day-6 progress in science & technology, miscellaneous

PROGRESS IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, MISCELLANEOUS Central Delhi: 73, Near Axis Bank, Old Rajinder Nagar Delhi-60 |Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

CONTENT

BALANCE OF PAYMENT

1. HARAPPAN CIVILISATION 1 2. PROGRESS IN ASTRONOMY 1 3. PROGRESS IN MATHEMATICS 1 4. PROGRESS IN MEDICAL SCIENCE 2 5. PROGRESS IN CHEMICAL SCIENCE 2 6. UNESCO's LIST OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA 2-5 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Intangible Cultural Heritage of India 2 2 7. UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES 5-10 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Who Lists World Heritage Sites? 7.3 Funding 7.4 UNESCO World Heritage Sites In India

5 5 5 5 8. LIST OF IMPORTANT FESTIVALS OF INDIA 10-13 9. LIST OF DIFFERENT PUPPETRY FORMS OF INDIA 13 10. SCHEDULED & CLASSICAL LANGUAGE OF INDIA 14-15 10.1 About Classical Languages 14 10.2 Classical Languages 15 10.3 Benefits of Classical Language 15 10.4 Scheduled Languages (Listed Under Eighth Schedule) 15

PROGRESS IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, MISCELLANEOUS 1Central Delhi: 73, Near Axis Bank, Old Rajinder Nagar Delhi-60 |Contact: 9811906458, 9354341266|

TOPIC

1 PROGRESS IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, MISCELLANEOUS

• The idea of the Drainage system managed by Indus Valley civilization was highly scientific.

o The House drains connected in the main drains running under the main streets and below many lanes. o Drains were made of gypsum, lime and cement, covered with portable stabs. o Every house had an independent soak- pit which collected all sediments and allowed water to flow to the main drains passing underneath the main streets of the town.

• The people of Harappan civilization practised key hole skull surgery known as trepanation. This evidence was found at Kalibangan and Lothal. • The development in the field of metallurgy can be traced back to the Harappan period.

o Highly developed metallurgy of Harappans is reflected in various images of copper and bronze. o Some of the fantastic pieces are the Dancing Girl from Mohenjo-Daro, animal motifs of Buffalo and Ram from Mohenjo-Daro, Bullock-Carts and ikkas from Harappa and Chanhudaro.

• The knowledge of Mathematics was also prevalent during this civilisation. They knew the art of measurement. o The knowledge of Standards weights and measures, uniformity and accuracy of denominations was prevalent. A

few specimens of scales have also been found. • The people of Harappan Civilisation made boats and dockyards. Lothal developed as the most important port and a centre of bead industry until 1900 BC. The knowledge of Civil Engineering was prevalent. They were aware of the

technique of water-proofing the walls of surface.

• The earliest reference of Indian interest in the field of astronomy has been found in Taittiriya Brahmana. o It makes a mention of Sun, Moon, Nakshatras and seasons. There is a reference of rules of making a panchanga (almanac) in Vedanga Jyotisha.

• Astronomy was the only branch of knowledge in which Indians learnt from foreigners. In all others branches of knowledge foreigners learnt from India. o Romaka Siddhanta was a famous book on astronomy during the Ancient age. It was composed by Srishena.

• Real development in the field of astronomy began in around 500 AD. The first person to make significant contribution to it was Aryabhatta (476 AD – 550 AD) who wrote a book titled Aryabhatiyam. o Aryabhatta estimated the circumference of earth and his estimation was very close to modern calculations. o He postulated a new theory that the earth was round and that it was rotating on its own axis.

• Varahamihira (505 AD – 587 AD) was also a great astronomer in India. He wrote Brihat-Samhita, Panchasiddhantika, Yogamaya, Laghukatha and Vivahapatal.

• Brahmagupta (598 AD – 668 AD) was another great astronomer in India. He wrote Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Khandakhadyaka. He was a precursor to Newton by proclaiming that all things fall to earth automatically. He said that it was a law of nature. • Bhaskara II or Bhaskaracharya (1114 AD – 1185 AD) contributed immensely to the science of astronomy. He wrote a famous book Siddhanta Shiromani. This book has a separate chapter on mathematics which is titled as Lilavati. This separate chapter is so voluminous that it is often considered as a separate book.

• The development in the field of mathematics took place in two phases: (a) during the Vedic age, (b) 400 AD – 1200 AD. • Geometry

o Brahmagupta also contributed to the development of geometry. His greatest contribution was the concept of cyclical quadrilateral.

o Baudhayana discovered Pythagoras theorem. He listed Pythagoras theorem in his book Baudhayana Sulvasutra.

3. PROGRESS IN MATHEMATICS

2. PROGRESS IN ASTRONOMY

1. HARAPPAN CIVILISATION


o Apastamba provided proof for Pythagoras theorem. Later on, Bhaskara-II provided a unique geometrical proof for Pythagoras theorem. • Arithmetic

o Aryabhatta invented zero, decimal system and numerals from 2 to 9. Developing the theory of zero was the biggest contribution of ancient Indian mathematicians. o Decimal system was also invented in India. These developments, that is, zero and decimal system of notation were of immense value.

• Algebra o The development of the branch of algebra was first initiated by Aryabhatta. He was the first Indian algebraic. o Brahmagupta developed the rules for operating with zero and with negative quantities. o Bhaskara II was another great contributor to this field.

