Dedication

ToZorica

Contents

CoverTitlePageDedicationForeword

ChapterI:CanYouGetanMITEducationWithoutGoingtoMIT?ChapterII:WhyUltralearningMattersChapterIII:HowtoBecomeanUltralearnerChapterIV:Principle1—Metalearning:FirstDrawaMapChapterV:Principle2—Focus:SharpenYourKnifeChapterVI:Principle3—Directness:GoStraightAheadChapterVII:Principle4—Drill:AttackYourWeakestPointChapterVIII:Principle5—Retrieval:TesttoLearnChapterIX:Principle6—Feedback:Don’tDodgethePunchesChapterX:Principle7—Retention:Don’tFillaLeakyBucketChapterXI:Principle8—Intuition:DigDeepBeforeBuildingUpChapterXII:Principle9—Experimentation:ExploreOutsideYourComfortZoneChapterXIII:YourFirstUltralearningProjectChapterXIV:AnUnconventionalEducation

AcknowledgmentsAppendixNotesIndexAbouttheAuthorCopyrightAboutthePublisher

Foreword

MyrelationshipwithScottYoungbeganinmid-2013.OnJuly10,Isenthimanemailaskingifhewantedtosetupacallforthefollowingmonth.Wehadmetataconferenceafewdaysearlier,andIwashopinghewouldbewillingtocontinuetheconversation.

“Possibly,”hereplied.“I’llbeinSpainthen,andthelanguage-learningfocusofmyupcomingprojectmaytakeprecedence.”

Itwasn’ttheresponseIwashopingfor,butitseemedreasonable.Managingcallswhiletravelinginternationallycanbetricky,andIunderstoodifhewantedtowaituntilhereturned.However,Iquicklyfoundoutthathewouldnotbereturninganytimesoon,anditwasnotthetimechangenoraspottyinternetconnectionthatwouldpostponeourconversation.

No,itwouldbehardtocatchupwithScottbecausehewasplanningtospeaknoEnglishforanentireyear.

ThusbeganmyintroductiontoScottYoungandhiscommitmenttoultralearning.Overthenexttwelvemonths,IwouldtradesporadicemailswithScottashetraveledtoSpain,Brazil,China,andKorea,andproceededtobecomeconversationalineachoftherespectivelanguagesalongtheway.Hewastruetohisword:itwasnotuntilthefollowingsummerin2014thatwecarvedouttimetocatchupregularlyandbeganchattingwitheachothereveryfewmonths.

IwasalwaysexcitedformycallswithScott—primarilyforselfishreasons.Oneofmycoreinterestsasawriteristhescienceofhowtobuildgoodhabitsandbreakbadones.SomeonelikeScott,whohadsoclearlymasteredhisownhabits,wasexactlythetypeofpersonwhocouldteachmeathingortwo.Andthat’spreciselywhathappened.IcanscarcelyrememberfinishingacallwithScottandnotlearningsomethingduringtheprevioushour.

That’snottosayhisinsighttookmebysurprise.Scotthadalreadybeenonmyradarbythetimewemetatthatconferencein2013.HehadcatapultedtointernetfameoneyearpriorbylearningtheentireMITundergraduatecomputersciencecurriculumandpassingallofthefinaltestsinlessthanayear—fouryears’worthofclassesinundertwelvemonths.IhadseentheTEDxTalksummarizinghisexperience,andIreadafewofhisarticlesonlearningandself-improvementbeforetrackinghimdownattheconference.

Theideaoftakingonanambitiousproject—likestudyingMIT’sundergraduatecurriculuminoneyearorlearninganewlanguageeverythreemonths—isinspirationaltomanypeople.Icertainlyfoundtheseboldprojectsfascinating.ButtherewassomethingelseaboutScott’sprojectsthatresonatedwithmeonadeeperlevel:hehadabiastowardaction.

ThisissomethingIhavealwaysappreciatedaboutScott’sapproachandsomethingIbelieveyouwillappreciateasareaderofthisbook.Heisn’tfocusedonsimplysoakingupknowledge.Heiscommittedtoputtingthatknowledgetouse.ApproachinglearningwithanintensityandcommitmenttoactionisahallmarkofScott’sprocess.Thisapproachspeakstome,inpart,becauseIseesimilarpatternsinmyownlifeandcareer.Someofmymostmeaningfulexperienceshavebeentheresultofintenseself-directedlearning.

AlthoughIdidn’tknowthewordultralearningatthetime,oneofmyfirstultralearningprojectswasphotography.Inlate2009,ImovedtoScotlandforafewmonths.Itwasmyfirsttimelivingabroad,andgiventhebeautifulscenerythroughouttheScottishHighlands,IfiguredIshouldbuyadecentcamera.WhatIhadn’texpected,however,wasthatIwouldfallinlovewiththeprocessoftakingphotos.Whatfollowedwasoneofthemostcreativeperiodsofmylife.

Ilearnedphotographythroughavarietyofmethods.Istudiedtheportfoliosoffamousphotographers.Iscoutedlocationsandsearchedforcompellingperspectives.But,mostofall,Ilearnedthroughonesimplemethod:Itookover100,000photosthatfirstyear.Ineverenrolledinaphotographyclass.Ididn’treadbooksonhowtobecomeabetterphotographer.Ijustcommittedtorelentlessexperimentation.This“learningbydoing”approachembodiesoneofmyfavoritechaptersinthisbookandScott’sthirdprincipleofultralearning:directness.

Directnessisthepracticeoflearningbydirectlydoingthethingyouwanttolearn.Basically,

it’simprovementthroughactivepracticeratherthanthroughpassivelearning.Thephraseslearningsomethingnewandpracticingsomethingnewmayseemsimilar,butthesetwomethodscanproduceprofoundlydifferentresults.Passivelearningcreatesknowledge.Activepracticecreatesskill.

ThisisapointthatScottmorefullyclarifiesandrefinesinchapter6:directnessleadstoskilldevelopment.Youcanresearchthebestinstructionsonthebenchpresstechnique,buttheonlywaytobuildstrengthistopracticeliftingweights.Youcanreadallofthebestsellingsalesbooks,buttheonlywaytoactuallygetcustomersistopracticemakingsalescalls.Learningcanbeveryuseful,ofcourse,butthedangeristhattheactofsoakingupnewfactscanbedisconnectedfromtheprocessofrefininganewskill.Youcanknoweveryfactaboutanindustryandstilllackreal-worldexpertisebecauseyouhaven’tpracticedthecraft.

Scottunderstandsthedifficultyofactuallylearningnewskills.Irespecthimnotonlyforthequalityofhiswritingbutalsoforthesimplefactthatheisapractitionerofhisownideas.Ican’tsayenoughabouthowimportantthisis:hehasskininthegame.Manyideassoundbrilliantonpaperbutfailintherealworld.Asthesayinggoes,“Intheory,thereisnodifferencebetweentheoryandpractice.Butinpractice,thereis.”*

Asformyphotographyquest,itdidn’ttakelongformycommitmenttodirectpracticetopayoff.AfewmonthsafterIboughtmycamera,ItraveledtoNorwayandventuredabovetheArcticCircletocaptureanimageoftheauroraborealis.Notlongafterward,IwasnamedafinalistforTravelPhotographeroftheYearthankstothatimageoftheNorthernLights.Itwasasurprisingoutcome,butalsoatestamenttohowmuchprogressyoucanmakeduringashortbutintenseperiodoflearning.

Ineverpursuedacareerasaphotographer.ItwasanultralearningprojectIdidforfunandpersonalsatisfaction.Butafewyearslater,rightaroundthetimeIfirstmetScott,Ibegananotherperiodofintenselearningwithamoreutilitarianoutcomeinmind:Iwantedtobeanentrepreneur,andIfiguredwritingwouldbeonepaththatcouldgetmethere.

Onceagain,IhadselectedadomainwhereIhadlittleformalexperience.Ihadnoentrepreneursinmyfamily,andIhadtakenonlyasinglecollegeEnglishclass.ButasIreadthroughUltralearning,IwasstartledtofindthatScottexplained,innearlystep-by-stepfashion,theprocessIfollowedtogofromunprovenentrepreneurtobestsellingauthor.

Principle#1:Metalearning—Istartedbyexaminingotherpopularbloggersandauthors.TheirmethodshelpedmetocreateamapforwhatIneededtodotobecomeasuccessfulwriter.

Principle#2:Focus—Iwentfull-timeasawriternearlyfromthestart.AsidefromafewfreelanceprojectsItookontopaythebills,thevastmajorityofmytimewasspentreadingandwriting.

Principle#3:Directness—Ilearnedwritingbywriting.IsetascheduleformyselftowriteanewarticleeveryMondayandThursday.Overthefirsttwoyears,Iproducedmorethan150essays.

Principle#4:Drill—Isystematicallybrokedowneachaspectofwritingarticles—theheadline,theintroductorysentence,thetransitions,thestorytelling,andmore—andputtogetherspreadsheetsfilledwithexamplesofeachsegment.ThenIsetabouttestingandrefiningmyabilitytoperformeachsmallaspectofthelargertask.

Principle#6:Feedback—Ipersonallyemailednearlyallofmyfirsttenthousandsubscriberstosayhelloandtoaskforfeedbackonmywriting.Itdidn’tscale,butittaughtmealotinthebeginning.

...andsoon.MypointisthatScott’smethodworks.Byfollowingthetechniqueshelaysoutinthisbook,I

wasabletobuildawritingcareer,createasuccessfulbusiness,and,ultimately,writeaNewYorkTimesbestsellingbook.WhenIreleasedAtomicHabits,itwastheculminationofyearsofworkcenteredaroundtheprocessofultralearning.

Ithinkit’seasytohearstoriesaboutwritingabestsellingbookorlearningfourlanguagesinayearandthink,“That’sforotherpeople.”Idisagree.Learningsomethingvaluableanddoingitfastdoesn’thavetobeconfinedtosomenarrowsetofgeniuses.It’saprocessanyonecanembrace.It’sjustthatmostpeopleneverdoitbecausetheyneverhadaplaybooktoshowthemhow.Untilnow.

Therearegoodreasonstopursueultralearning—whetheryouareconductingaprojectforpersonalorprofessionalinterests.

First,deeplearningprovidesasenseofpurposeinlife.Developingskillsismeaningful.Itfeelsgoodtogetgoodatsomething.Ultralearningisapathtoprovetoyourselfthatyouhavetheabilitytoimproveandtomakethemostofyourlife.Itgivesyoutheconfidencethatyoucanaccomplishambitiousthings.

Second,deeplearningishowyougetoutsizedreturns.Thesimpletruthismostpeoplewill

neverintenselystudyyourareaofinterest.Doingso—evenifit’sjustforafewmonths—willhelpyoustandout.Andonceyoustandout,youcangetabetterjob,negotiateforahighersalaryormorefreetime,networkwithmoreinterestingpeople,andotherwiselevelupyourpersonalandprofessionallife.Ultralearninghelpsyoudevelopleveragethatyoucanuseelsewhere.

Finally,deeplearningispossible.PaulGraham,thefamousentrepreneurandinvestor,oncenoted,“Inmanyfieldsayearoffocusedworkpluscaringalotwouldbeenough.”*Similarly,Ithinkmostpeoplewouldbesurprisedbywhattheycouldaccomplishwithayear(orafewmonths)offocusedlearning.Theprocessofintenseself-directedlearningcanfashionskillsyouneverthoughtyoucoulddevelop.Ultralearningcanhelpyoufulfillyourpotential,andthatisperhapsthebestreasonofalltopursueit.

Thetruthis,despitethesuccessofmywritingandphotographypursuits,theseprojectswerehaphazard.Ididthemintenselybutwithoutguidanceordirection.Imadealotofmistakes.IwishIhadthisbookwhenIwasstartingout.IcanonlyimaginehowmuchwastedtimeandenergyIwouldhavesaved.Ultralearningisafascinatingandinspiringread.Scotthascompiledagoldmineof

actionablestrategiesforlearninganythingfaster.Hiseffortisnowyourgain.IhopeyouenjoythisbookasmuchasIdid,and,mostimportant,Ihopeyouusetheseideastoaccomplishsomethingambitiousandexcitinginyourownlife.WiththestoriesandstrategiesScottsharesinthisbook,youwillhavetheknowledge.Allthatisleftistotakeaction.

—JamesClear

ChapterICanYouGetanMITEducationWithoutGoingtoMIT?

Onlyafewhoursleft.Icaughtmyselfglancingoutthewindowastheearly-morninglightglitteredoffthebuildingsinfrontofme.Itwasacrispfallday,surprisinglysunnyforafamouslyrainycity.Well-dressedmencarriedbriefcasesandfashionablewomenpulledminiaturedogsbeneathmyeleventh-storyvantagepoint.Busesdraggedreluctantcommutersintotownonelasttimebeforetheweekend.Thecitymighthavebeenrousingfromitsslumber,butIhadbeenawakesincebeforedawn.Nowisnotthetimefordaydreaming,Iremindedmyselfandshiftedmyattentionbacktothe

half-finishedmathproblemsscribbledonthenotebookinfrontofme.“Showthatforanyfinitepartoftheunitsphere...”theproblembegan.TheclasswasMultivariateCalculusfortheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Thefinalexamwouldstartsoon,andIhadlittletimelefttoprepare.Whatwascurl,again...?Iclosedmyeyesandtriedtoformapictureoftheprobleminmyhead.There’sasphere.Iknowthat.Iconjuredabrightredballinmymind’seye,floatinginemptyspace.Nowwhatwasn̂?Then̂standsfornormal,Iremindedmyself,meaninganarrowthatpointsstraightupfromthesurface.Myredballbecamefurry,withhairlikevectorsstandingstraightatallends.Butwhataboutcurl?Myimaginationturnedtowavesoftinyarrowspulsatinginavastsea.Curlmarkedtheeddies,swirlingaroundinlittleloops.Ithoughtagaintomyfurry,redballwiththestatic-chargedhairdo.Myfuzzyspherehadnowhorls,sotheremustnotbeanycurl,Ireasoned.ButhowdoIproveit?Iscratcheddownsomeequations.Betterdouble-checkit.Mymentalpictureswereclear,butmysymbolmanipulationwasalotsloppier.Therewasn’tmuchtimeleft,andeverysecondofpreparationcounted.Ineededtogrindthroughasmanyproblemsaspossiblebeforetimeranout.ThatwasnothingunusualforanMITstudent.Trickyequations,abstractconcepts,and

difficultproofsareallanormalpartofoneofthemostprestigiouseducationsinmathandscienceintheworld.ExceptthatIwasnotanMITstudent.Infact,IhadneverevenbeentoMassachusetts.Allofthiswastakingplaceinmybedroom,twenty-fivehundredmilesawayinVancouver,Canada.AndalthoughanMITstudenttypicallycoverstheentiretyofmultivariatecalculusoverasemester,Ihadstartedonlyfivedaysbefore.

TheMITChallengeIhaveneverattendedMIT.Instead,mycollegedayswerespentstudyingbusinessattheUniversityofManitoba,amiddle-rankedCanadianschoolIcouldactuallyafford.Aftergraduatingwithabachelorofcommerce,IfeltasthoughIhadpickedthewrongmajor.Iwantedtobeanentrepreneurandsohadstudiedbusiness,thinkingthatwouldbethebestroutetobecomingmyownboss.Fouryearslater,Idiscoveredthatabusinessmajorwaslargelyafinishingschoolforentrantsintotheworldofbigcorporations,graysuits,andstandardoperatingprocedures.Computerscience,incontrast,wasamajorwhereyouactuallylearnedtomakethings.Programs,websites,algorithms,andartificialintelligencewerewhathadinterestedmeinentrepreneurshipinthefirstplace,andIwasstrugglingtodecidewhattodoaboutit.Icouldgobacktoschool,Ithought.Enrollagain.Spendanotherfouryearsworkingtoward

aseconddegree.Buttakingoutstudentloansandgivingupahalfdecadeofmylifetorepeatthebureaucracyandrulesofcollegedidn’tseemveryappealing.TherehadtobeabetterwaytolearnwhatIwanted.Aroundthattime,IstumbledacrossaclasstaughtatMITandpostedonline.Ithadfully

recordedlectures,assignments,andquizzes;eventheactualexamsusedintherealclasswiththesolutionkeyswereprovided.Idecidedtotrytakingtheclass.Tomysurprise,IfoundthattheclasswasmuchbetterthanmostoftheclassesIhadpaidthousandsofdollarstoattendin

university.Thelectureswerepolished,theprofessorwasengaging,andthematerialwasfascinating.Diggingfurther,Icouldseethatthiswasn’ttheonlyclassMITofferedforfree.MIThaduploadedthematerialsfromhundredsofdifferentclasses.Iwonderedifthiscouldbethesolutiontomyproblem.IfanyonecouldlearnthecontentofanMITclassforfree,woulditbepossibletolearnthecontentofanentiredegree?ThusbeganalmostsixmonthsofintenseresearchintoaprojectInamedtheMITChallenge.

