexist

• Permissive independence-oriented parenting not endorsed by immigrants because it carries the risk of separation (of the child from the family) in adolescence-young adulthood

• The goal is not separation but closeness (emotional interdependence)

• Immigrants disapprove the ‘too lenient’ Dutch childrearing and the ‘disrespectful’ behavior of Dutch children (‘on top of their mothers’ heads’’)

What is often labeled authoritarian parenting may be reflecting a sense of decency and morality, for example respect for age, with a concern for the ‘proper’ development of the child in the immigrant ‘culture of relatedness’.

Ethnic minority mothers complain that social service agencies ignore parent’s views and sometimes separate children from their families or that Dutch clinicians do not understand them, a problem that goes beyond the language gap.

With increasing education and acculturation, The Family Model of Psychological Interdependence emerging, entailing both autonomy and relatedness.

To Conclude:

• Given that the autonomous-related self is a healthy human model, since it satisfies both of the basic needs...

• Given that the recognition of agency and interpersonal distance dimensions helps resolve conceptual and measurement issues in I-C and Independent-Interdependent self... and

• Given that the Family Model of Psychological Interdependence involves both autonomy, control and warmth (psychological value of children)...

Ethnic minority family patterns should not be seen as unhealthy.

Immigrants, particularly those with low levels of education

and social capital have a lot to learn and have to acculturate to the host societies. However, from a cross-cultural psychological perspective, they have a lot to offer, also.

Immigration involves culture contact with the potential for mutual learning and change.

In particular, there could be a convergence toward the Family Model of Emotional Interdependence and the Autonomous-Related Self in multicultural society.

Thus Possibly Universal Optimal Developmental Trajectory because of converging Life Styles and Basic Human Needs

Involving:

- Social + Cognitive Competence

- Autonomous-Related Self

- Psychologically /Emotionally Interdependent Family

Kagitcibasi, C. (2007) Family, Self and Human Development Across Cultures. Lawrence Erlbaum.