• Rigveda contains reference of different diseases such as fever, cholera and dysentery but there was no proper system of medical science during the early Vedic age. These diseases were cured by using traditional knowledge. • The famous teacher Atreya taught medicine branch of medical science at Taxila University. His teachings were immensely important and were compiled by his disciple Agnivesha. This compilation was put in a book form by

Charaka in 100 AD. This book was titled Charaka Samhita. • Sushruta was the first surgeon in Indian history. He was associated with Varanasi or Banaras school of medical science. Teachings of Varanasi school were compiled in Sushruta Samhita. In Sushruta Samhita we find reference of various kinds of diseases and operations. • Nagarjuna was a renowned expert on medical science and chemistry. He lived in the 2nd century AD. He developed a new medicinal system called Ras Chikitsa. He propounded a new theory that metallic minerals have property to cure diseases.

• Colours used by people during the Ancient age indicate that some kind of knowledge of chemical science was there in India during that time. • Some developments during the Vedic period indicate towards existence of knowledge of chemistry. Tanning of leather, fermentation of grains and fruits for producing liquor and dyeing of wool were practised by Aryans.

6.1 INTRODUCTION Cultural heritage does not end at monuments and collections of objects. It also includes traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge, and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts. • The list is made up of those intangible heritage elements that help demonstrate the diversity of cultural heritage and raise awareness. • The list was established in 2008 when Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage came into effect. • It contains two lists-Representatives List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity and List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding. • For inclusion of an element in the UNESCO’s Representative, the state parties are required to submit nomination dossier to the UNESCO Committee. 6.2 THE INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA • 13 entries from India are in the list. • The Sanskrit Theatre of Kutiyattam, Vedic Chanting and Ramleela were the oldest Indian entries in 2008. • The most recent addition was the Kumbh Mela in 2017. • The Ministry of Culture has appointed the Sangeet Natak Akademi as nodal office for matters relating to the intangible cultural heritage.

6. UNESCO's LIST OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA

5. PROGRESS IN CHEMICAL SCIENCE

4. PROGRESS IN MEDICAL SCIENCE


S. NO. NAME DESCRIPTION

1. Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre of Kerala

• Originating more than 2,000 years ago, Kutiyattam represents a synthesis of Sanskrit classicism and reflects the local traditions of Kerala.

• Neta abhinaya (eye expression) and Hasta abhinaya (the language of gestures), breathing controls, muscular regulations are prominent. • Kutiyattam is traditionally performed in theatres called Kuttampalams, which are located in Hindu temples. • Koodiyattam and Chakyarkoothu originate from ancient south Indian art form Koothu which is mentioned several times in ancient Sangam literature. • The main musical instruments used in Koodiyattam are Mizhavu, Kuzhitalam,

Edakka, Kuzhithalam, and Sankhu. Mizhavu is a percussion instrument and Kuzhithalam is a type of cymbal. • The main exponents include Mani Madhava Chakyar, Ammannur Madhava

Chakyar, and Mani Damodara Chakyar.

2. A tradition of Vedic Chanting

• Vedas comprise a vast corpus of Sanskrit poetry, philosophical dialogue, myth, and ritual incantations developed and composed by Aryans over 3,500 years ago. Regarded by Hindus as the primary source of knowledge.

• Expressed in the Vedic language, which is derived from classical Sanskrit, the verses of the Vedas were traditionally chanted during sacred rituals and recited daily in Vedic communities.

• To ensure that the sound of each word remains unaltered, practitioners are taught from childhood complex recitation techniques that are based on tonal accents, a unique manner of pronouncing each letter and specific speech combinations.

• Four noted schools are Maharashtra (central India), Kerala and Karnataka (southern India) and Orissa (eastern India).

3. Ramlila, the traditional

performance of the Ramayana

• Ramlila, literally “Rama’s play”, is a performance of the Ramayana epic in a series of scenes that include song, narration, recital, and dialogues. • It is performed across northern India during the festival of Dussehra. • Most Ramlilas in North India are based on the 16th-century secondary work

on Ramayana, Ramcharitmanas a verse form composition by Tulsidas. • Many other South East Asian Countries like Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam,

Indonesia, and Malaysia also have this tradition. 4.

Ramman, a religious festival of Garhwal

Himalayas, Chamoli Uttarakhand

• It is held in honour of the tutelary god, Bhumiyal Devta or Bhumichetrapala local divinity whose temple houses most of the festivities. • This event is made up of highly complex rituals: the recitation of a version of the epic of Rama and various legends, and the performance of songs and masked dances. • Each caste and the occupational group has a distinct role.

5. Mudiyettu, ritual

theatre and dance drama of Kerala

• It is based on the mythological tale of a battle between the goddess Kali and the demon Darika.

• It is a community ritual in which the entire village participates. • Mudiyettu is performed annually in ‘Bhagavati Kavus’, the temples of the goddess. • There is no school or institution to give training in this art form and its survival depends almost exclusively on direct transmission through the Guru-Shishya Parampara.

6. Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan

• Once professional snake handlers, Kalbelia today evoke their former occupation in music and dance that is evolving in new and creative ways.

• Women in flowing black skirts dance and swirl, replicating the movements of a serpent.

• Men accompany them on the Khanjari percussion instrument and the Poongi, a woodwind instrument traditionally played to capture snakes.


• The songs and dances form part of an oral tradition for which no texts or training manuals exist. • The upper body cloth is called Angrakhi and a piece of cloth worn on head known as Odhani similarly the lower body cloth is called Lengha.