IlookeduptheactualMITcurriculumforcomputerscienceundergrads.ImatchedandcomparedthelistwiththeresourcesMITofferedonline.Unfortunately,thatwasaloteasiersaidthandone.MIT’sOpenCourseWare,theplatformusedforuploadingclassmaterial,hadneverbeenintendedasasubstituteforattendingtheschool.Someclassessimplyweren’tofferedandneededtobeswappedout.OthershadsuchscantmaterialthatIwonderediftheywouldevenbepossibletocomplete.ComputationStructures,oneoftherequiredcourses,whichtaughthowtobuildacomputerfromscratchusingcircuitsandtransistors,hadnorecordedlecturesorassignedtextbook.Tolearntheclasscontent,Iwouldhavetodecipherabstractsymbolswrittenonaslideshowmeanttoaccompanythelecture.MissingmaterialsandambiguousevaluationcriteriameantthatdoingeveryclassexactlyasanMITstudentwouldwasoutofthequestion.However,asimplerapproachmightwork:justtrytopassthefinalexams.Thisfocusonfinalexamslaterexpandedtoincludeprogrammingprojectsfortheclasses

thathadthem.ThesetwocriteriaformedtheskeletonofanMITdegree,coveringmostoftheknowledgeandskillsIwantedtolearn,withnoneofthefrills.Nomandatoryattendancepolicy.Noduedatesonassignments.ThefinalexamscouldbetakenwheneverIwasreadyandretakenwithanalternateexamifIhappenedtofailone.Suddenlywhathadinitiallyseemedlikeadisadvantage—nothavingphysicalaccesstoMIT—becameanadvantage.IcouldapproximatetheeducationofanMITstudentforafractionofthecost,time,andconstraints.Exploringthispossibilityfurther,Ievendidatestclassusingthenewapproach.Insteadof

showinguptoprescheduledlectures,Iwatcheddownloadedvideosfortheclassattwicethenormalspeed.Insteadofmeticulouslydoingeachassignmentandwaitingweekstolearnmyresults,Icouldtestmyselfonthematerialonequestionatatime,quicklylearningfrommymistakes.Usingtheseandothermethods,IfoundIcouldscrapethroughaclassinaslittleasaweek’stime.Doingsomequickcalculationsandaddingsomeroomforerror,Idecideditmightbepossibletotackletheremainingthirty-twoclassesinunderayear.Althoughitbeganasapersonalquest,Istartedtoseethattherewerebiggerimplications

beyondmylittleproject.Technologyhasmadelearningeasierthanever,yettuitioncostsareexploding.Afour-yeardegreeusedtobeanassuranceofadecentjob.Nowitisbarelyafootinthedoor.Thebestcareersdemandsophisticatedskillsthatyou’reunlikelytostumbleuponbychance.Notjustprogrammersbutmanagers,entrepreneurs,designers,doctors,andnearlyeveryotherprofessionisrapidlyacceleratingtheknowledgeandskillsrequired,andmanyarestrugglingtokeepup.Inthebackofmymind,Iwasinterestednotonlyincomputersciencebutinseeingiftheremightbeanewwaytomastertheskillsneededinworkandlife.Asmyattentiondriftedoncemoretothescenedevelopingoutsidemywindow,Ithought

abouthowallthishadstarted.IthoughtabouthowIwouldn’tbeattemptingmyoddlittleexperimentatallhaditnotbeenforachanceencounterwithanintense,teetotalingIrishmanonanothercontinentalmostthreeyearsearlier.

FluentinThreeMonths?“Myproblemisn’twiththeFrench—justParisians,”BennyLewisventedtomeinanItalianrestaurantintheheartofParis.Lewiswasvegetarian,notalwayseasytoaccommodateinacountryfamousforsteaktartareandfoiegras.Eatingaplateofpennearrabbiata,afavoritehehadpickedupwhileworkinginayouthhostelinItaly,LewisspokeinfluentFrench,notmindingmuchifanyofthelocalsoverheardhiscomplaints.HisdiscontentstemmedfromaparticularlydrearyyearworkingasastagiaireinanengineeringfirminParis.HehadfoundithardtoadjusttothenotoriousjobdemandsandsociallifeinFrance’sbiggestcity.Still,hethought,perhapsheshouldn’tbetoocritical.Itwasthatexperience,afterall,thathadledhimtoleavehislifeasanengineerandtravelaroundtheworldlearninglanguages.IhadbeenintroducedtoLewisduringamomentofpersonalfrustration.Iwaslivingin

Franceaspartofastudentexchangeprogram.IhadlefthomewithhighhopesofendingtheyearspeakingeffortlessFrench,butthingsdidn’tseemtobeturningoutthatway.MostofmyfriendsspoketomeinEnglish,includingtheFrenchones,anditwasstartingtofeelasthoughoneyearwouldn’tbeenough.

Icomplainedaboutthisstateofaffairstoafriendfromhome;hetoldmeaboutaguyhehadheardofwhotraveledfromcountrytocountry,challenginghimselftolearnalanguageinthreemonths.“Bullshit,”Isaid,withmorethanahintofenvy.HereIhadbeenstrugglingtochatwithpeopleaftermonthsofimmersion,andthisguywaschallenginghimselftodosoafteronlythreemonths.Despitemyskepticism,IknewIneededtomeetLewistoseeifheunderstoodsomethingaboutlearninglanguagesthatIdidn’t.Anemailandatrainridelater,andLewisandIweremeetingface-to-face.“Alwayshaveachallenge,”Lewistoldmeashecontinuedwithhislifeadvice,nowguiding

meonapostlunchtourofcentralParis:Lewis’searlierfeelingsaboutPariswerestartingtosoften,andaswewalkedfromtheNotreDametotheLouvre,hismoodturnednostalgicabouthisdaysinthecity.Hisstrongopinionsandpassions,Iwouldlaterlearn,notonlyfueledhisdesiretotakeonambitiouschallengesbutcouldalsogethimintotrouble.HewasoncedetainedbyBrazilianfederalpoliceafteranimmigrationofficeroverheardhimcursingherinPortuguesetofriendsoutsidewhenshehaddeniedhimavisaextension.Theironywasthathisvisahadbeendeniedbecauseshedidn’tbelievehisPortuguesecouldbesogoodfromsuchashortstay,andshesuspectedhimofsecretlytryingtoimmigratetoBraziloutsidethetermsofhistouristvisa.Aswecontinuedtowalk,nowonthegroundsinfrontoftheEiffelTower,Lewisexplained

hisapproach:Startspeakingtheveryfirstday.Don’tbeafraidtotalktostrangers.Useaphrasebooktogetstarted;saveformalstudyforlater.Usevisualmnemonicstomemorizevocabulary.Whatstruckmewerenotthemethodsbuttheboldnesswithwhichheappliedthem.WhileIhadtimidlybeentryingtopickupsomeFrench,worryingaboutsayingthewrongthingsandbeingembarrassedbymyinsufficientvocabulary,Lewiswasfearless,divingstraightintoconversationsandsettingseeminglyimpossiblechallengesforhimself.Thatapproachhadservedhimwell.HewasalreadyfluentinSpanish,Italian,Gaelic,

French,Portuguese,Esperanto,andEnglishandhadrecentlyreachedaconversationallevelwhilestayingintheCzechRepublicforthreemonths.Butitwashisnewestchallengehewasplanningthatintriguedmethemost:fluencyinGermanafterjustthreemonths.Itwasn’t,strictlyspeaking,Lewis’sfirsttimewithGerman.HehadtakenGermanclasses

forfiveyearsinhighschoolandhadbrieflyvisitedGermanytwicebefore.However,likemanyofthestudentswhospenttimelearningalanguageinschool,hestillcouldn’tspeakit.Headmittedwithembarrassment,“Icouldn’tevenorderbreakfastinGermanifIwantedto.”Still,theunusedknowledgebuiltupfromclassestakenoveradecadeearlierwouldprobablymakehischallengeeasierthanstartingfromscratch.Tocompensateforthereduceddifficulty,Lewisdecidedtoraisethestakes.Normally,hechallengedhimselftoreachtheequivalentofaB2levelinalanguageafter

threemonths.TheB2level—thefourthoutofsixlevelsbeginningA1,A2,B1,andsoon—isdescribedbytheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages(CEFR)asupperintermediate,allowingthespeakerto“interactwithadegreeoffluencyandspontaneitythatmakesregularinteractionwithnativespeakersquitepossiblewithoutstrainforeitherparty.”However,forhisGermanchallenge,Lewisdecidedtogoforthehighestexamleveloffered:C2.Thislevelrepresentsacompletemasteryofthelanguage.ToreachaC2level,thelearnermust“understandwitheasevirtuallyeverythingheardorread”and“expressthemselvesspontaneously,veryfluentlyandprecisely,differentiatingfinershadesofmeaningeveninthemostcomplexsituations.”TheGoethe-Institut,whichadministerstheexam,recommendsatleast750hoursofinstruction,notincludingextensivepracticeoutsidetheclassroom,toreachthisbenchmark.1Afewmonthslater,IheardbackfromLewisabouthisproject.Hehadmissedhisgoalof

passingtheC2exambyahair.Hehadpassedfouroffivecriteriaforhisexambuthadfailedthelisteningcomprehensionsection.“Ispenttoomuchtimelisteningtotheradio,”hechastisedhimself.“Ishouldhavedonemoreactivelisteningpractice.”Fluencyinthreemonthsofintensivepracticehadeludedhim,althoughhehadcomesurprisinglyclose.InthesevenyearsaftermyfirstencounterwiththeIrishpolyglot,hehasgoneontoattempthisthree-monthchallengeinhalfadozenmorecountries,addingtohislinguisticrepertoiresomeArabic,Hungarian,MandarinChinese,Thai,AmericanSignLanguage,andevenKlingon(theinventedStarTreklanguage).WhatIdidn’trealizeatthetimebutunderstandnowwasthatLewis’saccomplishments

weren’tallthatrare.Inthespaceoflinguisticfeatsalone,Ihaveencounteredhyperpolyglotswhospeakforty-pluslanguages,adventurer-anthropologistswhocanstartspeakingpreviouslyunknownlanguagesafterafewhoursofexposure,andmanyothertravelers,likeLewis,whohopfromtouristvisatotouristvisa,masteringnewlanguages.Ialsosawthatthisphenomenonofaggressiveself-educationwithincredibleresultswasn’trestrictedtolanguagesalone.

HowRogerCraigGamedJeopardy!“WhatisTheBridgeontheRiverKwai?”RogerCraighastilyscribbledthequestiononhisscreen.Despitefirstfumblingoverthelegibilityofthefilmtitle’sfinalword,Craigwascorrect.Hehadwon$77,000—thehighestsingle-daywinningsinJeopardy!historyatthetime.Craig’svictorywasn’tafluke.Hebrokerecordsagain,amassingnearlytwohundredthousanddollars,thehighesteverfive-gamewinningstreak.Suchafeatwouldberemarkableonitsown,butwhatwasmoreincrediblewashowhedidit.Reflectingonthemoment,Craigsays,“Myfirstthoughtwasn’t‘Wow,Ijustwonseventy-seventhousanddollars.’Itwas‘Whoa,mysitereallyworked.’”2Howdoyoustudyforatestthatcanaskanyquestion?ThatwastheessentialproblemCraig

facedashepreparedtocompete.Jeopardy!isfamousforstumpinghomeaudienceswithtriviaquestionsthatcanaskaboutanythingfromDanishkingstoDamocles.ThusthegreatchampionsofJeopardy!tendtobebrainyknow-it-allswhohavespentalifetimeamassingthehugelibraryoffactualknowledgeneededtospitoutanswersonanytopic.StudyingforJeopardy!mightfeellikeanimpossibletask,asyouwouldneedtostudyalmosteveryconceivablesubject.Craig’ssolution,however,wastorethinktheprocessofacquiringknowledgeitself.Todothat,hebuiltawebsite.“Everybodythatwantstosucceedatagameisgoingtopracticethegame,”Craigcontends.

“Youcanpracticehaphazardly,oryoucanpracticeefficiently.”3Toamassthewide-rangingtrivianeededtobreakrecords,hedecidedtoberuthlesslyanalyticalabouthowheacquiredknowledge.Acomputerscientistbytrade,hedecidedtostartoffbydownloadingthetensofthousandsofquestionsandanswersfromeveryJeopardy!gameeveraired.Hetestedhimselfonthoseduringhisfreetimeformonths,andthen,asitbecameclearthathewasgoingtogoontelevision,heswitchedtoaggressivelyquizzinghimselfonthequestionsfull-time.Hethenappliedtext-miningsoftwaretocategorizethequestionsintodifferenttopics,suchasarthistory,fashion,andscience.Heuseddatavisualizationtomapouthisstrengthsandweaknesses.Thetext-miningsoftwareseparatedthedifferenttopics,whichhevisualizedasdifferentcircles.Thepositionofanygivencircleonhisgraphshowedhowgoodhewasinthattopic—highermeantheknewmoreaboutthattopic.Thesizeofthecircleindicatedhowfrequentthattopicwas.Biggercirclesweremorecommonandthusbetterchoicesforfurtherstudy.Beneaththevarietyandrandomnessintheshow,hestartedtouncoverhiddenpatterns.Somecluesintheshoware“DailyDoubles,”whichallowacontestanttodoublehisorherscore,orloseitall.Theseextremelyvaluablecluesmayseemrandomlyplaced,buthavingtheentireJeopardy!archivesathisfingertips,Craigfoundthattheirpositionfollowedtrends.OnecouldhuntoutthevaluableDoublesbyhoppingbetweencategoriesandfocusingonhigh-pointclues,breakingtheconventionalapproachtotheshowofstickingwithinasinglecategoryuntilitwascompleted.Craigalsofoundtrendswithinthetypesofquestionsasked.AlthoughJeopardy!could

conceivablyaskquestionsonanytopic,theformatofthegameisdesignedtoentertainahomeaudience,nottochallengecompetitors.Followingthisreasoning,Craigfoundthathecouldgetawaywithstudyingthebest-knowntriviawithinacategory,ratherthandiggingdeepintoanyparticulardirection.Ifasubjectwasspecialized,heknewtheanswerswouldbegearedtowardthebest-knownexamples.Byanalyzinghisownweaknessonarchivalquestions,hecouldseewhichtopicsheneededtostudymoretobecompetitive.Forexample,hefoundthathewasweakonfashionandfocusedonstudyingthattopicmoredeeply.Usinganalyticstofigureoutwhattostudywasonlythefirststep.Fromthere,Craig

employedspaced-repetitionsoftwaretomaximizehisefficiency.Spaced-repetitionsoftwareisanadvancedflashcardalgorithmfirstdevelopedbythePolishresearcherPiotrWoźniakinthe1980s.4Woźniak’salgorithmwasdesignedtooptimallytimewhenyouneedtoreviewmaterialinordertorememberit.Givenalargedatabaseoffacts,mostpeoplewillforgetwhattheylearnfirst,needingtoremindthemselvesofitagainandagainforittostick.Thealgorithmfixesthisproblembycalculatingtheoptimaltimeforreviewingeachfactsoyoudon’twasteenergyoverdrillingthesameinformation,butalsosoyoudon’tforgetwhatyou’vealreadylearned.ThistoolallowedCraigtoefficientlymemorizethethousandsoffactshewouldneedforhislatervictory.Althoughtheshowairsonlyoneepisodeperday,Jeopardy!tapesfiveepisodesatatime.

Craigwascomingbacktohishotelroomafterwinningfivegamesstraight,andhecouldn’tsleep.Hesaid,“Youcansimulatethegame,butyoucan’tsimulatewinningtwohundredthousanddollarsinfivehoursandsettingthesingle-dayrecordonagameshowyou’vewantedtobeonsinceyouweretwelveyearsold.”5Combiningunorthodoxtacticsandaggressiveanalysis,hehadgamedthegameshowandwon.RogerCraigwasn’ttheonlypersonIfoundwhohadseenhisfortuneschangeasaresultof

aggressiveself-education.Ididn’tknowitatthetime,butin2011,thesameyearmyMITChallengewouldbegin,EricBaronewasstartinghisownobsession.Unlikemine,however,hiseffortswouldextendfornearlyfiveyearsandrequiremasteringmanycompletelydifferentskills.

FromMinimumWagetoMillionaireEricBaronehadjustgraduatedfromtheUniversityofWashingtonTacomawithadegreeincomputersciencewhenhethought,Now’smychance.Hehaddecidedthathewantedtomakehisownvideogamesandthatnow,beforehegotcomfortableinasalariedprogrammingjob,washisopportunitytodosomethingaboutit.Healreadyhadhisinspiration.HewantedhisgametopayhomagetoHarvestMoon,acharmingJapaneseseriesofgamesinwhichtheplayermustbuildasuccessfulfarm:growcrops,raiseanimals,explorethecountryside,andformrelationshipswithothervillagers.“Ilovedthatgame,”hesaidabouthischildhoodexperiencewiththetitle.“Butitcouldhavebeensomuchbetter.”Heknewthatifhedidn’tfollowthroughwithhisownvision,thatimprovedversionwouldneverbeareality.Developingacommerciallysuccessfulvideogameisn’teasy.AAAgamecompaniesbudget

hundredsofmillionsofdollarsandemploythousandsofpeopleontheirtoptitles.Thetalentrequiredissimilarlybroad.Gamedevelopmentrequiresprogramming,visualart,musicalcomposition,storywriting,gamedesign,anddozensmoreskills,dependingonthegenreandstyleofgamedeveloped.Thebreadthofskillsrequiredmakesgamedevelopmentmuchharderforsmallerteamsthanotherartformssuchasmusic,writing,orvisualarts.Evenhighlytalentedindependentgamedevelopersgenerallyhavetocollaboratewithafewpeopletospanalltheskillsrequired.EricBarone,however,decidedtoworkonhisgameentirelyalone.Decidingtoworkalonecamefromapersonalcommitmenttohisvisionandanindefatigable

self-confidencethathecouldfinishthegame.“Iliketohavecompletecontrolovermyownvision,”heexplained,sayingthatitmighthavebeen“impossibletofindpeoplewhowereonthesamepage”regardingthedesign.However,thatchoicemeantthathewouldneedtobecomeproficientingameprogramming,musiccomposition,pixelart,sounddesign,andstorywriting.Morethanjustagamedesignproject,Barone’sodysseywouldentailmasteringeachaspectofgamedesignitself.PixelartwasBarone’sbiggestweakness.Thisstyleofartharkensbacktotheearliereraof

videogameswhenrenderinggraphicswasdifficulttodoonslowcomputers.Pixelartisnotdonewithfluidlinesorphotorealistictextures.Instead,acompellingimagemustbecreatedbyplacingpixels,thecoloreddotsthatmakeupcomputergraphics,oneatatime—painstakinganddifficultwork.Apixelartistmustconveymovement,emotion,andlifefromagridofcoloredsquares.Baronelikedtodoodleanddraw,butthatdidn’tpreparehimforthedifficulty.Hehadtolearnthisskill“completelyfromscratch.”Gettinghisartskillstoacommerciallevelwasn’teasy.“Imusthavedonemostoftheartworkthreetofivetimesover,”hesaid.“Forthecharacterportraits,Ididthoseatleasttentimes.”Barone’sstrategywassimplebuteffective.Hepracticedbyworkingdirectlyonthegraphics

hewantedtouseinhisgame.Hecritiquedhisownworkandcomparedittoartheadmired.“Itriedtobreakitdownscientifically,”heexplained.“Iwouldaskmyself,‘WhydoIlikethis?Whydon’tIlikethat?’”whenlookingatotherartists’work.Hesupplementedhisownpracticebyreadingaboutpixelarttheoryandfindingtutorialsthatcouldfillgapsinhisknowledge.Whenheencounteredadifficultyinhisart,hebrokeitdown:“Iasked,‘WhatgoaldoIwanttoreach?’andthen‘HowmightIgetthere?’”Atsomepointinhisworkonthegame,hefelthiscolorsweretoodullandboring.“Iwantedthecolorstopop,”hesaid.Soheresearchedcolortheoryandintensivelystudiedotherartiststoseehowtheyusedcolorstomakethingsvisuallyinteresting.PixelartwasjustasingleaspectBaronehadtolearn.Healsocomposedallofthemusicfor

hisgame,redoingitfromscratchmorethanoncetomakesureitmethishighexpectations.Wholesectionsofthegamemechanicsweredevelopedandscrappedwhentheyfailedtomeethisrigorousstandards.Thisprocessofpracticingdirectlyandredoingthingsallowedhimtogetsteadilybetteratalloftheaspectsofgamedesign.Althoughitlengthenedthetimeittooktocompletethegame,italsoenabledhisfinishedproducttocompetewithgamescreatedbyanarmyofspecializedartists,programmers,andcomposers.Throughoutthefive-yeardevelopmentprocess,Baroneavoidedseekingemploymentasa

computerprogrammer.“Ididn’twanttogetinvolvedinsomethingsubstantial,”hesaid.“Iwouldn’thavehadthetime,andIwantedtogivegamedevelopmentmybestshot.”Instead,heworkedasatheaterusher,earningminimumwagesothathewouldn’tgetdistracted.His

meagerearningsfromhisjob,combinedwithsupportfromhisgirlfriend,allowedBaronetogetbyashefocusedonhispassion.Thatpassionanddedicationtomasterypaidoff.BaronereleasedStardewValleyinFebruary

2016.Thegamequicklybecameasurprisehit,outsellingmanyofthebig-studiotitlesofferedonthecomputergameplatformSteam.Acrossmultipleplatforms,Baroneestimatesthatwithinthefirstyearofitsrelease,StardewValleyhadsoldwellover3millioncopies.Inmonths,hewentfromanunknowndesignerearningminimumwagetoamillionairenamedoneofForbes’“30Under30”starswithingamedevelopment.Hisdedicationtomasteringtheskillsinvolvedplayednosmallpartinthatsuccess.Destructoid,initsreviewofStardewValley,describedtheartworkas“incrediblyendearingandbeautiful.”6Barone’scommitmenttohisvisionandaggressiveself-educationhadpaidoffhandsomely.

TheMITChallengeandBeyondBackinmycrampedapartment,Iwasgradingmycalculusexam.Itwastough,butitlookedasthoughIhadpassed.Iwasrelieved,butitwasn’tatimetorelax.NextMonday,Iwouldbestartingalloveragain,withanewcourse,andIstillhadalmostayeartogo.Asthecalendarchanged,sodidmystrategies.Iswitchedfromtryingtodoasingleclassin

severaldaystospendingamonthdoingthreetofourclassesinparallel.Ihopedthatwouldspreadthelearningoveralongerperiodoftimeandreducesomeofthenegativeeffectsofcramming.AsImademoreprogress,Ialsosloweddown.MyfirstfewclassesweredonewithaggressivehastesoIcouldstayonscheduletomeetmyself-imposeddeadline.AfteritseemedlikelythatIcouldfinish,Iwasabletoshiftfromstudyingsixtyhoursperweektostudyingthirty-fivetoforty.Finally,inSeptember2012,lessthantwelvemonthsafterIhadbegun,Ifinishedthefinalclass.Completingtheprojectwaseye-openingforme.Foryears,Ihadthoughttheonlywayto

learnthingsdeeplywastopushthroughschool.Finishingthisprojecttaughtmenotonlythatthisassumptionwasfalsebutthatthisalternatepathcouldbemorefunandexciting.Inuniversity,Ihadoftenfeltstifled,tryingtostayawakeduringboringlectures,grindingthroughbusyworkassignments,forcingmyselftolearnthingsIhadnointerestinjusttogetthegrade.Becausethisprojectwasmyownvisionanddesign,itrarelyfeltpainful,evenifitwasoftenchallenging.Thesubjectsfeltaliveandexciting,ratherthanstalechorestobecompleted.Forthefirsttimeever,IfeltIcouldlearnanythingIwantedtowiththerightplanandeffort.Thepossibilitieswereendless,andmymindwasalreadyturningtowardlearningsomethingnew.ThenIgotamessagefromafriend:“You’reonthefrontpageofReddit,youknow.”The

internethadfoundmyproject,anditwasgeneratingquiteadiscussion.Somelikedtheideabutdoubteditsusefulness:“It’ssadthatemployerswon’treallytreatthisinthesamewayasadegree,evenifhehasthesameamount(ormore)knowledgethanagraduatedoes.”OneuserclaimingtobetheheadofR&Dforasoftwarecompanydisagreed:“ThisisthetypeofpersonIwant.Ireallydonotcareifyouhaveadegreeornot.”7Thedebateraged.HadIactuallydoneitornot?WouldIbeabletogetajobasaprogrammerafterthis?Whytrytodothisinayear?WasIcrazy?Theinitialsurgeofattentionledtootherrequests.AnemployeeatMicrosoftwantedtoset

meupforajobinterview.Anewstartupaskedmetojoinitsteam.ApublishinghouseinChinaofferedmeabookdealtosharesomestudyingtipswithbeleagueredChinesestudents.However,thoseweren’tthereasonsIhaddonetheproject.Iwasalreadyhappyworkingasawriteronline,whichhadsupportedmefinanciallythroughoutmyprojectandwouldcontinuetodosoafterward.Mygoalfortheprojectwasn’ttogetajobbuttoseewhatwaspossible.Afterjustafewmonthsoffinishingmyfirstbigproject,ideasfornewoneswerealreadybubblingupinsidemyhead.IthoughtofBennyLewis,myfirstexampleinthisstrangeworldofintenseself-education.

Followinghisadvice,IhadeventuallyreachedanintermediatelevelofFrench.Ithadbeenhardwork,andIwasproudthatIhadbeenabletopushagainstmyinitialdifficultyofbeingsurroundedbyabubbleofEnglishspeakerstolearnenoughFrenchtogetby.However,afterfinishingmyMITexperience,IwasinjectedwithanewconfidenceIhadn’thadinFrance.WhatifIdidn’tmakethemistakeImadelasttime?Whatif,insteadofformingagroupofEnglish-speakingfriendsandstrugglingtopopoutofthatbubbleoncemyFrenchwasgoodenough,IemulatedBennyLewisanddivedstraightintoimmersionfromtheveryfirstday?HowmuchbettercouldIbe,ifasinmyMITChallenge,Iheldnothingbackandoptimizedeverythingaroundlearninganewlanguageasintenselyandeffectivelyaspossible?Asluckwouldhaveit,aroundthattimemyroommatewasplanningongoingbacktograd

schoolandwantedsometimeofftotravelfirst.We’dbothbeensaving,andifwepooledourresourcesandwerefrugalinhowweplannedourtrip,wefiguredwemightbeabletodosomethingexciting.ItoldhimaboutmyexperiencesinFrance,bothoflearningFrenchandofsecretlybelievingthatmuchmorewaspossible.ItoldhimaboutthesocialbubblethathadformedwhenIhadarrivedwithoutspeakingthelanguageandhowdifficultithadbeentobreakoutofitlater.Whatif,insteadofjusthopingyou’dpracticeenough,youdon’tgiveyourselfanescaperoute?Whatifyoucommittospeakingonlythelanguageyou’retryingtolearnfromthefirstmomentyoustepofftheplane?Myfriendwasskeptical.HehadseenmestudyMITclassesforayearfromacrossourapartment.Mysanitywasstillanopenquestion,buthewasn’tasconfidentinhisownability.Hewasn’tsurehecoulddoit,althoughhewaswillingtogiveitashot,aslongasIdidn’thaveanyexpectationsofhimtosucceed.Thatproject,whichmyfriendandItitled“TheYearWithoutEnglish,”wassimple.We’dgo

tofourcountries,threemonthseach.Theplanineachcountrywasstraightforward:nospeakingEnglish,eitherwitheachotherorwithanyonewe’dmeet,fromthefirstday.Fromtherewe’dseehowmuchwecouldlearnbeforeourtouristvisasranoutandwewerepushedtoanewdestination.OurfirststopwasValencia,Spain.Wehadjustlandedintheairportwhenweencountered

ourfirstobstacle.TwoattractiveBritishgirlscameuptous,askingfordirections.WelookedateachotherandawkwardlysputteredoutthelittleSpanishweknew,pretendingwedidn’tspeakanyEnglish.Theydidn’tunderstandusandaskedusagain,nowinanexasperatedtone.WestumbledoversomemoreSpanishand,believingwecouldn’tspeakEnglish,theywalkedawayinfrustration.Already,itseemed,notspeakingEnglishwashavingunintendedconsequences.Despitethatinauspiciousbeginning,ourSpanishabilitygrewevenfasterthanIhadanticipated.AftertwomonthsinSpain,wewereinteractinginSpanishbeyondwhatIhadachievedinanentireyearofpartialimmersioninFrance.Wewouldgotoourtutorinthemorning,studyalittleathome,andspendtherestofthedayhangingoutwithfriends,chattingatrestaurants,andsoakinguptheSpanishsun.Myfriend,despitehisearlierdoubts,wasalsoaconverttothisnewapproachtolearningthings.Althoughhedidn’tcaretostudygrammarandvocabularyasaggressivelyasIdid,bytheendofourstay,hetoowasintegratingseamlesslyintolifeinSpain.Themethodworkedfarbetterthanwehadhoped,andwewerenowbelievers.Wecontinuedthetrip,goingtoBraziltolearnPortuguese,ChinatolearnMandarin,and

SouthKoreatolearnKorean.AsiaprovedafarhardertaskthanSpainorBrazil.Inourpreparation,wehadassumedthoselanguageswouldbeonlyalittlemoredifficultthantheEuropeanones,althoughitturnedoutthattheyweremuchharder.Asaresult,ourno-Englishrulewasstartingtocrack,althoughwestillapplieditasmuchaswecould.EvenifourMandarinandKoreandidn’treachthesamelevelofabilityafterashortstay,itwasstillenoughtomakefriends,travel,andconversewithpeopleonavarietyoftopics.Attheendofouryear,wecouldconfidentlysaywespokefournewlanguages.Havingseenthesameapproachworkforacademiccomputerscienceandlanguage-learning

adventures,Iwasslowlybecomingconvincedthatitcouldbeappliedtomuchmore.Ihadenjoyeddrawingasakid,butlikemostpeople’sattempts,anyfacesIdrewlookedawkwardandartificial.Ihadalwaysadmiredpeoplewhocouldquicklysketchalikeness,whetheritbestreet-sidecaricaturiststoprofessionalportraitpainters.IwonderedifthesameapproachtolearningMITclassesandlanguagescouldalsoapplytoart.Idecidedtospendamonthimprovingmyabilitytodrawfaces.Mymaindifficulty,Irealized,

wasinplacingthefacialfeaturesproperly.Acommonmistakewhendrawingfaces,forinstance,isputtingtheeyestoofarupthehead.Mostpeoplethinktheysitinthetoptwo-thirdsofthehead.Intruth,they’remoretypicallyhalfwaybetweenthetopoftheheadandthechin.Toovercometheseandotherbiases,Ididsketchesbasedonpictures.ThenIwouldtakeaphotoofthesketchwithmyphoneandoverlaytheoriginalimageontopofmydrawing.Makingthephotosemitransparentallowedmetoseeimmediatelywhethertheheadwastoonarroworwide,thelipstoolowortoohighorwhetherIhadputtheeyesintherightspot.Ididthishundredsoftimes,employingthesamerapidfeedbackstrategiesthathadservedmewellwithMITclasses.Applyingthisandotherstrategies,Iwasabletogetalotbetteratdrawingportraitsinashortperiodoftime(seebelow).