7. Chhau Dance • Chhau dance is a tradition from eastern India that enacts episodes from epics including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, local folklore and abstract themes. • It has three distinct styles in the regions of Seraikella (Jharkhand), Purulia

(West Bengal) and Mayurbhanj (Orissa). The first two use masks. Purulia Chhau Mask also has GI tag. • The dance ranges from celebrating martial arts, acrobatics and athletics

performed in festive themes of folk dance, to a structured dance with religious themes. • The dance is performed by male dancers, at night in an open space, called Akhada

or Asar. 8. Buddhist Chanting of

Ladakh • In the monasteries and villages of the Ladakh region, Buddhist lamas (priests)

chant sacred texts representing the spirit, philosophy, and teachings of the Buddha. • It is practiced in Mahayana and Vajrayana – and their four major sects, namely Nyingma, Kagyud, Shakya and Geluk and also in Theravada. • The monks wear special costumes and make hand gestures (mudras) representing the divine Buddha, and instruments such as bells, drums, cymbals, and trumpets lend musicality and rhythm to the chanting.

9. Sankirtana, Manipur • It involves ritual singing, drumming, and dancing performed in the temples

and domestic spaces in Manipur. • The performers narrate the lives and deeds of Krishna through song and dance. • Sankirtana is offered as prayer at all life-cycle ceremonies, such as the ear-piercing ritual (for both males and females in childhood), the donning of the sacred thread (for adolescent males), marriage, and the rites of passage at death. • Thus pervading the life of the Manipuri Vaishnava, Sankirtana is regarded as the visible manifestation of God.

10. Thatheras of Jandiala Guru

• It is a traditional technique of manufacturing utensils in Punjab. • The process of manufacturing is transmitted orally from father to son. • The Thatheras craft utensils are of both utilitarian and ritualistic value made of Copper, Brass, and Kansa (an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin). • Thatheras is the group of crafts persons indulged in this work, hence the name. • The utensils are also believed to have medicinal properties. • Jandiala Guru is the place where Maharaja Ranjit Singh encouraged skilled metal workers from Kashmir to settle in the late 19th century.

11. Yoga • Based on unifying the mind with the body and soul to allow for greater mental, spiritual and physical wellbeing. • Yoga consists of a series of poses, meditation, controlled breathing, word

chanting, and other techniques. • The benefits include self-realization, easing of any suffering and a state of liberation. • Since 2015, International Yoga Day is being celebrated on 21 June. • The UN General Assembly Resolution in this regard had 177 nations as Co-Sponsors, more than any other resolution ever.

12. Nowruz • Iranian New Year usually falls on 21 March. • It is also celebrated in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan,

Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. • It means-“New Day”. • It involves street performances of music and dance, public rituals involving water and fire, traditional sports and the making of handicrafts.


13. Kumbh Mela • Kumbh Mela is the largest peaceful congregation of pilgrims on earth, during which participants bathe or dip in a sacred river. • The festival is held at Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nasik every four years by rotation. • Crowds gather at the sacred confluence of the Ganga, the Yamuna, and the

mystical Sarasvati. Primarily, this congregation includes Ascetics, Saints, Sadhus, Sadhvis, Kalpvasis, and Pilgrims from all walks of life. • The Kumbh Mela also called a "Purna'' Kumbh Mela occurs every twelve years. • The Mahakumbh Mela takes place after twelve Kumbh Melas that is after 144 years. The Ardh Kumbh Mela happens in after six years. • According to the Hindu mythology, Lord Vishnu dropped Amrit (the drink of immortality) at four places.

7.1 INTRODUCTION • A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area which is selected by the United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as having cultural, historical, scientific or other form of significance, and is legally protected by international treaties. • They are given to both Cultural and Natural sites as per the 10 criteria which include being masterpiece of human

creative genius, an important interchange of human values, developments in architecture or technology, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance, among others. The site becomes protected under Geneva Convention against destruction or misuse during war. • The underlying concerns and guidelines have been incorporated in the treaty called the Convention concerning the

Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, which was adopted by UNESCO in 1972. UNESCO encourages and assists the State Parties of the Convention for preservation and spreading awareness for the conservational purposes. 7.2 WHO LISTS WORLD HERITAGE SITES? • A World Heritage site is listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) which is based in Paris, France. • The International World Heritage Programme administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee establishes the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. • The World Heritage Committee is responsible for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention (The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage or the World Heritage Convention), defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties. • Currently, India is a member of the World Heritage Committee. 7.3 FUNDING • The World Heritage Fund provides approximately 4 million USD annually to state parties for the purpose. • The Fund includes compulsory and voluntary contributions from the Parties to Convention and donations from international bodies and organizations. • NDS-IN-TRUST are donations given by countries for specific projects. • Rapid Response Facility is an emergency grant fund to support protected areas during a sudden crisis. It is managed by UNESCO with Fauna & Flora International (FFI), which is an international NGO. 7.4 UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES IN INDIA • Ajanta Caves, Ellora caves, Agra Fort and Taj Mahal were the first sites to be declared in India in 1983. • With 38 World Heritage Sites, India has the sixth largest number of World Heritage Sites in the world. • These include 30 cultural sites, seven natural sites and one mixed site which is Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP), Sikkim. • Maharashtra has the maximum number of 5 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. • Ahmedabad is the first Indian city to receive heritage status. • The most recent addition has been Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai.

7. UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES


S. NO. NAME DESCRIPTION 1. The Taj Mahal

• The Taj Mahal is located on the bank of the Yamuna River. It was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal with construction starting in 1632 AD and completed in 1648 AD.

• The overall Taj Mahal complex consists of a tomb, mosque and guest house. 2. Agra Fort

• Near the gardens of the Taj Mahal stands the important 16th-century Mughal monument known as the Red Fort of Agra.