UncoveringtheUltralearnersOnthesurface,projectssuchasBennyLewis’slinguisticadventures,RogerCraig’striviamastery,andEricBarone’sgamedevelopmentodysseyarequitedifferent.However,theyrepresentinstancesofamoregeneralphenomenonIcallultralearning.*AsIdugdeeper,Ifoundmorestories.Althoughtheydifferedinthespecificsofwhathadbeenlearnedandwhy,theysharedacommonthreadofpursuingextreme,self-directedlearningprojectsandemployedsimilartacticstocompletethemsuccessfully.StevePavlinaisanultralearner.Byoptimizinghisuniversityschedule,hetookatriple

courseloadandcompletedacomputersciencedegreeinthreesemesters.Pavlina’schallengelongpredatedmyownexperimentwithMITcoursesandwasoneofthefirstinspirationsthatshowedmecompressinglearningtimemightbepossible.Donewithoutthebenefitoffreeonlineclasses,however,PavlinaattendedCaliforniaStateUniversity,Northridge,andgraduatedwithactualdegreesincomputerscienceandmathematics.8DianaJaunzeikareembarkedonanultralearningprojecttoreplicateaPhDincomputational

linguistics.9BenchmarkingCarnegieMellonUniversity’sdoctoralprogram,shewantedtonotonlytakeclassesbutalsoconductoriginalresearch.HerprojecthadstartedbecausegoingbacktoacademiatogetarealdoctoratewouldhavemeantleavingthejobshelovedatGoogle.Likemanyotherultralearnersbeforeher,Jaunzeikare’sprojectwasanattempttofillagapineducationwhenformalalternativesdidn’tfitwithherlifestyle.Facilitatedbyonlinecommunities,manyultralearnersoperateanonymously,theirefforts

observableonlybyunverifiableforumpostings.OnesuchposteratChinese-forums.com,whogoesonlybytheusernameTamu,extensivelydocumentedhisprocessofstudyingChinesefromscratch.Devoting“70–80+hourseachweek”overfourmonths,hechallengedhimselftopasstheHSK5,China’ssecondhighestMandarinproficiencyexam.10Otherultralearnersshedtheconventionalstructuresofexamsanddegreesaltogether.Trent

Fowler,startinginearly2016,embarkedonayearlongefforttobecomeproficientinengineeringandmathematics.11HetitledittheSTEMpunkProject,aplayontheSTEMfieldsofscience,technology,engineering,andmathematicshewantedtocoverandtheretrofuturisticsteampunkaesthetic.Fowlersplithisprojectintomodules.Eachmodulecoveredaparticulartopic,includingcomputation,robotics,artificialintelligence,andengineering,butwasdrivenbyhands-onprojectsinsteadofcopyingformalclasses.EveryultralearnerIencounteredwasunique.Some,likeTamu,preferredpunishing,full-

timeschedulestomeetharsh,self-imposeddeadlines.Others,likeJaunzeikare,managedtheirprojectsonthesidewhilemaintainingfull-timejobsandworkobligations.Someaimedattherecognizablebenchmarksofstandardizedexams,formalcurricula,andwinningcompetitions.Othersdesignedprojectsthatdefiedcomparison.Somespecialized,focusingexclusivelyonlanguagesorprogramming.Othersdesiredtobetruepolymaths,pickingupahighlyvariedsetofskills.Despitetheiridiosyncrasies,theultralearnershadalotofsharedtraits.Theyusuallyworked

alone,oftentoilingformonthsandyearswithoutmuchmorethanablogentrytoannouncetheirefforts.Theirintereststendedtowardobsession.Theywereaggressiveaboutoptimizing

theirstrategies,fiercelydebatingthemeritsofesotericconceptssuchasinterleavingpractice,leechthresholds,orkeywordmnemonics.Aboveall,theycaredaboutlearning.Theirmotivationtolearnpushedthemtotackleintenseprojects,evenifitoftencameatthesacrificeofcredentialsorconformity.TheultralearnersImetwereoftenunawareofoneanother.Inwritingthisbook,Iwantedto

bringtogetherthecommonprinciplesIobservedintheiruniqueprojectsandinmyown.Iwantedtostripawayallthesuperficialdifferencesandstrangeidiosyncrasiesandseewhatlearningadviceremains.Ialsowantedtogeneralizefromtheirextremeexamplessomethinganordinarystudentorprofessionalcanfinduseful.Evenifyou’renotreadytotacklesomethingasextremeastheprojectsI’vedescribed,therearestillplaceswhereyoucanadjustyourapproachbasedontheexperienceofultralearnersandbackedbytheresearchfromcognitivescience.Althoughtheultralearnersareanextremegroupofpeople,thisapproachtothingsholds

potentialfornormalprofessionalsandstudents.Whatifyoucouldcreateaprojecttoquicklylearntheskillstotransitiontoanewrole,project,orevenprofession?Whatifyoucouldmasteranimportantskillforyourwork,asEricBaronedid?Whatifyoucouldbeknowledgeableaboutawidevarietyoftopics,likeRogerCraig?Whatifyoucouldlearnanewlanguage,simulateauniversitydegreeprogram,orbecomegoodatsomethingthatseemsimpossibletoyourightnow?Ultralearningisn’teasy.It’shardandfrustratingandrequiresstretchingoutsidethelimits

ofwhereyoufeelcomfortable.However,thethingsyoucanaccomplishmakeitworththeeffort.Let’sspendamomenttryingtoseewhatexactlyultralearningisandhowitdiffersfromthemostcommonapproachestolearningandeducation.Thenwecanexaminewhattheprinciplesarethatunderliealllearning,toseehowultralearnersexploitthemtolearnfaster.

ChapterIIWhyUltralearningMatters

Whatexactlyisultralearning?Whilemyintroductiontotheeclecticgroupofintenseautodidactsstartedwithseeingexamplesofunusuallearningfeats,togoforwardweneedsomethingmoreconcise.Here’sanimperfectdefinition:

Ultralearning:Astrategyforacquiringskillsandknowledgethatisbothself-directedandintense.

First,ultralearningisastrategy.Astrategyisnottheonlysolutiontoagivenproblem,butitmaybeagoodone.Strategiesalsotendtobewellsuitedforcertainsituationsandnotothers,sousingthemisachoice,notacommandment.Second,ultralearningisself-directed.It’sabouthowyoumakedecisionsaboutwhattolearn

andwhy.It’spossibletobeacompletelyself-directedlearnerandstilldecidethatattendingaparticularschoolisthebestwaytolearnsomething.Similarly,youcould“teachyourself”somethingonyourownbymindlesslyfollowingthestepsoutlinedinatextbook.Self-directionisaboutwhoisinthedriver’sseatfortheproject,notaboutwhereittakesplace.Finally,ultralearningisintense.AlloftheultralearnersImettookunusualstepstomaximize

theireffectivenessinlearning.Fearlesslyattemptingtospeakanewlanguageyou’vejuststartedtopractice,systematicallydrillingtensofthousandsoftriviaquestions,anditeratingthroughartagainandagainuntilitisperfectishardmentalwork.Itcanfeelasthoughyourmindisatitslimit.Theoppositeofthisislearningoptimizedforfunorconvenience:choosingalanguage-learningappbecauseit’sentertaining,passivelywatchingtriviashowrerunsontelevisionsoyoudon’tfeelstupid,ordabblinginsteadofseriouspractice.Anintensemethodmightalsoproduceapleasurablestateofflow,inwhichtheexperienceofchallengeabsorbsyourfocusandyoulosetrackoftime.However,withultralearning,deeplyandeffectivelylearningthingsisalwaysthemainpriority.ThisdefinitioncoverstheexamplesI’vediscussedsofar,butinsomewaysitis

unsatisfyinglybroad.TheultralearnersI’vemethavealotmoreoverlappingqualitiesthanthisminimaldefinitionimplies.ThisiswhyinthesecondpartofthebookI’lldiscussdeeperprinciplesthatarecommoninultralearningandhowtheycanenablesomeimpressiveachievements.Beforethat,however,IwanttoexplainwhyIthinkultralearningmatters—becausealthoughtheexamplesofultralearningmayseemeccentric,thebenefitsofthisapproachtolearningaredeepandpractical.

TheCaseforUltralearningIt’sobviousthatultralearningisn’teasy.You’llhavetosetasidetimefromyourbusyscheduleinordertopursuesomethingthatwillstrainyoumentally,emotionally,andpossiblyevenphysically.You’llbeforcedtofacedownfrustrationsdirectlywithoutretreatingintomorecomfortableoptions.Giventhisdifficulty,Ithinkit’simportanttoarticulateclearlywhyultralearningissomethingyoushouldseriouslyconsider.Thefirstreasonisforyourwork.Youalreadyexpendmuchofyourenergyworkingtoearna

living.Incomparison,ultralearningisasmallinvestment,evenifyouwentsofarastotemporarilymakeitafull-timecommitment.However,rapidlylearninghardskillscanhaveagreaterimpactthanyearsofmediocrestrivingonthejob.Whetheryouwanttochangecareers,takeonnewchallenges,oraccelerateyourprogress,ultralearningisapowerfultool.Thesecondreasonisforyourpersonallife.Howmanyofushavedreamsofplayingan

instrument,speakingaforeignlanguage,becomingachef,writer,orphotographer?Yourdeepestmomentsofhappinessdon’tcomefromdoingeasythings;theycomefromrealizing

yourpotentialandovercomingyourownlimitingbeliefsaboutyourself.Ultralearningoffersapathtomasterthosethingsthatwillbringyoudeepsatisfactionandself-confidence.Althoughthemotivationbehindultralearningistimeless,let’sstartbylookingatwhy

investinginmasteringtheartoflearninghardthingsquicklyisgoingtobecomeevenmoreimportanttoyourfuture.

Economics:AverageIsOverInthewordsoftheeconomistTylerCowen,“Averageisover.”1Inhisbookofthesametitle,Cowenarguesthatbecauseofincreasedcomputerization,automation,outsourcing,andregionalization,weareincreasinglylivinginaworldinwhichthetopperformersdoalotbetterthantherest.Drivingthiseffectiswhatisknownas“skillpolarization.”It’swellknownthatincome

inequalityhasbeenincreasingintheUnitedStatesoverthelastseveraldecades.However,thisdescriptionignoresamoresubtlepicture.TheMITeconomistDavidAutorhasshownthatinsteadofinequalityrisingacrosstheboard,thereareactuallytwodifferenteffects:inequalityrisingatthetopandloweringatthebottom.2ThismatchesCowen’sthesisofaveragebeingover,withthemiddlepartoftheincomespectrumbeingcompressedintothebottomandstretchedoutatthetop.Autoridentifiestherolethattechnologyhashadincreatingthiseffect.Theadvanceofcomputerizationandautomationtechnologieshasmeantthatmanymedium-skilledjobs—clerks,travelagents,bookkeepers,andfactoryworkers—havebeenreplacedwithnewtechnologies.Newjobshavearisenintheirplace,butthosejobsareoftenoneoftwotypes:eithertheyarehigh-skilledjobs,suchasengineers,programmers,managers,anddesigners,ortheyarelower-skilledjobssuchasretailworkers,cleaners,orcustomerserviceagents.Exacerbatingthetrendscausedbycomputersandrobotsareglobalizationand

regionalization.Asmedium-skilledtechnicalworkisoutsourcedtoworkersindevelopingnations,manyofthosejobsaredisappearingathome.Lower-skilledjobs,whichoftenrequireface-to-facecontactorsocialknowledgeintheformofculturalorlanguageabilities,arelikelytoremain.Higher-skilledworkisalsomoreresistanttoshippingoverseasbecauseofthebenefitsofcoordinationwithmanagementandthemarket.ThinkofApple’staglineonallofitsiPhones:“DesignedinCalifornia.MadeinChina.”Designandmanagementstay;manufacturinggoes.Regionalizationisafurtherextensionofthiseffect,withcertainhigh-performingcompaniesandcitiesmakingoutsizedimpactsontheeconomy.SuperstarcitiessuchasHongKong,NewYork,andSanFranciscohavedominatingeffectsontheeconomyasfirmsandtalentclustertogethertotakeadvantageofproximity.Thispaintsapicturethatmighteitherbebleakorhopeful,dependingonyourresponsetoit.

Bleak,becauseitmeansthatmanyoftheassumptionsembeddedinourcultureaboutwhatisnecessarytoliveasuccessful,middle-classlifestylearequicklyeroding.Withthedisappearanceofmedium-skilledjobs,it’snotenoughtogetabasiceducationandworkhardeverydayinordertosucceed.Instead,youneedtomoveintothehigher-skilledcategory,wherelearningisconstant,oryou’llbepushedintothelower-skilledcategoryatthebottom.Underneaththisunsettlingpicture,however,thereisalsohope.Becauseifyoucanmasterthepersonaltoolstolearnnewskillsquicklyandeffectively,youcancompetemoresuccessfullyinthisnewenvironment.Thattheeconomiclandscapeischangingmaynotbeachoiceanyofushascontrolover,butwecanengineerourresponsetoitbyaggressivelylearningthehardskillsweneedtothrive.

Education:TuitionIsTooHighTheacceleratingdemandforhigh-skilledworkhasincreasedthedemandforcollegeeducation.Exceptinsteadofexpandingintoeducationforall,collegehasbecomeacrushingburden,withskyrocketingtuitioncostsmakingdecadesofdebtanewnormalforgraduates.Tuitionhasincreasedfarfasterthantherateofinflation,whichmeansthatunlessyouarewellpoisedtotranslatethateducationintoamajorsalaryincrease,itmaynotbeworththeexpense.3Manyofthebestschoolsandinstitutionsfailtoteachmanyofthecorevocationalskills

neededtosucceedinthenewhigh-skilledjobs.Althoughhighereducationhastraditionallybeenaplacewheremindswereshapedandcharactersdeveloped,thoseloftygoalsseemincreasinglyoutoftouchwiththebasicfinancialrealitiesfacingnewgraduates.Therefore,

evenforthosewhodogotocollege,thereareveryoftenskillgapsbetweenwhatwaslearnedinschoolandwhatisneededtosucceed.Ultralearningcanfillsomeofthosegapswhengoingbacktoschoolisn’tanaffordableoption.Rapidlychangingfieldsalsomeanthatprofessionalsneedtoconstantlylearnnewskillsand

abilitiestostayrelevant.Whilegoingbacktoschoolisanoptionforsome,it’soutofreachformany.Whohastheabilitytoputtheirlifeonholdforyearsastheywadethroughclassesthatmayormaynotendupcoveringthesituationstheyactuallyneedtodealwith?Ultralearning,becauseitisdirectedbylearnersthemselves,canfitintoawidervarietyofschedulesandsituations,targetingexactlywhatyouneedtolearnwithoutthewaste.Ultimately,itdoesn’tmatterifultralearningisasuitablereplacementforhighereducation.

Inmanyprofessions,havingadegreeisn’tjustnice,it’slegallyrequired.Doctors,lawyers,andengineersallrequireformalcredentialstoevenstartdoingthejob.However,thosesameprofessionalsdon’tstoplearningwhentheyleaveschool,andsotheabilitytoteachoneselfnewsubjectsandskillsremainsessential.

Technology:NewFrontiersinLearningTechnologyexaggeratesboththevicesandthevirtuesofhumanity.Ourvicesaremadeworsebecausenowtheyaredownloadable,portable,andsociallytransmissible.Theabilitytodistractordeludeyourselfhasneverbeengreater,andasaresultwearefacingcrisesofbothprivacyandpolitics.Thoughthosedangersarereal,thereisalsoopportunitycreatedintheirwake.Forthosewhoknowhowtousetechnologywisely,itistheeasiesttimeinhistorytoteachyourselfsomethingnew.AnamountofinformationvasterthanwasheldbytheLibraryofAlexandriaisfreelyaccessibletoanyonewithadeviceandaninternetconnection.TopuniversitiessuchasHarvard,MIT,andYalearepublishingtheirbestcoursesforfreeonline.Forumsanddiscussionplatformsmeanthatyoucanlearningroupswithouteverleavingyourhome.Addedtothesenewadvantagesissoftwarethatacceleratestheactoflearningitself.

Considerlearninganewlanguage,suchasChinese.Ahalfcenturyago,learnersneededtoconsultcumbersomepaperdictionaries,whichmadelearningtoreadanightmare.Today’slearnerhasspaced-repetitionsystemstomemorizevocabulary,documentreadersthattranslatewiththetapofabutton,voluminouspodcastlibrariesofferingendlessopportunitiesforpractice,andtranslationappsthatsmooththetransitiontoimmersion.Thisrapidchangeintechnologymeansthatmanyofthebestwaysoflearningoldsubjectshaveyettobeinventedorrigorouslyapplied.Thespaceoflearningpossibilitiesisimmense,justwaitingforambitiousautodidactstocomeupwithnewwaystoexploitit.Ultralearningdoesnotrequirenewtechnology,though.AsIwilldiscussinthechaptersto

come,thepracticehasalonghistory,andmanyofthemostfamousmindscouldbedescribedashavingappliedsomeversionofit.However,technologyoffersanincredibleopportunityforinnovation.Therearestillmanywaystolearnthingsthatwehaveyettofullyexplore.Perhapscertainlearningtaskscouldbemadefareasierorevenobsolete,withtherighttechnicalinnovation.Aggressiveandefficiency-mindedultralearnerswillbethefirsttomasterthem.