• Shah Jahan was imprisoned in its complex by Aurangzeb. • It comprises many fairy-tale palaces, such as the Jahangir Palace and the Khas Mahal, built by Shah Jahan; audience halls, such as the Diwan-i-Khas; and two very beautiful mosques.

3. Ellora Caves

• These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2 km, were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in Maharashtra. • The monuments date from A.D. 600 to 1000A.D, mainly under Rashtrakutas reign. • It is devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.

4. Ajanta Caves • Purely Buddhist site at Aurangabad. • The first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C • Major contribution was during Gupta Reign during 5th and 6th century A.D.

5. Group of

Monuments at Mahabalipuram

• This group of monuments, founded by the Pallava kings, was carved out of rock along the Coromandel Coast in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. • It is known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs, etc. • Famous structures include 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of Shiva sculptures.

6. Sun Temple, Konark

• On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, the temple at Konark is a monumental representation of the sun god Surya's chariot.

• The temple is attributed to King Narasingha Deva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty about 1250 AD. • Every year in February, the Chandrabhaga Festival is held here.

7. Churches and Convents of Goa

• The churches and convents of Goa and the former capital of the Portuguese Indies. • The major monument is Church of Bom Jesus, which contains the tomb of St Francis-Xavier and the Ruins of the Church of St. Augustine. • These monuments were influential in spreading forms of Manueline, Mannerist and

Baroque art in various other countries of Asia. 8. Fatehpur Sikri

• Built during the second half of the 16th century by the Akbar. • Fatehpur Sikri (the City of Victory) was the capital of the Mughal Empire for only 10 years. • Akbar's son Jahangir was born at the village of Sikri. The city came to be known as Fatehpur Sikri, the "City of Victory", after Akbar's victorious Gujarat campaign in 1573. • Major Monuments Include-Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Tomb of Salim Chishti, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Anup Talao by Raja Anup Singh Sikarwar, Pachisi Court, Panch Mahal, Birbal’s home among others.

9. Group of

Monuments at Hampi

• It is located in east-central Karnataka. It became the centre of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire capital in the 14th century. • Hampi predates the Vijayanagara Empires there is evidence of Ashokan epigraphy, and it is mentioned in the Ramayana and the Puranas as Pampa Devi Tirth. • Major Hindu monuments include Virupaksha temple, Achutaraya Temple, Hazara

Rama Temple among others. • Major Jain structures include-Ganigitti Jain temple, and other temples dedicated to Parshvanath and Mahavira. • It also has Ahmed Khan Mosque and Tomb.


10. Khajuraho Group of Monuments

• Located in, Madhya Pradesh. The temples are famous for their Nagara style of architecture. • Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty. • Dedicated to Hinduism and Jainism. • Most famous of them is the Kandariya Mahadev temple.

11. Elephanta Caves

• They are located on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai. • The rock cut stone sculptures that show a combination of Hindu and Buddhist ideas. • Most famous structures include Trimurti Sadashiva (three-faced Shiva), Nataraja (Lord of dance) and Yogishvara (Lord of Yoga).

12. Great Living Chola temples

• It has three monuments by Chola kings dedicated to Lord Shiva. It has fine specimens of architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting. 1. Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur- Built by Raja Raja Chola 1 between 1003 and 1010 AD. 2. Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram - It was completed in 1035 AD by Rajendra Chola 3. Airavateswara temple at Darasuram - It was built by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th century. 13.

Group of Monuments at

Pattadakal

• Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE in Karnataka. It flourished under Chalukya patronage. • It has a harmonious blend of architectural forms from northern and southern India. • It has a series of nine Hindu temples, as well as a Jain sanctuary. • Most famous structures include-, Kashivishweswara, the Kashi Vishwanath temple,

Papanatha Temple, Mallikarjuna temple, also known as Trailokeswara Maha Saila Prasada. • Temple of Virupaksha, built c. 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband's victory over the kings from the South.

14.

Buddhist Monuments at

Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh

• It is the oldest Buddhist sanctuary in existence and was a major Buddhist centre in India until the 12th century A.D. • Major works were commissioned under the Maurya period during Asoka’s reign. Other contributions are by Sungas, Satavahanas, and Western Satraps. • The most famous structure is the Stupa 1 which has four elaborately carved toranas (ornamental gateways) and a balustrade encircling the entire structure. • In 2012, Sanchi became the first blind friendly world heritage monument in India. Special tactile walkways, signages in Braille, beepers and a Braille map were installed.

15. Humayun’s Tomb

• The tomb was commissioned by Humayun's first wife and chief consort, Empress Bega Begum (also known as Haji Begum).

• It was built in 1570 and is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. • It inspired several major architectural innovations, culminating in the construction of the Taj Mahal. • The complex also houses the tombs of various other Mughals as Dara Shikoh,

Jahandar Shah, and Farrukhsiyar among others.

16. Qutub Minar and its Monuments,

Delhi

• Built in the early 13th century, the surrounding archaeological area contains funerary buildings, notably the magnificent Alai-Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of Indo-Muslim art (built in 1311), and two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in northern India, built of materials reused from some 20 Brahman temples.

• It has tombs of famous rulers as Balban, Iltutmish, and Alauddin Khilji among others. • Some other famous structures of the Mehrauli Archaeological Park include The Iron

pillar, Hauz e Shamsi. • The contributing dynasties include-Slave, Khilji, Tughlaq, Lodhi, Mughals and

British.


17. Mountain Railways of India

This site includes three railways- • The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is the oldest, running since 1881. • The Nilgiri Mountain Railway. • The Kalka Shimla Railway, which is the longest and the only one which does not use a steam engine.