Accelerate,Transition,andRescueYourCareerwithUltralearning

Thetrendstowardskillpolarizationintheeconomy,skyrocketingtuition,andnewtechnologyareallglobal.Butwhatdoesultralearningactuallylooklikeforanindividual?Ibelievetherearethreemaincasesinwhichthisstrategyforquicklyacquiringhardskillscanapply:acceleratingthecareeryouhave,transitioningtoanewcareer,andcultivatingahiddenadvantageinacompetitiveworld.Toseehowultralearningcanacceleratethecareeryoualreadyhave,considerColbyDurant.

Aftergraduatingfromcollege,shestartedworkatawebdevelopmentfirmbutwantedtomakefasterprogress.Shetookonanultralearningprojecttolearncopywriting.Aftertakingtheinitiativeandshowingherbosswhatshecoulddo,shewasabletogetapromotion.Bychoosingavaluableskillandfocusingonquicklydevelopingproficiency,youcanaccelerateyournormalcareerprogression.Learningisoftenthemajorobstacletotransitioningtothecareeryouwanttohave.Vishal

Maini,forinstance,wascomfortableinhismarketingroleinthetechworld.Buthedreamedofbeingmorecloselyinvolvedwithartificialintelligenceresearch.Unfortunately,thatwasa

deeptechnicalskillsetthathehadn’tacquired.Throughacarefulsix-monthultralearningproject,however,hewasabletodevelopstrongenoughskillsthathecouldswitchfieldsandgetajobworkinginthefieldhewanted.Finally,anultralearningprojectcanaugmenttheotherskillsandassetsyou’vecultivatedin

yourwork.DianaFehsenfeldworkedasalibrarianforyearsinhernativeNewZealand.Facinggovernmentcutbacksandrapidtechnologizationofherfield,shewasworriedthatherprofessionalexperiencemightnotbeenoughtokeepup.Asaresult,sheundertooktwoultralearningprojects,onetolearnstatisticsandtheprogramminglanguageRandanotherondatavisualization.Thoseskillswereindemandinherindustry,andaddingthemtoherbackgroundasalibrariangaveherthetoolstogofrombleakprospectstobeingindispensable.

BeyondBusiness:TheCalltoUltralearningUltralearningisapotentskillfordealingwithachangingworld.Theabilitytolearnhardthingsquicklyisgoingtobecomeincreasinglyvaluable,andthusitisworthdevelopingtowhateverextentyoucan,evenifitrequiressomeinvestmentfirst.Professionalsuccess,however,wasrarelythethingthatmotivatedtheultralearnersImet—

includingthosewhoendedupmakingthemostmoneyfromtheirnewskills.Insteaditwasacompellingvisionofwhattheywantedtodo,adeepcuriosity,oreventhechallengeitselfthatdrovethemforward.EricBaronedidn’tpursuehispassioninsolitudeforfiveyearstobecomeamillionairebutbecausehewantedthesatisfactionofcreatingsomethingthatperfectlymatchedhisvision.RogerCraigdidn’twanttogoonJeopardy!towinprizemoneybuttopushhimselftocompeteontheshowhehadlovedsincehewasachild.BennyLewisdidn’tlearnlanguagestobecomeatechnicaltranslator,orlaterapopularblogger,butbecausehelovedtravelingandinteractingwiththepeoplehemetalongtheway.Thebestultralearnersarethosewhoblendthepracticalreasonsforlearningaskillwithaninspirationthatcomesfromsomethingthatexcitesthem.There’sanaddedbenefittoultralearningthattranscendseventheskillsonelearnswithit.

Doinghardthings,particularlythingsthatinvolvelearningsomethingnew,stretchesyourself-conception.Itgivesyouconfidencethatyoumightbeabletodothingsthatyoucouldn’tdobefore.MyfeelingaftermyMITChallengewasn’tjustadeepenedinterestinmathandcomputersciencebutanexpansioninpossibility:IfIcoulddothis,whatelsecouldIdothatIwashesitanttotrybefore?Learning,atitscore,isabroadeningofhorizons,ofseeingthingsthatwerepreviouslyinvisibleandofrecognizingcapabilitieswithinyourselfthatyoudidn’tknowexisted.IseenohigherjustificationforpursuingtheintenseanddevotedeffortsoftheultralearnersI’vedescribedthanthisexpansionofwhatispossible.Whatcouldyoulearnifyoutooktherightapproachtomakeitsuccessful?Whocouldyoubecome?

WhatAboutTalent?TheTerenceTaoProblemTerenceTaoissmart.Byagetwo,hehadtaughthimselftoread.Atageseven,hewastakinghighschoolmathclasses.Byseventeen,hehadfinishedhismaster’sthesis.Itwastitled“ConvolutionOperatorsGeneratedbyRight-MonogenicandHarmonicKernels.”Afterthat,hegotaPhDfromPrinceton,wonthecovetedFieldsMedal(calledbysomethe“NobelPrizeformathematics”),andisconsideredtobeoneofthebestmathematicalmindsalivetoday.Thoughmanymathematiciansareextremespecialists—rareorchidsadaptedtothriveonlyonaparticularbranchofthemathematicaltree—Taoisphenomenallydiverse.Heregularlycollaborateswithmathematiciansandmakesimportantcontributionstodistantfields.Thisvirtuositycausedonecolleaguetolikenhisabilityto“aleadingEnglish-languagenovelistsuddenlyproducingthedefinitiveRussiannovel.”4What’smore,theredoesn’tseemtobeanobviousexplanationforhisfeats.Hewas

precocious,certainly,buthissuccessinmathematicsdidn’tcomefromaggressivelyoverbearingparentspushinghimtostudy.Hischildhoodwasfilledplayingwithhistwoyoungerbrothers,inventinggameswiththefamily’sScrabbleboardandmah-jonggtiles,anddrawingimaginarymapsoffantasyterrain.Normalkidstuff.Nordoesheseemtohaveaparticularlyinnovativestudyingmethod.AsnotedinhisprofileintheNewYorkTimes,hecoastedonhisintelligencesofarthat,uponreachinghisPhD,hefellback“onhisusualtest-prepstrategy:last-minutecramming.”Althoughthatapproachfalteredoncehereachedthepinnacleofhisfield,thefactthathebreezedthroughclassesforsolongpointstoapowerfulmindratherthansomeuniquestrategy.Geniusisawordthrownaroundtoocasually,butin

Tao’scasethelabelcertainlysticks.TerenceTaoandothernaturallygiftedlearnerspresentamajorchallengeforthe

universalityofultralearning.IfpeoplelikeTaocanaccomplishsomuchwithoutaggressiveorinventivestudyingmethods,whyshouldwebotherinvestigatingthehabitsandmethodsofotherimpressivelearners?EvenifthefeatsofLewis,Barone,orCraigdon’treachthelevelofTao’sbrilliance,perhapstheiraccomplishmentsalsoareduetosomehiddenintellectualabilitythatnormalpeoplelack.Ifthiswereso,ultralearningmightbesomethinginterestingtoexaminebutnotsomethingyoucouldactuallyreplicate.

PuttingTalentAsideWhatroledoesnaturaltalentplay?Howcanweexaminewhatcausessomeone’ssuccesswhentheshadowofintelligenceandinnategiftsloomsoverus?WhatdostorieslikeTao’smeanformeremortalswhojustwanttoimprovetheircapacitytolearn?ThepsychologistK.AndersEricssonarguesthatparticulartypesofpracticecanchange

mostattributesnecessaryforbecominganexpert-levelperformerwiththeexceptionoftheinnatetraitsofheightandbodysize.Otherresearchersarelessoptimisticaboutthemalleabilityofournatures.Manyarguethatasubstantialproportion,perhapsmost,ofourintelligenceisgeneticallyderived.Ifintelligencecomesmostlyfromgenes,whynotusethattoexplainultralearninginsteadofultralearners’useofamoreeffectivemethodorstrategy?Tao’ssuccessinmathematicsdoesn’tseemtobeowedtosomethingeasilyreplicablebynormalhumanbeings,sowhyassumethatanyoftheultralearnersareanydifferent?Itakeamiddlepositionbetweenthosetwoextremes.Ithinkthatnaturaltalentsexistand

thattheyundoubtedlyinfluencetheresultswesee(especiallyatextremelevels,asinthecaseofTao).Ialsobelievethatstrategyandmethodmatter,too.Throughoutthisbook,Iwillcoverscienceshowinghowmakingchangestohowyoulearncanimpactyoureffectiveness.Eachoftheprinciplesissomethingthat,ifappliedappropriately,willmakeyouabetterlearnerregardlessofwhetheryourstartingpointisdullorbrilliant.Myapproachintellingstoriesforthisbook,therefore,willnotbetotrytodeterminewhat

thesolecauseisofsomeone’sintellectualsuccess.Notonlyisthisimpossible,butitisn’tparticularlyuseful.Instead,I’mgoingtousestoriesandanecdotestoillustrateandisolatewhatarethemostpracticalandusefulthingsyoucandotoimprovehowyoulearn.TheultralearnersImentionshouldserveasexemplarsyoucanusetoseehowaprincipleappliesinpractice,notaguaranteethatyoucanachieveanidenticalresultwithidenticaleffort.

FindingTimeforUltralearningAnotherdoubtthatmayhaveformedinyourmindwhenreadingsofarisaskinghowyou’llfindtimetodotheseintensivelearningprojects.Youmayworrythatthisadvicewon’tapplytoyoubecauseyoualreadyhavework,school,orfamilycommitmentsthatpreventyoufromthrowingyourselfintolearningfull-time.Inpractice,however,thisusuallyisn’taproblem.Therearethreemainwaysyoucanapply

theideasofultralearning,evenifyouhavetomanageothercommitmentsandchallengesinyourlife:newpart-timeprojects,learningsabbaticals,andreimaginingexistinglearningefforts.Thefirstwayisbypursuingultralearningpart-time.Themostdramaticexamplesoflearning

successtendtobethosewheretheultralearnerputimpressiveamountsoftimeintotheproject.Spendingfiftyhoursaweekonaprojectwillaccomplishmorethanspendingfivehoursaweekonit,eveniftheefficiencyisthesame,andthusthemostcaptivatingstoriesusuallyinvolveheroicschedules.Thoughthismakesforgoodstorytelling,it’sactuallyunnecessarywhenitcomestopursuingyourownultralearningprojects.Thecoreoftheultralearningstrategyisintensityandawillingnesstoprioritizeeffectiveness.Whetherthishappensonafull-timescheduleorjustacouplehoursperweekiscompletelyuptoyou.AsI’lldiscussinchapter10,aspread-outschedulemayevenbemoreefficientintermsoflong-termmemory.Wheneveryoureadaboutanintensivescheduleinthisbook,feelfreetoadaptittoyourownsituation,takingamoreleisurelypacewhileemployingthesameruthlesslyefficienttactics.Thesecondwayisbypursuingultralearningduringgapsinworkandschool.Manyofthe

peopleIintervieweddidtheirprojectsduringtemporaryunemployment,careertransitions,semestersoff,orsabbaticals.Althoughthesearen’tasreliabletoplanfor,aburstoflearningmaybeperfectforyouifyouknowyou’reabouttohavethiskindoftimeoff.Thatwasoneof

mymotivationsforpursuingmyMITChallengewhenIdid:Ihadjustgraduated,soextendingmyexistingstudentlifeanotheryearwaseasierthanpushingitoutforfour.IfIhadtodothesameprojecttoday,Imighthavedoneitoveralongerperiodoftime,oversomeeveningsandweekends,sincemyworkislessflexibletodaythanitwasinthatmomentoftransitionfromschooltoworkinglife.Thethirdwayistointegrateultralearningprinciplesintothetimeandenergyyoualready

devotetolearning.ThinkaboutthelastbusinessbookyoureadorthetimeyoutriedtopickupSpanish,pottery,orprogramming.Whataboutthatnewsoftwareyouneededtolearnforwork?Thoseprofessionaldevelopmenthoursyouneedtologtomaintainyourcertification?Ultralearningdoesn’thavetobeanadditionalactivity;itcaninformthetimeyoualreadyspendlearning.Howcanyoualignthelearningandstudiesyoualreadyneedtodowiththeprinciplesformaximizingeffectiveness?Asinthesectionontalent,don’tlettheextremeexamplesdissuadeyoufromapplyingthe

sameprinciples.EverythingIwillsharewithyoucanbecustomizedorintegratedintowhatalreadyexists.Whatmattersistheintensity,initiative,andcommitmenttoeffectivelearning,nottheparticularsofyourtimetable.

TheValueofUltralearningTheabilitytoacquirehardskillseffectivelyandefficientlyisimmenselyvaluable.Notonlythat,butthecurrenttrendsineconomics,education,andtechnologyaregoingtoexacerbatethedifferencebetweenthosewiththisskillandthosewithoutit.Inthisdiscussion,however,I’veignoredperhapsthemostimportantquestion:Ultralearningmaybevaluable,butisitlearnable?Isultralearningjustadescriptionofpeoplewithunusualpersonalities,ordoesitrepresentsomethingthatsomeonewhowasn’tanultralearnerbeforecouldactuallybecome?

ChapterIIIHowtoBecomeanUltralearner

“I’dlovetobeaguineapig.”ItwasanemailfromTristandeMontebello.Ihadfirstmetthecharming,half-French,half-Americanmusicianandentrepreneursevenyearsearlier,atalmostexactlythesametimeasmyfatefulencounterwithBennyLewis.Withtousledblondhairandaclose-croppedbeard,helookedlikehebelongedonasurfboardonsomestretchofCaliforniacoastline.DeMontebellowasthekindofguyyoulikedimmediately:confident,yetdowntoearth,withonlythevaguesthintsofaFrenchaccentinhisotherwiseperfectEnglish.Overtheyears,wehadkeptintouch:mewithmystrangelearningexperiments;himhoppingaroundtheworld,goingfromworkingwithaParisianstartupthatmadebespokecashmeresweaterstoguitarist,vagabond,andeventuallywebconsultantinLosAngeles,muchclosertothebeachesthatsuitedhimsowell.NowhehadheardIwaswritingabookaboutlearning,andhewasinterested.ThecontextofhisemailwasthatalthoughIhadmetanddocumenteddozensofpeople

accomplishingstrangeandintriguinglearningfeats,themeetingshadbeenlargelyafterthefact.TheywerepeopleIhadmetorheardaboutaftertheirsuccesses,notbefore;observationsofsuccesses,notexperimentsthatgeneratedthem.Asaresult,itwashardtotellexactlyhowaccessiblethisultralearningthingwas.Ifyoufilterthroughenoughpebbles,you’resuretofindafewflecksofgold.WasIdoingthesamething,scouringforunusuallearningprojects?Siftthroughenoughpeople,andyou’reboundtofindsomethatseemincredible.ButifultralearninghadthepotentialthatIimagineditdid,itwouldbenicetofindsomeonebeforeheorshetriedaprojectandwatchtheresults.Totestthis,Iputtogetherasmallgroupofaboutadozenpeople(mostlyreadersofmyblog)whowereinterestedingivingthisultralearningthingashot.AmongthemwasdeMontebello.

BecominganUltralearner“Maybepiano?”deMontebellosuggested.Althoughhewasinterestedintheconceptofultralearning,hehadnoideawhichskillhe’dliketolearn.Hehadplayedguitarandbeentheleadsingerforaband.Withhismusicalbackground,learningtoplaypianoseemedlikearelativelysafechoice.Hehadevenmadeacourseteachingguitarlessonsonline,solearninganothermusicalinstrumentcouldpotentiallyexpandhisbusiness.Selfishly,Iencouragedhimtotrylearningsomethingfartheroutsidehiscomfortzone.Amusicianpickingupanotherinstrumentdidn’tseemliketheidealcasetostudyforseeingwhetherultralearningcouldbeappliedbroadly.Wethrewmoreideasaround.Aweekortwolater,hedecidedonpublicspeaking.Hisbackgroundasamusicianhadgivenhimexperiencebeingonstage,butotherwisehehadlittleexperiencegivingspeeches.Publicspeakingisausefulskill,too,heargued,soitwouldbeworthgettingbetteratevenifnothingnoteworthycamefromtheeffort.DeMontebellohadaprivatemotivationforwantingtobecomegoodatpublicspeaking.He

hadgivenonlyahandfulofspeechesinhislife,andmostofthosehadbeenincollege.Herelatedtomeoneexample,fromwhenhehadgonetogiveatalktoadozenpeopleatawebdesignfirminParis:“IcringeeverytimeIthinkbacktothat.”Heexplained,“IcouldjusttellIwasn’tconnecting.ThereweremanypieceswhereIwasboringthem.TherewerejokeswhereIwouldlaugh,becauseIthoughtitwasfunny,butnobodyelsewould.”Beingamusician,hewassurprised“howlittleofittranslated”topublicspeaking.Still,itwassomethinginwhichhesawpotentialvalue,ifhecouldgetgoodatit.“Publicspeakingisametaskill,”hefeels.It’sthekindofskillthatassistswithotherskills:“confidence,storytelling,writing,creativity,interviewingskills,sellingskills.Ittouchesonsomanydifferentthings.”Withthatinmind,hesettowork.