18. The Mahabodhi

Temple Complex, Bodhgaya

• It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick. • It literally means Great Awakening temple marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. • The complex has a descendant of the Bodhi tree under which Buddha gained enlightenment, Hindu and Jain structures Remain of structures by, Maurya, Sunga rulers, Muscalinda Lake among others. • Ashoka is believed to be the founder of the original temple. It got renovated various times, including by Guptas, and later by British under Alexander Cunningham, and later Indian government.

19. Kaziranga National Park

• Kaziranga, located in the Northeastern state of Assam in the flood plains of the Brahmaputra River's south bank, was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1985 for its unique natural environment. • It is home to the largest population of the great Indian one-horned rhinoceros.

20.

Champaner-Pavagadh

Archaeological Park, Panchmahal,

Gujarat

• It is located around the historical city of Champaner, a city which was built by Sultan Mahmud Begada of Gujarat, in the 15th century. • Some famous structures include Nagina Masjid, Jami Masjid, Kalika Mata temple. • Nearby Pavagadh is a famous Hindu pilgrimage place for being a Shaktipeeth of

Bahuchara Mata. It also has some Jain structures. 21.

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus,

formerly known as Victoria Terminus

Station

• It is an example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, blended with themes deriving from Indian traditional architecture as a stone dome, turrets, pointed arches, and eccentric ground plan. • The station was built in 1887 in the Bori Bunder area of Mumbai to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria.

22. The Red Fort Complex

• It was built as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad – the new capital of Shah Jahan. • It is adjacent to an older fort, the Salimgarh, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546. • It represents a fusion of Persian, Timurid and Hindu traditions. • Some of its major structures are Delhi Gate, Lahori Gate, Mumtaz Mahal, Rang Mahal,

Diwan-e-Aam, Diwan e Khas, Moti Masjid. 23. Jantar Mantar, in

Jaipur

• It is an astronomical observation site built in the early 18th century. It includes a set of some 20 main fixed instruments. • Built by Maharaja Jai Singh in the first half of 18th century. • It also has a Bhairav Temple in its complex.

24. Hill Forts of Rajasthan

• It includes six majestic forts in Chittorgarh, Kumbhalgarh, Sawai Madhopur, Jhalawar, Jaipur, and Jaisalmer.

• Enclosed within defensive walls are major urban centers, palaces, trading centers and other buildings including temples. • It also features extensive water harvesting structures, largely still in use today.

25. Rani-ki-Vav (the

Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat

• It is an example of Maru-Gurjara architectural subtle of Nagara style. • Designed as a seven-storied inverted temple highlighting the sanctity of water. • It combines religious, mythological and secular imagery. • It bagged the title of “Cleanest Iconic Place” in India at the Indian Sanitation Conference (INDOSAN) 2016.

26.

Archaeological Site of Nalanda

Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar

• It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. • It includes stupas, shrines, viharas and important artworks in stucco, stone, and metal. • It flourished under Gupta Reign and later by Harshawardhana.


• It engaged in the organized transmission of knowledge over an uninterrupted period of 800 years • Nalanda is now a notable tourist destination and a part of the Buddhist tourism

circuit. 27.

The Architectural Work of Le

Corbusier, an Outstanding

Contribution to the Modern MovemenT

This comprises 17 sites spread over seven countries. • The Complexe du Capitole (Capitol complex) Chandigarh, is the site in India. • It comprises three buildings, three monuments, and a lake. • Notable structures include Palace of Assembly or Legislative Assembly, Secretariat,

High Court, Open Hand Monument, Geometric Hill and Tower of Shadows. 28. The Historic city of

Ahmadabad

• The walled city of Ahmadabad, founded by Sultan Ahmad Shah from 1411 to 1413. • It presents a rich architectural heritage from the sultanate period, notably the Bhadra citadel, the walls and gates of the Fort city and numerous mosques and tombs as well as important Hindu and Jain temples of later periods. • The urban fabric is made up of densely-packed traditional houses (pols) in gated traditional streets (puras) with characteristic features such as bird feeders (Chabutaro), public wells and religious institutions.

29.

Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of

Mumbai

• It is a collection of 19th century Victorian Neo-Gothic public buildings and 20th century Art Deco buildings in the Fort area of Mumbai.

• Victorian Gothic is characterized by the use of polychrome (multi-color) decoration, multiple textures and Gothic features like rose stained glass to bring light inside.

• Art Deco has French origins and involves Geometric Shapes, Bold Colours, Mirrors, Metallic Finish among others.

30. Khangchendzonga

National Park, Sikkim

• Apart from being the only Mixed Heritage Site Of India. It is also is a National Park and a Biosphere Reserve. • It derives its name from Kanchenjunga peak which is the third highest peak in the

world. • It includes a unique diversity of plains, valleys, lakes, glaciers and spectacular,

snow-capped mountains covered with ancient forests. • The park is integral to Buddhist and Cultural identity of Sikkim.

31. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary

• The Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, located in the north-eastern state of Assam in the plains of the Manas River in the foothills of the Himalayas, on the border with Bhutan (contiguous with the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary in Bhutan). • It was inscribed as a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1985 for its unique natural environment. • Endangered species include the tiger, pygmy hog, clouded leopard, sloth bear, Indian rhinoceros, wild buffaloes (the only pure strain of buffalo in India), Indian elephants, golden langur, and Bengal Florican.

32. Keoladeo National Park

• The Keoladeo National Park in Bharatpur (Rajasthan) is located within the Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest Bio-geographical Province.