FirstStepsofaFledglingUltralearnerDeMontebellohadpickedhistopic,buthewasn’tsureexactlyhowheshouldlearnit.HedecidedtoattendameetingofToastmastersInternational,theorganizationforlearningpublicspeaking.Atthatpoint,hisstoryhadtwodosesofluck.ThefirstwasthatinattendanceattheveryfirstmeetingforhispublicspeakingprojectwasMichaelGendler.GendlerwasalongtimeToastmaster,anddeMontebello’scombinationofcharmandobsessiveintensitytobecomegoodatpublicspeakingconvincedhimtohelpcoachdeMontebellothroughhisproject.TheseconddoseofluckwassomethingthatdeMontebellodidn’tfullyappreciateatthetime:hehadshowedupjusttendaysbeforethedeadlinetobeeligibletocompeteintheWorldChampionshipofPublicSpeaking.TheWorldChampionshipofPublicSpeakingisacompetitionputonannuallyby

Toastmastersinwhichmemberscompete,eliminationstyle,startinginindividualclubsandgoingontolargerandlargerunitsoftheorganization,untilaselectfewmakeittothefinalstage.DeMontebellohadlittlemorethanaweektoprepare.Still,thecompetitionprovidedapotentialstructureforhisultralearningproject,sohewentforit,crankingoutthesixmandatoryqualifyingspeechesinthecomingweek,finishingthelastinthenickoftime.DeMontebellopracticedobsessively,sometimesspeakingtwiceinoneday.Herecordeda

videoofeveryspeechandanalyzeditobsessivelyforflaws.Heaskedforfeedbackeverytimehegaveaspeech,andhegotplentyofit.Hiscoach,Gendler,pushedhimfaroutsideofhiscomfortzone.Once,whenfacedwiththechoicebetweenpolishinganexistingspeechandcreatingabrand-newonefromscratch,deMontebelloaskedwhatheshoulddo.Gendler’sresponsewastodowhicheverwasscariestforhim.HisrelentlessdrivepusheddeMontebellointounusualplaces.Hetookimprovclassesto

workonhisspontaneousdelivery.Therehelearnedtotrustwhateverwasinhisheadanddeliveritwithouthesitation.Thatkepthimfromstammeringoverhiswordsorfearingfreezinguponstage.HetalkedtoafriendwhoworksasaHollywooddirectortogivefeedbackonhisdelivery.ThedirectortaughtdeMontebellotogivehisspeechdozensoftimesindifferentstyles—angry,monotone,screaming,evenasarap—thengobackandseewhatwasdifferentfromhisnormalvoice.AccordingtodeMontebello,thathelpedbreakhimofthe“uncannyvalley”thathappenedwhenhisnormalspeakingdeliveryfeltslightlyunnatural.Anotherfriendwithabackgroundintheatergavehimtipsonstagepresence.Hetookde

Montebellothroughhisspeechandshowedhoweachwordandsentenceindicatedmovementthatcouldbetranslatedtowherehemovedonthestage.Insteadofstandingconstrictedunderthespotlight,deMontebellocouldnowmovegracefullyandusehisbodytocommunicatehismessageontopofhiswords.Heevengavehisspeechatamiddleschool,knowingthatseventhgraderswouldgivethemostruthlessfeedbackofall.AfterbombingterriblyoutsidethecomfortofToastmasters,helearnedtotalktohisaudiencebeforegoingonstage:learntheirlanguageandemotionsandconnectwiththem.Thatway,applyingallhehadlearnedsofar,hecouldchangehisspeechonthefly,soitwouldbesuretoconnectwithanewaudience.Aboveall,Gendlerpushedhimrelentlessly.“Makemecare,”GendlertoldhimafterlisteningtooneofdeMontebello’sspeeches.“Iunderstandwhythisisimportanttoyou,buttheaudiencedoesn’tcareaboutyou.Youhavetomakemecare.”Diverseadviceandvoluminouspracticewouldsoakthoselessonsindeeply,allowingdeMontebellotoquicklysurpasshisearlyawkwardnessonthestage.Afteramonth,deMontebellowonhisareacompetition,beatingoutacompetitorwithtwo

decadesofexperienceinToastmasters.Hewonhisdistrictanddivisioncompetitions,too.Finally,lessthansevenmonthsafterhefirsttriedhishandatpublicspeaking,hewasgoingtocompeteintheWorldChampionships.“Thereareaboutthirtythousandpeoplewhocompeteeveryyear,”henoted,adding“I’mprettyconfidentI’mthefastestcompetitorinhistorytomakeitthisfar,sinceifIhadstartedtendayslater,Icouldn’thavecompeted.”Hemadeitintothetopten.

FromSemifinalisttoCareerChange“IknewthisprojectwasgoingtobebigformewhenIstartedit,”deMontebellotoldmemonthsafterhistoptenplacementintheinternationalcompetition.“Butitwasliterallylifechanging.Ididn’texpectittoactuallychangemylife.”ReachingthefinalcompetitionintheWorldChampionshiphadbeenquiteajourney,butitwasonlyafterwardthathebegantorealizehowmuchhehadlearned.“Iwaslearningforthisverynarrowworldofpublicspeaking.ItwasonlyafterthatIrealizedthedepthofalltheseskillsIhadworkedsomuchon:storytelling,confidence,communicating.”

FriendswhoheardofdeMontebello’ssuccessstartedaskingifhecouldhelpthemworkontheirownspeeches.HeandGendlersawanopportunitytohelpothersimprovetheirpublicspeakingskills.Thedemandwasintense.Authorswhocommandfive-figurespeakingfeesstartedtoapproachtheduotoseeiftheycouldbetaughttoimprovetheirpublicspeakingtheultralearningway.Soontheyhadlandedtheirfirstclient,tothetuneoftwentythousanddollars.GendleranddeMontebelloweren’tmercenary;theywantedtofocusonlyonspeakerswhosemessagetheyreallybelievedin.Butthefactthattheyhadattractedsuchhigh-statusclientscertainlyhelpedpersuadethemtomaketheswitchintocoachingpublicspeakingfull-time.GendleranddeMontebelloevendecidedtonametheirconsultancyUltraSpeaking,asanodtothestrategythatmadeitallpossible.DeMontebello’sstoryendedupbeingmuchmoredramaticthaneitherofushadinitially

expected.Hisinitialhopehadbeenthathecouldpracticeintenselyforafewmonths,deliveragreatspeechsomewhere,andhaveitrecorded—anicemementoandanewskill—butnotthathewouldreachthestatusofaninternationalcompetitorandeventuallyexperienceacompletecareerchange.OftheotherdozenorsopeopleIspentsometimecoachingintoultralearning,noneofferedsodramaticanexample.Somedroppedout.Lifegotintheway(orperhapsrevealedthattheyweren’tactuallyascommittedastheyhadinitiallyappearedtobe).Othershadrespectablesuccesses,makingsignificantimprovementsinlearningmedicine,statistics,comicbookdrawing,militaryhistory,andyoga,eveniftheydidn’treachdeMontebello’sdegreeofsuccess.WhatdifferentiateddeMontebellowasn’tthathethoughthecouldgofromnear-zero

experiencetothefinalistfortheWorldChampionshipinsixmonths.Rather,itwashisobsessiveworkethic.Hisgoalwasn’ttoreachsomepredeterminedextremebuttoseehowfarhecouldgo.Sometimesyou’llgetluckyandembarkonapaththatwilltakeyouquitefar.Buteventhefailuremodeofultralearningisusuallythatyouwilllearnaskillfairlywell.Eventhosewhodidn’thavesuchdramaticresultsamongthesmallgroupIspenttimecoaching,thosewhostuckwiththeirprojectstillendeduplearninganewskilltheycaredabout.Youmaynotcompeteinworldchampionshipsorcompletelyswitchcareers,butaslongasyoustickwiththeprocess,you’reboundtolearnsomethingnew.WhatdeMontebello’sexampleencapsulatedformewasnotonlythatyoucanbecomeanultralearnerbutthatsuchsuccessesarefarfrombeingtheinevitableconsequencesofhavingaparticularkindofgeniusortalent.HaddeMontebellofocusedonpianoinstead,hisexperiencewithgivingspeecheswouldprobablyhaveremainedthatoneawkwardexamplefromhisdaysinParis.

PrinciplesofBecominganUltralearnerDeMontebello’sstoryillustratesthatit’spossibletodecidetobecomeanultralearner.Butultralearningisn’tacookie-cuttermethod.Everyprojectisunique,andsoarethemethodsneededtomasterit.Theuniquenessofultralearningprojectsisoneoftheelementsthattiesthemalltogether.Ifultralearningcouldbebottledorstandardized,itwouldsimplybeanintenseformofstructurededucation.Whatmakesultralearninginterestingisalsowhatmakesithardtoboildownintostep-by-stepformulas.Thisisadifficultchallenge,butI’mgoingtotrytosidestepitbyfocusingonprinciplesfirst.

Principlesallowyoutosolveproblems,eventhoseyoumayhaveneverencounteredbefore,inawaythatarecipeormechanicalprocedurecannot.Ifyoureallyunderstandtheprinciplesofphysics,forinstance,youcansolveanewproblemsimplybyworkingbackward.Principlesmakesenseoftheworld,andeveniftheydon’talwaysarticulateexactlyhowyoushouldsolveaparticularchallenge,theycanprovideimmenseguidance.Ultralearning,inmyview,worksbestwhenyouseeitthroughasimplesetofprinciples,ratherthantryingtocopyandpasteexactstepsorprotocols.Theprinciplesofultralearningaregoingtobethefocusofthesecondpartofthisbook.In

eachchapter,I’llintroduceanewprinciple,plussomeevidencetobackitupbothfromultralearningexamplesandfromscientificresearch.Finally,I’llsharepossiblewaysthattheprinciplecanmanifestitselfasspecifictactics.Thesetacticsareonlyasmallsample.Buttheyshouldprovideastartingpointforyoutothinkcreativelyaboutyourownultralearningchallenges.Therearenineuniversalprinciplesthatunderlietheultralearningprojectsdescribedsofar.

Eachembodiesaparticularaspectofsuccessfullearning,andIdescribehowultralearnersmaximizetheeffectivenessoftheprinciplethroughthechoicestheymakeintheirprojects.Theyare:

1. METALEARNING:FIRSTDRAWAMAP.Startbylearninghowtolearnthesubjectorskill

youwanttotackle.Discoverhowtodogoodresearchandhowtodrawonyourpastcompetenciestolearnnewskillsmoreeasily.

2. FOCUS:SHARPENYOURKNIFE.Cultivatetheabilitytoconcentrate.Carveoutchunksoftimewhenyoucanfocusonlearning,andmakeiteasytojustdoit.

3. DIRECTNESS:GOSTRAIGHTAHEAD.Learnbydoingthethingyouwanttobecomegoodat.Don’ttradeitoffforothertasks,justbecausethosearemoreconvenientorcomfortable.

4. DRILL:ATTACKYOURWEAKESTPOINT.Beruthlessinimprovingyourweakestpoints.Breakdowncomplexskillsintosmallparts;thenmasterthosepartsandbuildthembacktogetheragain.

5. RETRIEVAL:TESTTOLEARN.Testingisn’tsimplyawayofassessingknowledgebutawayofcreatingit.Testyourselfbeforeyoufeelconfident,andpushyourselftoactivelyrecallinformationratherthanpassivelyreviewit.

6. FEEDBACK:DON’TDODGETHEPUNCHES.Feedbackisharshanduncomfortable.Knowhowtouseitwithoutlettingyouregogetintheway.Extractthesignalfromthenoise,soyouknowwhattopayattentiontoandwhattoignore.

7. RETENTION:DON’TFILLALEAKYBUCKET.Understandwhatyouforgetandwhy.Learntorememberthingsnotjustfornowbutforever.

8. INTUITION:DIGDEEPBEFOREBUILDINGUP.Developyourintuitionthroughplayandexplorationofconceptsandskills.Understandhowunderstandingworks,anddon’trecoursetocheaptricksofmemorizationtoavoiddeeplyknowingthings.

9. EXPERIMENTATION:EXPLOREOUTSIDEYOURCOMFORTZONE.Alloftheseprinciplesareonlystartingpoints.Truemasterycomesnotjustfromfollowingthepathtroddenbyothersbutfromexploringpossibilitiestheyhaven’tyetimagined.

Iorganizedthesenineprinciplesbasedonmyobservationsofultralearningprojectsaswellasmyownpersonalexperience,referencing,whereIcould,thevastcognitivescienceliterature.Istartedwiththeultralearnersthemselves.Ifonepersondidsomethinginacertainway,thatmightbeaninterestingexample,butitmightalsobeanidiosyncrasyofthatperson.Ifseveralpeopleor,betteryet,everyultralearnerIencountered,didacertainthinginacertainway,itwasmuchstrongerevidencethatIhadstumbleduponageneralprinciple.Ithencheckedthoseprinciplesagainstthescientificliterature.AretheremechanismsandfindingsfromcognitivesciencetosupportthetacticsIsaw?Betteryet,havetherebeencontrolledexperimentscomparingoneapproachtolearningwithanother?ThescientificresearchsupportsmanyofthelearningstrategiesemployedbytheultralearnersIwitnessed.Thissuggeststhatultralearners,withtheirruthlessfocusonefficiencyandeffectiveness,mayhavelandedonsomeuniversalprinciplesintheartoflearning.Beyondprinciplesandtacticsisabroaderultralearningethos.It’soneoftaking

responsibilityforyourownlearning:decidingwhatyouwanttolearn,howyouwanttolearnit,andcraftingyourownplantolearnwhatyouneedto.You’retheoneincharge,andyou’retheonewho’sultimatelyresponsiblefortheresultsyougenerate.Ifyouapproachultralearninginthatspirit,youshouldtaketheseprinciplesasflexibleguidelines,notasrigidrules.Learningwellisn’tjustaboutfollowingasetofprescriptions.Youneedtotrythingsoutforyourself,thinkhardaboutthenatureofthelearningchallengesyouface,andtestsolutionstoovercomethem.Withthatinmind,let’sturntothefirstultralearningprinciple:metalearning.

ChapterIVPrinciple1

MetalearningFirstDrawaMap

IfIhaveseenfurtheritisbystandingontheshouldersofgiants.—IsaacNewton

DanEverettstandsinfrontofapackedauditorium.Astockymaninhisearlysixties,hespeaksslowlyandconfidently,hissmilingfaceframedbythinningblondhairandabeard.Nexttohimisatablefilledwithassortedobjects:sticks,stones,leaves,containers,fruit,apitcherofwater.Hesignalsthatthedemonstrationisabouttobegin.

Enteringfromadoorontheright,aheavysetmiddle-agedwomanwithdarkbrownhairandoliveskinapproachesthestage.Everettgoesuptoherandsayssomethinginalanguageshedoesn’tunderstand.Shelooksaround,clearlyconfused,andthenreplieshesitantly,“Kutipaokadjalou.”1Hetriestorepeatwhatshehasjustsaid.There’ssomestumblingatfirst,butafteroneortwomoretries,sheseemssatisfiedwithhisrepetitionofherreply.Hegoestotheblackboardandwrites,“Kutipaokadjalou➱‘Greeting(?).’”Nexthepicksupasmallstickandpointstoit.Sheguessescorrectlythathewantstoknowthenameandreplies,“ŋkindo.”Onceagain,Everettgoestotheblackboardandwrites,“ŋkindo➱stick.”Nexthetriestwosticksandgetsthesameresponse,“ŋkindo.”Hethendropsthestick,towhichthewomansays,“ŋkindopaula.”Thedemonstrationproceeds,withEverettpickingupobjects,performingactions,listeningtothewoman’sresponses,andrecordingtheresultsontheblackboard.Soonhe’smovedpastsimplenamingtasksandstartsaskingformorecomplicatedsentences:“Shedrinksthewater,”“Youeatthebanana,”and“Puttherockinthecontainer.”Witheachnewelicitation,heexperiments,buildingnewsentencesandtestingherreactiontoseeifheiscorrect.Withinhalfanhour,therearemorethantwoblackboardsfullofnouns,verbs,pronouns,andphoneticannotations.

Learningdozensofwordsandphrasesinanewlanguageisagoodstartforthefirstthirtyminutesspentwithanylanguage.WhatmakesthisfeatparticularlyimpressiveisthatEverettisn’tallowedtospeakanylanguagehemighthaveincommonwiththespeaker.2Hecanonlytrytoencouragehertosaywordsandphrasesandrepeatthemtotrytofigureoutthelanguage’sgrammar,pronunciation,andvocabulary.Hedoesn’tevenknowwhatlanguageisbeingspoken.*

HowcanEverettstartspeakinganewlanguagefromscratch,withoutteachersortranslationsorevenknowingwhatlanguagehe’slearning,inhalfanhour,whenmostofusstruggletodothesameafteryearsofhighschoolSpanishclasses?WhatenablesEveretttopickupvocabulary,decodegrammar,andpronunciationsomuchfasterthanyouorI,evenwithallthoseadditionalconstraints?Ishealinguisticgenius,oristheresomethingelsegoingon?

Theanswerisourfirstprincipleofultralearning:metalearning.

WhatIsMetalearning?TheprefixmetacomesfromtheGreektermμετά,meaning“beyond.”Ittypicallysignifieswhensomethingis“about”itselfordealswithahigherlayerofabstraction.Inthiscasemetalearningmeanslearningaboutlearning.Here’sanexample:Ifyou’relearningChinese

characters,youwilllearnthat火means“fire.”That’sregularlearning.YoumayalsolearnthatChinesecharactersareoftenorganizedbysomethingcalledradicals,whichindicatewhatkindofthingthecharacterdescribes.Thecharacter灶,forexamplewhichmeans“stove,”hasa火ontheleft-handsidetoindicatethatithassomerelationshiptofire.LearningthispropertyofChinesecharactersismetalearning—notlearningabouttheobjectofyourinquiryitself,inthiscasewordsandphrases,butlearningabouthowknowledgeisstructuredandacquiredwithinthissubject;inotherwords,learninghowtolearnit.

InEverett’scase,wecanseeglimpsesoftheenormouswealthofmetalearningthatliesjustbeneaththesurface.“Well,whataresomeofthethingswenoticedaboutthis?”Everettaskstheaudienceafterhisbriefdemonstrationhasconcluded,“ItseemstobeSVO,asubject-verb-objectlanguage,that’snotterriblyshocking.”Hecontinues,“Theredoesn’tseemtobeanypluralmarkingonthenouns,unlessit’stonesandImissedit....There’sclearlypitchgoingonhere;whetherit’stoneremainstobeanalyzed.”FromthisjargonwecanseethatwhenEverettevokesawordorphrasefromhisinterlocutor,heisn’tjustparrotingbackthesounds;he’sdrawingamapwiththeoriesandhypothesesabouthowthelanguageworksgroundedonyearsofexperiencelearninglanguages.

Inadditiontohisenormouswealthofknowledgeasalinguist,Everetthasanothertrickthatgiveshimanenormousadvantage.Thedemonstrationhehaspresentedisnothisowninvention.Calleda“monolingualfieldwork”demonstration,thismethodwasfirstdevelopedbyEverett’steacherKennethPikeasameansoflearningindigenouslanguages.Themethodlaysoutasequenceofobjectsandactionsthatthepractitionercanusetostartpiecingtogetherthelanguage.ThismethodevenreceivedsomeHollywoodexposureafterLouiseBanks,afictionallinguist,usedittodecodeanalienlanguageinthe2016sciencefictionmovieArrival.

ThesetwopiecesinEverett’slinguisticarsenal—arichlydetailedmapofhowlanguagesworkandamethodthatprovidesapathtofluency—haveallowedEveretttoaccomplishalotmorethanjustlearningsomesimplesentences.OverthelastthirtyyearshehasbecomeoneofonlyahandfulofoutsiderstobecomefluentinPirahã,oneofthemostunusualanddifficultlanguagesontheplanet,spokenonlybyaremotetribeintheAmazonjungle.3

ThePowerofYourMetalearningMapEverett’scasebeautifullyillustratesthepowerofusingmetalearningtolearnnewthingsfasterandmoreeffectively.Beingabletoseehowasubjectworks,whatkindsofskillsandinformationmustbemastered,andwhatmethodsareavailabletodosomoreeffectivelyisattheheartofsuccessofallultralearningprojects.Metalearningthusformsthemap,showingyouhowtogettoyourdestinationwithoutgettinglost.

Toseewhymetalearningissoimportant,consideronestudyonthehelpfuleffectsofalreadyknowingasecondlanguagewhenlearningathird.4ThestudytookplaceinTexas,wheremonolingualEnglishspeakersandbilingualSpanish/EnglishspeakerswereenrolledinaFrenchclass.Follow-uponsubsequenttestsshowedthatthebilingualspeakersoutperformedthemonolingualstudentswhenlearninganewlanguage.Onitsown,thisisn’tterriblysurprising.FrenchandSpanisharebothRomancelanguages,sotherearesharedfeaturesofgrammarandvocabularythataren’tpresentinEnglishthatcouldconceivablyprovideanadvantage.Moreinteresting,however,isthatevenamongtheSpanish/Englishbilinguals,thosewhoalsotookSpanishclassesendedupdoingbetterwhentheylaterneededtolearnFrench.Thereasonseemstobethattakingclassesassistswithhelpingformwhatthestudyauthorscallmetalinguisticawarenessinawaythatsimplyknowingalanguageinformallydoesnot.Thedifferencebetweenthetwotypesofbilingualspeakersmostlycamedowntometalearning:onegrouphadcontentknowledgeofthelanguage,butthegroupthattookclassesalsohadknowledgeabouthowinformationinalanguageisstructured.*

Noristhisideaaboutmetalearningrestrictedtolanguages.Linguisticexamplesareofteneasiertostudybecausethere’sacleanerseparationofmetalearningandregularlearning.Thisisbecausethecontentsofunrelatedlanguages,suchasvocabularyandgrammar,areoftenquitedifferent,evenifthemetalearningstructureisthesame.LearningFrenchvocabularywon’thelpyoumuchwithlearningChinesevocabulary,butunderstandinghowvocabularyacquisitionworksinFrenchwilllikelyalsohelpwithlearningChinese.BythetimemyfriendandIhadreachedthelastcountryinouryearoflearninglanguages,theprocessofimmersingourselvesandlearninganewlanguagefromscratchwaspracticallyaroutine.ThewordsandgrammarofKoreanmayhavebeencompletelynew,buttheprocessoflearningwasalreadywelltrodden.Metalearningexistsinallsubjects,butitcanoftenbehardertoexamineindependentlyfromregularlearning.

HowtoDrawYourMapNowthatyouhavesomeideawhatmetalearningisanditsimportancetolearningfaster,howcanyouapplythistogetanedgeinyourownlearningefforts?Therearetwomainways:overtheshorttermandoverthelongterm.

Overtheshortterm,youcandoresearchtofocusonimprovingyourmetalearningbeforeandduringalearningproject.Ultralearning,owingtoitsintensityandself-directednature,hastheopportunityforalothighervariancethannormalschoolingeffortsdo.Agoodultralearningproject,withexcellentmaterialsandanawarenessofwhatneedstobelearned,hasthepotentialtobecompletedfasterthanformalschooling.Languagelearningthroughintensiveimmersioncanbeatlengthyclasses.Aggressivelypacedcodingbootcampscangetparticipantsuptoalevelwheretheycancompeteforjobsmuchfasterthanthosewithanormalundergraduatedegree.Thisisbecauseyoucantailoryourprojecttoyourexactneedsandabilities,avoidingtheone-size-fits-allapproachtakeninschool.However,there’salsoadangerofchoosingunwiselyandendingupmuchworseoff.Metalearningresearchavoidsthisproblemandhelpsyouseekoutpointswhereyoumightevenbeabletogetasignificantadvantageoverthestatusquo.

Overthelongterm,themoreultralearningprojectsyoudo,thelargeryoursetofgeneralmetalearningskillswillbe.You’llknowwhatyourcapacityisforlearning,howyoucanbestscheduleyourtimeandmanageyourmotivation,andyou’llhavewell-testedstrategiesfordealingwithcommonproblems.Asyoulearnmorethings,you’llacquiremoreandmoreconfidence,whichwillallowyoutoenjoytheprocessoflearningmorewithlessfrustration.

Inthischapter,I’mgoingtodevotemostofthenextsectiontoshort-termresearchstrategies,sincetheywillprobablybenefityouthemost.However,thisemphasisshouldn’tunderminetheimportanceofthelong-termeffectsofmetalearning.Ultralearningisaskill,justlikeridingabicycle.Themorepracticeyougetwithit,themoreskillsandknowledgeyou’llpickupforhowtodoitwell.Thislong-termadvantagelikelyoutweighstheshort-termbenefitsandiswhat’seasiesttomistakeforintelligenceortalentwhenseeninothers.Myhopeisthatasyougetmorepracticeinultralearning,you’llstarttoautomaticallyapplymanyofthoseskillstolearnfasterandmoreeffectively.

DeterminingWhy,What,andHowIfinditusefultobreakdownmetalearningresearchthatyoudoforaspecificprojectintothreequestions:“Why?,”“What?,”and“How?”“Why?”referstounderstandingyourmotivationtolearn.Ifyouknowexactlywhyyouwanttolearnaskillorsubject,youcansavealotoftimebyfocusingyourprojectonexactlywhatmattersmosttoyou.“What?”referstotheknowledgeandabilitiesyou’llneedtoacquireinordertobesuccessful.Breakingthingsdownintoconcepts,facts,andprocedurescanenableyoutomapoutwhatobstaclesyou’llfaceandhowbesttoovercomethem.“How?”referstotheresources,environment,andmethodsyou’llusewhenlearning.Makingcarefulchoicesherecanmakeabigdifferenceinyouroveralleffectiveness.

Withthesethreequestionsinmind,let’stakealookateachofthemandhowyoucandrawyourmap.

Answering“Why?”Thefirstquestiontotrytoansweriswhyareyoulearningandwhatthatimpliesforhowyoushouldapproachtheproject.Practicallyspeaking,theprojectsyoutakeonaregoingtohaveoneoftwobroadmotivations:instrumentalandintrinsic.

Instrumentallearningprojectsarethoseyou’relearningwiththepurposeofachievingadifferent,nonlearningresult.ConsiderthepreviouslymentionedcaseofDianaFehsenfeld,who,afterafewdecadesasalibrarian,foundthatherjobwasbecomingobsolete.Computerizedfilesystemsandbudgetcutsmeantshewouldneedtolearnnewskillstostayrelevant.Shedidsomeresearchanddecidedthatthebestwaytodothiswouldbetogetafirmergrasponstatisticsanddatavisualization.Inthiscase,shewasn’tlearningbecauseofherdeeploveofstatisticsanddatavisualizationbutbecauseshebelievedthatdoingsowouldbenefithercareer.

Intrinsicprojectsarethosethatyou’repursuingfortheirownsake.Ifyou’vealwayswantedtospeakFrench,eventhoughyou’renotsurehowyou’lluseityet,that’sanintrinsicproject.

Intrinsicdoesn’tmeanuseless.LearningFrenchmighthavebenefitslaterwhenyoudecidetotravelorneedtoworkwithaclientfromFranceatyourjob.Thedifferenceisthatyou’relearningthesubjectforitsownsake,notasameanstosomeotheroutcome.

Ifyou’repursuingaprojectformostlyinstrumentalreasons,it’softenagoodideatodoanadditionalstepofresearch:determiningwhetherlearningtheskillortopicinquestionwillactuallyhelpyouachieveyourgoal.I’veoftenheardstoriesofpeopleunhappywiththeircareerprogresswhodecidethatattendinggraduateschoolistheanswer.IfonlytheyhadanMBAoranMA,employerswouldtakethemmoreseriously,theythink,andthey’dhavethecareertheydesire.Sotheygoofftoschoolfortwoyears,rackuptensofthousandsofdollarsinstudentdebt,anddiscoverthattheirnewlymintedcredentialsdon’tactuallygetthemmuchbetterjobopportunitiesthanbefore.Thefixhereistodoyourresearchfirst.Determineiflearningatopicislikelytohavetheeffectyouwantittobeforeyougetstarted.5

Tactic:TheExpertInterviewMethod

Themainwayyoucandoresearchofthiskindistotalktopeoplewhohavealreadyachievedwhatyouwanttoachieve.Let’ssayyouwanttobecomeasuccessfularchitectandthinkthatmasteringdesignskillsmightbethebeststeptotake.Beforeyougetstarted,itwouldbeagoodideatotalktosomesuccessfularchitectstogetasenseofwhethertheythinkyourprojectwillactuallyhelpwithyourintendedgoal.Thoughthismethodcanbeusedformanypartsoftheresearchprocess,I’vefounditparticularlyvaluableforvettinginstrumentalprojects.Ifsomeonewhohasalreadyaccomplishedthegoalyouwanttoachievedoesn’tthinkyourlearningprojectwillhelpreachitorthinksit’slessimportantthanmasteringsomeotherskill,that’sagoodsignthatyourmotivationandtheprojectaremisaligned.

Findingsuchpeopleisn’tashardasitsounds.Ifyourgoaliscareerrelated,lookforpeoplewhohavethecareeryouwantandsendthemanemail.Youcanfindthematyourcurrentworkplace,conferences,orseminars,orevenonsocialnetworkingwebsitessuchasTwitterorLinkedIn.Ifyourgoalisrelatedtosomethingelse,youcansearchonlineinforumsdedicatedtothesubjectyouwanttolearn.Ifyouwanttolearnprogramming,withthegoalofbuildingyourownapps,forexample,youcanfindonlineforumsdedicatedtoprogrammingorappdevelopment.Thenyoujustneedtolookforfrequentposterswhoseemtohavetheknowledgeyou’relookingforandemailthem.

Reachingoutandsettingupameetingwithanexpertisn’thard,either,butit’sastepmanypeopleshyawayfrom.Manypeople,particularlytheintrovertsamongus,recoilattheideaofreachingouttoastrangertoaskforadvice.Theyworrythatthey’llberejected,ignored,orevenyelledatforpresumingtotakeupaperson’stime.Thetruthis,however,thatthisrarelyhappens.Mostexpertsaremorethanwillingtoofferadviceandareflatteredbythethoughtthatsomeonewantstolearnfromtheirexperience.Thekeyistowriteasimple,to-the-pointemail,explainingwhyyou’rereachingouttothemandaskingiftheycouldsparefifteenminutestoanswersomesimplequestions.Maketheemailconciseandnonthreatening.Don’taskformorethanfifteenminutesorforongoingmentorship.Thoughsomeexpertswillbehappytohelpyouinthoseways,it’snotgoodformtoaskfortoomuchinthefirstemail.

Whatifthepersonyouwanttointerviewdoesn’tliveinyourcity?Inthatcase,phoneoronlinecallsaregreatalternatives.*Emailcanworkinapinch,too,butI’vefoundthattextoftendoesn’ttranslatetonewell,andyouoftenmisssensingthewaythepersonfeelsaboutyourproject.Sayingit’sa“greatidea”lukewarmlyversusenthusiasticallycanmakeaworldofdifference,yetthatnuanceismissingifyoucommunicateviatextonly.

Evenifyourprojectisintrinsicallymotivated,asking“Why?”isstillveryuseful.Mostlearningplansyoumightchoosetoemulatewillbebasedoncurriculumdesigners’ideasofwhatisimportantforyoutolearn.Ifthesearen’tperfectlylinedupwithyourowngoals,youmayendupspendingalotoftimelearningthingsthataren’timportanttoyouorunderemphasizingthethingsthatdomatter.Forthesekindsofprojects,it’susefultoaskyourselfwhatyou’retryingtolearnbecauseitwillhelpyouevaluatedifferentstudyplansfortheirfitwithyourgoals.

Answering“What?”Onceyou’vegottenahandleonwhyyou’relearning,youcanstartlookingathowtheknowledgeinyoursubjectisstructured.Agoodwaytodothisistowritedownonasheetofpaperthreecolumnswiththeheadings“Concepts,”“Facts,”and“Procedures.”Thenbrainstormallthethingsyou’llneedtolearn.Itdoesn’tmatterifthelistisperfectlycompleteoraccurateatthisstage.Youcanalwaysreviseitlater.Yourgoalhereistogetaroughfirst

pass.Onceyoustartlearning,youcanadjustthelistifyoudiscoverthatyourcategoriesaren’tquiteright.