• It was recorded as a Ramsar Wetland site in 1981. • It was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1985 as a natural property.

33. Sundarbans

National Park

• The Sundarbans National Park, the largest estuarine mangrove forest in the world is a national park, tiger reserve, World Heritage site and a biosphere reserve located in the Sundarbans Ganges river delta bordering the Bay of Bengal, in West Bengal.

• It is also on the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves. 34.

Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers

National Parks

• The Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks are nestled high in West Himalaya. Valley of Flowers National Park is renowned for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and outstanding natural beauty.

• It is located in the Garhwal Himalaya of Chamoli District of Uttarakhand. • This richly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, brown bear, and blue sheep.


35. Rock Shelters of

Bhimbetka

• The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka described in the UNESCO Inscription as a magnificent repository of rock paintings within natural rock shelters" is located in the foothills of the Vindhya range of hills in the Central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. 36. Western Ghats

• The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Mountains, a mountain range along the western side of India and one of the world's ten "Hottest biodiversity hotspots" (sub-cluster nomination). • A total of thirty-nine properties (including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,

and reserve forests) were designated as World Heritage sites – twenty in the state of Kerala, ten in Karnataka, five in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra. 37. Great Himalayan

National Park

• The Great Himalayan National Park at Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, is characterized by high alpine peaks, alpine meadows, and riverine forests.

• It includes the Upper Mountain glacial and snow melt water source origins of several rivers and the catchments of water supplies that are vital to millions of downstream users.

38. Historic City of Ahmadabad • The walled city of Ahmadabad, founded by Sultan Ahmad Shah in the 15th century, on the eastern bank of the Sabarmati River, presents a rich architectural heritage from the sultanate period.

• It is an intrinsic part of Indian Composite Culture and also an outpouring medium of our beliefs and emotion. • Indian festivals are broadly divided into two types:

Religious Festivals Secular Festivals

• Religious Festivals are celebrated by those who believe in a particular religion and practice their rituals. • Secular festivals are celebrated by the entire nation irrespective of their religious denominations.

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS Kumbha Mela

• It is a mass Hindu pilgrimage. • The normal Kumbha Mela is celebrated every 3 years, the Ardh Kumbh Mela is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Prayag. • The Purna Kumbha Mela takes place every twelve years at four places Prayag, Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nashik. • The Maha Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 Purna Kumbha Mela or 144 years is held at Allahabad.

Deepawali • It is popularly known as the festival of lights. • Diwali commemorates the return of Lord Rama along with Sita and Lakshmana from his fourteen-year-long exile and vanquishing the demon King Ravana. • United Nations Postal Administration (UNPA) has issued special stamps with Diyas lamps

(special event sheet) to commemorate India Hindu festival of Diwali. • These stamps are available at UN headquarters post office in New York, US and also online.

Makar Sankranti • It is a festival dedicated to Sun god, who is also considered to be the king of all planets.

• Usually, the festivals of Makar Sankranti fall on the 14th of January. • Although the festival is related to harvesting, it is also celebrated across the country as a kite-

flying festival. Holi • It is also called the ‘Festival of Colours’.

• According to the legend, the chhoti Holi is also called ‘Holika Dahan’. • Another legend attached to the main day of Holi is of the eternal love of Lord Krishna and Radha.

Janmashtami • It is the birth anniversary of Lord Krishna and is celebrated across the nation by the Hindu community. • It falls in the month of Shravan(July/August). • The festival is marked by the performance of Ras Leela or the playful acts of Radha-Krishna. • In Maharastra, this festival is called Dahi-handi.

8. LIST OF IMPORTANT FESTIVALS OF INDIA


Dussehra • Also known as ‘Vijayadashami’. • Celebrated in the honour of Lord Rama’s Victory over Ravana. • In Himachal Pradesh, the villagers perform the ritualistic ‘Natti Dance’ for nine days after worshipping Lord Raghunath (Rama).

Ram Navami • The festival is celebrated in honour of the birth anniversary of Lord Rama. • The festival falls in the month of March/April of Chaitra. • Two special areas of celebration are in Ayodha and Puducherry.

Durga Puja • This festival is celebrated in honour of Goddess Durga’s triumph over the demon ‘Mahisasura’. • The festival is essentially the win of good over evil. • In Mysore, it is called as Dasara, and in Gujarat, people refer to the festival as ‘Navratri’ and celebrate it with dance-like Garba and Dandia.

Ganesh Chaturthi • The Festival is celebrated to commemorate the birth anniversary of Lord Ganesha.

• The first god to be worshipped amongst the pantheon of Hindu gods. Karva Chauth • Festival is celebrated by Hindu women all over the world as it is related to the well-being of their husbands.

• Also known as Karthikki Chauth. Rath Yatra of

Lord Jagannath • The biggest festival of the state of Odisha. • The rath yatra or the Chariot festival of Lord Jagannath takes place once in a year in the holy town of Puri. • Nabakalebara festival- In this festival, the idols of Lord Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra, and Sudarshan are replaced by new idols as it is believed that Lord Shree Jagannath adorned new body during Nabakalebara.

Mahashivratri • This festival is celebrated in the honour of Lord Shiva • It falls on the fourteenth day of the month of Magha (February or March)

Chhath • It is dedicated to Sun God (Surya) who sustains all life at earth. • It is celebrated on the sixth day of the lunar fortnight of Kartik month.

Eid-ul-Fitr • The festival falls on the last day of the holy month of Ramadan (Ramzan), which is the ninth month of the Islamic Calendar. • It is a time for Muslims to fast for the sake of God and to offer more prayer than usual.

Id-ul-Zuha or Id-ul-Azha • This is also known as Bakr-id or Id that involves the sacrifice of a goat or Bakra.

• It is celebrated in the honour of the Prophet Ibrahim’s devotion to Allah. • This Eid also marks the beginning of the sacred period when many people undertake the pilgrimage to Macca, which is called Hajj.

Muharram • It is associated with the death of Hussain, son of Ali. • The festival falls in the first month of the Islamic calendar.

Christmas • Celebrated all across the world as the birth anniversary of Jesus Christ. • It falls on the 25th of December every year.

Gurpurab • It is celebrated for the birth anniversaries of all the 10 Sikh gurus but the most important is the Guru Nanak and Guru Govind Singh. • Akhand Path is held and people take out Prabhat Pheris or congregational singing of shabds or

hymns that praise the lord. Parkash Utsav

Dasveh Patshah • This festival is celebrated on the birthday of 10th Sikh Guru Govind Singh.

• Celebrated by Sikhs on 31st January every year. Holla Mohalla • It is the big festival event for the Sikhs and also the beginning of Sikh New Year.

• It is also known as “Sikh Olympics” for the events and competitions of horse riding, swordsmanship. Vaisakhi • The religious festival celebrated on 13th and 14th April.

• Commemorate the birth of Khalsa Panth. Lohri • Lohri is celebrated a day before Makar Sankranti.


Mahavir Jayanti • Celebrated as the birth anniversary of Lord Mahavir (24th Tirthankar)

• All the Jain temples are decorated with the Saffron Flag. Mahamastakab

hisheka • It is a Jain festival held once in twelve years in the town of Shravanabelgola in Karnataka. • This festival is the holy bathing ceremony of 57 ft high statue of Siddha Bahubali, son of

Rishabdev. Buddha Purnima • Buddha Jayanti is celebrated as the birth anniversary of Lord Buddha.

• It is called Saga Dawa (Dasa) in Sikkim and Vishakha Puja in the Theravada tradition. • The celebration includes ritualistic prayers and listening to sermons on the life of Buddha.

Losar Festival • One of the main festivals celebrated across Arunachal Pradesh as it marks the Tibetan New Year. It is celebrated by the tribes who believe in the Mahayana sect of Buddhism like Sherdukpens, Khamba, Memba, Monpa tribe, etc.

Jamshedi Navroz • The festival celebrates the festival of New Year for the Parsi Community.

SECULAR FESTIVALS Gangaur Festival • Most important spring festivals celebrated in the country.

• Celebrated in Rajasthan and has roots in medieval Rajput times. • It is a celebration of spring, harvest, and martial fidelity.

Khajuraho Dance Festival • Government of India in collaboration with Madhya Pradesh Kala Parishad instituted this festival in 1975.

• Is to promote Tourism in the State. Teej • It is celebrated for the women of the household who apply Mehendi or henna on their hands and wear new clothes.

Thyagaraja Aradhana • To commemorate the ‘Samadhi day’ of the famous Tamil saint and composer Tyagaraja.

Onam • State Festival of Kerala falls at the beginning of the month of Chigam, the first month of the Malayalam calendar. • Mainly a harvest festival. • A prominent feature of Onam is the Vallamkali (The Snake Boat Race) held in Punnamada Lake.

Pongal • It is a harvest festival celebrated by Tamils around the world. • The word ‘Pongal’ means ‘to oil’ in Tamil i.e. boiling of the first rice.

Sarhul • Marks the beginning of the New Year for the tribals of Jharkhand. • It is mainly celebrated by the Munda, Oraon, and Ho tribes. • Sarhul means ‘Worship of sal’.

Saga Dawa • It is mostly celebrated in the Buddhist communities living in the state of Sikkim. • Celebrated on the full moon day that falls in the middle of the Tibetan lunar month. • Festival is celebrated to commemorate the birth, enlightenment, and death (parinirvana) of the

Buddha. Losoong Festival • Celebrated in the honour of the Sikkim’s New Year.

• It is the celebration of the harvest season by the farmers Bihu Festival

• Bohag Bihu is one of the most popular festivals of Assam • Celebrating the New Year of Assamese • Assamese celebrate Bihu thrice in a year

o Bohag or Rongali Bihu o Kati or Kongali Bihu o Maagh of Bhogali Bihu

• The festival of Bihuis traditionally tried to the changing seasons and harvests. Hornbill Festival • One of the major Agricultural Festivals celebrated in the state of Nagaland.

• All the major Naga tribes attend this festival and congregate at the Kisama Heritage Village. Cheiraoba

Festival • The traditional festival of Sajibu Cheiraoba was celebrated in Manipur to mark the beginning of a new year with cultural gusto and religious fervor.


• On the occasion of Sajibu Cheiraoba, People clean and decorate their houses and arrange joint family feast. • After meals, people start climbing nearby hills in the afternoon to offer prayers. Thabal Chongba, local folk dance is also being organized at different locations of Manipur valley.

Wangala Festival

• This Festival is celebrated in Meghalaya by the Garo Tribe. • The festival is celebrated in the honour of Misi Saljong, a local deity. • Festival indicates the beginning of winter and is celebrated as a nod to the post-harvest season. • Also known as the ‘100 Drum Wangala festival’ as loud drum noises herald the beginning of the festival.

Kang Chingba • The festival of Kang Chingba is one of the biggest Hindu festivals of Manipur. • It is similar to the ‘Jagannath Puri Rath Yatra’

Ambubachi Mela • It is held in the premises of the Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati in the state of Assam.

• It has been dubbed as the ‘Mahakumbh of the East’ • The festival is associated with fertility rituals.

Sekrenyi Festival • It is celebrated in the month of February by the Angami Tribe of Nagaland.

Majuli Festival • Celebrated in the state of Assam. • The tribal dishes of majuli and Assam are displayed and put on sale.

Lui-Ngai-Ni Festival • Almost all branches of the Naga tribes celebrate this festival.

• The festival is celebrated after the end of harvest seasons and beginning of the seed-sowing season.

Dree Festival • It is celebrated in Arunachal Pradesh primarily by the Apatani tribes. • During the festival, people offer prayers and offerings to four main Gods: Tamu, Metii, Danyi, and Harniang. • One of the most unique points of these festivals is that cucumber is distributed to all the

attendees as a symbol of a good harvest.

9.1 PUPPETRY IN INDIA • It is a form of theatre or performance that involves the manipulation of puppets. • The puppets are believed to be around since the time of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro civilization dating back to 2800 BC in Indian sub-continent. • Puppetry forms are classified as String puppets, Shadow puppet, Rod Puppet, and Glove puppet. Some of the unique puppetry forms of India are discussed below:

STRING PUPPETS PUPPETRY STATE DESCRIPTION Kathputli Rajasthan • It is a traditional puppet form of Rajasthan.

• Kathputli derives its name from ‘Kath’ meaning wood and ‘putli’ meaning doll. • The puppets are covered in a traditionally bright Rajasthani dress. • A unique feature of the puppets is the absence of legs. • The strings are attached to the finger of the puppeteer.

Kundhei Orissa • They are made of light wood and are dressed in long skirts. • The puppets have more joints, thus giving the puppeteer more flexibility. • The strings are attached to a triangular prop. • There is a marked influence of Odissi dance on Kundhei puppet shows.

Gombeyatta Karnataka • They are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana theatres, the traditional theatre form of the region. • A unique feature of this puppetry is that more than one puppeteer is used to manipulate the puppets.

9. LIST OF DIFFERENT PUPPETRY FORMS OF INDIA


Bommalattam Tamil Nadu • It combines features of rod and string puppetry. • The strings are attached to an iron ring which is worn by the puppeteer on his head. • The Bommalattam puppets are the largest and heaviest marionettes found in India. • It has four distinct stages – Vinayak Puja, Komali, Amanattam and Pusen-kanattam.

SHADOW PUPPET PUPPETRY STATE DESCRIPTION

Togalu Gombeyatta Karnataka • The unique feature of the Togalu Gombayetta puppets is the variation of puppet

size based on social status, i.e. kings and religious figures are characterized by large puppets while common people and servants are shown by smaller puppets. Tholu

Bommalata Andhra Pradesh • The puppet show is accompanied by a classical background in the music and themed around mythological and devotional tales of the epics and Puranas.

• The puppets are large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows, and knees. • They are coloured on both sides.

Ravanachhaya Orissa • The puppets are made of deerskin and depict bold dramatic postures. • The puppets have no joints attached to them, making it a more complex art. • There is the use of non-human puppets, such as trees and animals as well. • They are not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen.

ROD PUPPET PUPPETRY STATE DESCRIPTION

Putul Nachh West Bengal, Odisha, and

Assam • It is the traditional rod puppet dance of Bengal-Odisha-Assam region. • The figures are generally 3-4 ft. high and dressed as characters of Jatra. • They generally have three joints – at the neck and at the shoulders. • The performance is accompanied by a musical troop of 3-4 musicians playing harmonium, cymbals, and tabla.

Yampuri Bihar • These puppets are made of wood. • They have no joints. • They are carved out of a single piece of wood and then painted and dressed in bright colours.

GLOVE PUPPET PUPPETRY STATE DESCRIPTION

Pavakoothu Kerala • It originated in the period around 18th century A.D. • The puppets are decorated with colourful headgears, feathers and face

paints, which is evidence of a heavy influence of Kathakali dance form. • The Plays are themed around narrations of Ramayana and Mahabharata.

10.1 ABOUT CLASSICAL LANGUAGES Article 343 of the Indian Constitution provides for the official language of India. According to it, Hindi in Devanagari script has been adopted as an official language of India. Subsequently, 22 languages were selected under Eighth Schedule. In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that meet certain requirements would be accorded the status of a “Classical Language in India”. Criteria for Classical Languages in India: • High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500–2000 years. • A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers. • The literary tradition is original and not borrowed from another speech community.

10. SCHEDULED & CLASSICAL LANGUAGE OF INDIA


• The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots. 10.2 CLASSICAL LANGUAGES • In 2004, Government of India declared Tamil as the Classical Language of India. • In 2005, right after Tamil, the government declared Sanskrit as Classical Language of India. These two languages are undeniably parental sources for several languages belonging to the Indo-European family and the Dravidian family of language groups. • The government gave the classical language status to Kannada and Telugu in 2008. • Malayalam was declared as a classical language in 2013 and in 2014, Odiya was also given the status of the Classical language. 10.3 BENEFITS OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGE Government of India’s resolution states that the following benefits will accrue to a language declared as a “Classical Language”: • Two major international awards for scholars of eminence in Classical Indian Languages to be awarded annually. • A ‘Centre of Excellence for Studies in Classical Languages’ will be set up. • The University Grants Commission will be requested to create and to start with at least in the Central

Universities, a certain number of Professional Chairs for Classical Languages for scholars of eminence in Classical Indian Languages. 10.4 SCHEDULED LANGUAGES (LISTED UNDER EIGHTH SCHEDULE)

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