Concepts

Inthefirstcolumn,writedownanythingthatneedstobeunderstood.Conceptsareideasthatyouneedtounderstandinflexiblewaysinorderforthemtobeuseful.Mathandphysics,forexample,arebothsubjectsthatleanheavilytowardconcepts.Somesubjectsstraddletheconcept/factdivide,suchaslaw,whichhaslegalprinciplesthatneedtobeunderstood,aswellasdetailsthatneedtobememorized.Ingeneral,ifsomethingneedstobeunderstood,notjustmemorized,Iputitintothiscolumninsteadofthesecondcolumnforfacts.

Facts

Inthesecondcolumn,writedownanythingthatneedstobememorized.Factsareanythingthatsufficesifyoucanrememberthematall.Youdon’tneedtounderstandthemtoodeeply,solongasyoucanrecallthemintherightsituations.Languages,forinstance,arefulloffactsaboutvocabulary,pronunciation,and,toalesserextent,grammar.Evenconcept-heavysubjectsusuallyhavesomefacts.Ifyou’relearningcalculus,youwillneedtodeeplyunderstandhowderivativeswork,butitmaybesufficienttomemorizesometrigonometricidentities.

Procedures

Inthethirdcolumn,writedownanythingthatneedstobepracticed.Proceduresareactionsthatneedtobeperformedandmaynotinvolvemuchconsciousthinkingatall.Learningtorideabicycle,forinstance,isalmostallproceduralandinvolvesessentiallynofactsorconcepts.Manyotherskillsaremostlyprocedural,whileothersmayhaveaproceduralcomponentyetstillhavefactstomemorizeandconceptstounderstand.Learningnewvocabularyinalanguagerequiresmemorizingfacts,butpronunciationrequirespracticeandthereforebelongsinthiscolumn.

UsingThisAnalysistoDrawYourMapOnceyou’vefinishedyourbrainstorm,underlinetheconcepts,facts,andproceduresthataregoingtobemostchallenging.Thiswillgiveyouagoodideawhatthemajorlearningbottlenecksaregoingtobeandcanstartyousearchingformethodsandresourcestoovercomethosedifficulties.Youmightrecognizethatlearningmedicinerequiresalotofmemorization,soyoumayinvestinasystemsuchasspaced-repetitionsoftware.Ifyou’relearningmathematics,youmightrecognizethatdeepunderstandingofcertainconceptsisgoingtobethetrickyspotandconsiderspendingtimeexplainingthoseconceptstootherpeoplesoyoureallyunderstandthemyourself.Knowingwhatthebottleneckswillbecanhelpyoustarttothinkofwaysofmakingyourstudytimemoreefficientandeffective,aswellasavoidtoolsthatprobablywon’tbetoohelpfultoyourgoal.

Oftenthiscoarse-grainedanalysisisenoughtomoveontothenextphaseofresearch.However,withmoreexperience,youcandigdeeper.Youmightlookatsomeoftheparticularfeaturesoftheconcepts,facts,andproceduresyou’retryingtolearntofindmethodstomasterthemmoreeffectively.WhenIstartedmyportrait-drawingchallenge,forinstance,IknewthatsuccesswoulddependhighlyonhowaccuratelyIcouldsizeandplacefacialfeatures.Mostpeoplecan’tdrawrealisticfacesbecauseifthoseattributesareoffevenslightly(suchasmakingafacetoowideortheeyestoohigh),theywillinstantlylookwrongtooursophisticatedabilitytorecognizefaces.Therefore,Igottheideaofdoinglotsandlotsofsketchesandcomparingthembyoverlayingthereferencephotos.ThatwayIcouldquicklydiagnosewhatkindsoferrorsIwasmakingwithouthavingtoguess.Ifyoucan’tmakethesekindsofpredictionsandcomeupwiththesekindsofstrategiesjustyet,don’tworry.Thisisthekindoflong-termbenefitofmetalearningthatcomesfromhavingdonemoreprojects.

Answering“How?”Nowthatyou’veansweredtwoquestions—whyyou’relearningandwhatyou’relearning—it’s

timetoanswerthefinalquestion:Howareyougoingtolearnit?Isuggestfollowingtwomethodstoanswerhowyou’lllearnsomething:Benchmarkingand

theEmphasize/ExcludeMethod.

Benchmarking

Thewaytostartanylearningprojectisbyfindingthecommonwaysinwhichpeoplelearntheskillorsubject.Thiscanhelpyoudesignadefaultstrategyasastartingpoint.

IfI’mtryingtolearnsomethingthatistaughtinschool,saycomputerscience,neurology,orhistory,onethingI’lldoislookatthecurriculausedinschoolstoteachthatsubject.Thiscouldbethesyllabusfromasingleclassor,asinthecaseofmyMITChallenge,thecourselistforanentiredegree.WhenIwantedtolearnmoreaboutcognitivescience,IfoundalistoftextbooksthattheUniversityofSanDiego’sCognitiveSciencedoctoralprogramrecommendsforincomingstudentswithoutcognitivesciencebackgrounds.Goodresourcestoconsiderforthisapproachareuniversities(MIT,Harvard,Yale,andStanfordaregoodexamplesbutfarfromtheonlyones).Generallycourselistsandsyllabiareavailablebylookingontheirwebsitesaimedatexistingstudents.

IfI’mtryingtolearnanonacademicsubjectoraprofessionalskill,I’llprobablyinsteaddoonlinesearchesforpeoplewhohavepreviouslylearnedthatskillorusetheExpertInterviewMethodtofocusonresourcesavailableformasteringthatsubject.Anhourspentsearchingonlineforalmostanyskillshouldturnupcourses,articles,andrecommendationsforhowtolearnit.Investingthetimeherecanhaveincrediblebenefitsbecausethequalityofthematerialsyouusecancreateorders-of-magnitudedifferencesinyoureffectiveness.Evenifyou’reeagertostartlearningrightaway,investingafewhoursnowcansaveyoudozensorhundredslateron.

TheEmphasize/ExcludeMethod

Onceyou’vefoundadefaultcurriculum,youcanconsidermakingmodificationstoit.Ifindthiseasiertodowithskillsthathaveobvioussuccesscriteria(saydrawing,languages,ormusic)andforwhichyoucangenerallymakeaguessattherelativeimportancetothesubjecttopicspriortostudyingthem.Forconceptualsubjectsortopicswhereyoumaynotevenunderstandthemeaningofthetermsinthesyllabus,it’sprobablybettertostickclosertoyourbenchmarkuntilyoulearnabitmore.

TheEmphasize/ExcludeMethodinvolvesfirstfindingareasofstudythatalignwiththegoalsyouidentifiedinthefirstpartofyourresearch.Ifyou’relearningFrenchwiththeideaofgoingtoParisfortwoweeksandspeakinginshopsandrestaurants,Iwouldfocusalotmoreonpronunciationthanbeingabletospellcorrectly.Ifyou’relearningprogrammingsolelytomakeyourownapp,I’dfocusontheinnerworkingsofappdevelopmentmorethantheoriesofcomputation.

ThesecondpartoftheEmphasize/ExcludeMethodistoomitordelayelementsofyourbenchmarkedcurriculumthatdon’talignwithyourgoals.Forexample,onecommonrecommendationforlearningMandarinChinese,advocatedbypeoplesuchastherenownedlinguistandSinologistVictorMair,istofocusonlearningtospeakbeforeyoutrytoreadcharacters.6Thisisn’ttheonlyrouteavailable,butifyourmaingoalistospeak,thenthispathtofluencymightbemoreeffective.

HowMuchPlanningShouldYouDo?Onequestionyoumayfaceiswhentostopdoingresearchandjustgetstarted.Theliteratureonself-directedlearning,astypicallypracticed,demonstratesthatmostpeoplefailtodoathoroughinvestigationofpossiblelearninggoals,methods,andresources.7Insteadtheyoptforwhatevermethodoflearningcomesupnaturallyintheirenvironment.Thisclearlyleavesagapbetweenwhatispracticedandtheefficiencythatispossibleusingthebestpossiblemethod.However,researchcanalsobeawayofprocrastinating,particularlyifthemethodoflearningisuncomfortable.Justdoingabitmoreresearchthenbecomesastrategytoavoiddoingtheworkoflearning.Therewillalwaysbesomeuncertaintyinyourapproach,soit’simportanttofindthesweetspotbetweeninsufficientresearchandanalysisparalysis.Youknowwhenyou’reprocrastinating,sojustgetstarted.

The10PercentRule

Agoodruleofthumbisthatyoushouldinvestapproximately10percentofyourtotalexpectedlearningtimeintoresearchpriortostarting.Ifyouexpecttospendsixmonthslearning,roughlyfourhoursperweek,thatwouldbeequaltoroughlyonehundredhours,whichsuggeststhatyoushouldspendabouttenhours,ortwoweeks,doingyourresearch.Thispercentagewilldecreasealittlebitasyourprojectscalesup,soifyouplantodofivehundredorathousandhoursoflearning,Idon’tthinkitnecessarilydemandsfiftyorahundredhoursofresearch,butmaybecloserto5percentofyourtime.Thegoalhereisn’ttoexhausteverylearningpossibilitybutsimplytomakesureyouhaven’tlatchedontothefirstpossibleresourceormethodwithoutthinkingthroughalternatives.PriortostartingmyMITChallenge,Ispentroughlysixmonths,part-time,combingthroughallthecoursematerials.Agoodideaistobeawareofthecommonmethodsoflearning,popularresources,andtoolsalongwiththeirstrengthsandweaknessesbeforestarting.Longprojectsprovidemoreopportunitiesforgettingderailedanddelayed,sodoingproperresearchinthebeginningcaneasilysaveamuchlargeramountoftimelateron.

DiminishingReturnsandMarginalBenefitCalculation

Metalearningresearchisn’taonetimeactivityyoudoonlybeforestartingyourproject.Youshouldcontinuetodoresearchasyoulearnmore.Oftenobstaclesandopportunitiesaren’tclearbeforeyoustart,soreassessingisanecessarystepofthelearningprocess.Duringmyportrait-drawingchallenge,forinstance,IdiscoveredabouthalfwaythatIwasgettingdiminishingreturnsfrommysketch-and-comparemethod.IrealizedthatIneededabettertechniquefordrawingthathadhigheraccuracy.Thatledmetodoasecondroundofresearch,leadingtoacoursetaughtbyVitruvianStudio,whichdetailedamoresystematicmethodthatgreatlyincreasedmyaccuracy.8Ihadn’tnoticeditinmyoriginalresearchbecauseIwasn’tawareofthedeficiencyofmyself-developedtechnique.

Amoresophisticatedanswertothequestionofwhenandhowtodoresearchwouldbetocomparethemarginalbenefitsofmetalearningtoregularlearning.Onewaytodothisistospendafewhoursdoingmoreresearch—interviewingmoreexperts,searchingonlineformoreresources,searchingfornewpossibletechniques—andthenspendafewhoursdoingmorelearningalongyourchosenpath.Afterspendingsometimeoneach,doaquickassessmentoftherelativevalueofthetwoactivities.Ifyoufeelasthoughthemetalearningresearchcontributedmorethanthehoursspentonlearningitself,youarelikelyatapointwheremoreresearchisstillbeneficial.Ifyoufeltthattheextraresearchwasn’ttoohelpful,you’reprobablybetteroffstickingtotheplanyouhadbefore.ThistypeofanalysisdependsonsomethingknownastheLawofDiminishingReturns.Thisstatesthatthemoretimeyouinvestinanactivity(suchasmoreresearch),theweakerandweakerthebenefitswillbeasyougetcloserandclosertotheidealapproach.Ifyoukeepdoingresearch,eventuallyitwillbelessvaluablethansimplydoingmorelearning,soatthatpointyoucansafelyfocusonlearning.Inpractice,thereturntoresearchtendstobelumpyandvariable.Youmightspendafewhoursandgetnothing,thenstumbleontotheperfectresourceforacceleratingyourprogress.Asyoufinishmoreprojects,it’seasiertojudgethispointintuitively,buttheLawofDiminishingReturnsandthe10PercentRulecanprovidegoodapproximationsforhowmuchresearchtodoandwhen.

Long-TermProspectsforMetalearningSofarwe’vetalkedonlyabouttheshort-termbenefits.However,therealbenefitsofmetalearningaren’tshorttermbutlongterm.Theydon’tresideinaparticularprojectbutinfluenceyouroverallstrengthsasalearner.

Eachprojectyoudowillimproveyourgeneralmetalearning.Everyprojecthastheopportunitytoteachyounewlearningmethods,newwaystogatherresources,bettertimemanagement,andimprovedskillsformanagingyourmotivation.Successinoneprojectwillgiveyouconfidencetoexecuteyournextonewithboldnessandwithoutself-doubtandprocrastination.Ultimately,thiseffectfaroutweighstheeffectofdoingaspecificproject.Unfortunately,it’salsosomethingthatcan’tbeboileddowntoatacticortool.Long-termmetalearningisjustsomethingyouacquirewithexperience.

Thebenefitsofultralearningaren’talwaysapparentfromthefirstprojectbecausethatfirstprojectoccurswhenyou’reatyourlowestlevelofmetalearningability.Eachprojectyoucompletewillgiveyounewtoolstotacklethenext,startingavirtuouscycle.ManyoftheultralearnersIinterviewedforthisbooktoldmeasimilarstory:thattheywereproudoftheiraccomplishmentsinindividualprojectsbutthattherealbenefithadbeenthattheynow

understoodtheprocessoflearninghardthings.Thatgavethemtheconfidencetopursueotherambitiousgoalsthattheywouldn’thaveevenconsideredpreviously.Thisconfidenceandabilityaretheultimategoalsofultralearning,eventhoughthey’reoftenhardtoseefromtheoutset.Thesebenefits,however,canbeachievedonlybyputtinginthework.Thebestresearch,resources,andstrategiesareuselessunlessyoufollowupwithconcentratedeffortstolearn.Thatbringsustothenextprincipleofultralearning:focus.

ChapterVPrinciple2

FocusSharpenYourKnife

NowIwillhavelessdistraction.—LeonhardEuler,mathematician,uponlosingthesightinhisrighteye

Ifevertherewereanunlikelycandidateforscientificgreatness,itwouldhavebeenMarySomerville.ShewasbornintoapoorScottishfamilyintheeighteenthcentury,whenhighereducationwasnotseenasproperforalady.Hermotherdidnotpreventherfromreading,butsocietyatlargedidnotapproveofit.Anaunt,seeingthatbehavior,commentedtohermother,“IwonderyouletMarywastehertimeinreading,sheneversewsmorethanifshewereaman.”Whenshedidhaveanopportunitytoattendschoolbriefly,hermotherregrettedtheexpense.Somervilleexplained,“shewouldhavebeencontentedifIhadonlylearnttowritewellandkeepaccounts,whichwasallthatawomanwasexpectedtoknow.”1Asawoman,shefacedevenlargerobstacles,withhouseholddutiesandexpectationstakingprecedenceoveranykindofself-education.“Amancanalwayscommandhistimeunderthepleaofbusiness,awomanisnotallowedanysuchexcuse,”shelamented.Herfirsthusband,SamuelGreig,wasstronglyagainstlearninginwomen.Yetdespitethoseobstacles,Somerville’saccomplishmentswerevast.Shewonawardsin

mathematics,learnedseverallanguagestofluency,andknewhowtopaintandplaythepiano.In1835,she,alongwiththeGermanastronomerCarolineHerschel,werethefirstwomenelectedtotheRoyalAstronomicalSociety.TheaccomplishmentthateventuallybroughtherfamewashertranslationandexpansionofthefirsttwovolumesofPierre-SimonLaplace’sTraitédemécaniquecéleste,amassivefive-volumeworkonthetheoryofgravitationandadvancedmathematics,acclaimedasthegreatestintellectualachievementsinceIsaacNewtonwrotethePrincipiaMathematica.LaplacehimselfcommentedthatSomervillewastheonlywomanintheworldwhounderstoodhiswork.TheeasiestexplanationforthevastdiscrepancyinSomerville’ssituationandher

accomplishmentswouldbegenius.Itisnodoubttruethatshepossessedanincrediblysharpmind.Herdaughteroncecommentedthatwhileshewasbeingtaught,hermothercouldgrowimpatient.“Iwellrememberherslenderwhitehandpointingimpatientlytothebookorslate—‘Don’tyouseeit?Thereisnodifficultyinit,itisquiteclear.’”However,inreadingthroughherdescriptionsofherlife,thisseeminggeniuswasbesetbymanyinsecurities.Sheclaimedtohave“badmemory,”recountedstruggleslearningnewthingsasachild,andhadevenatonepoint“thought[herself]toooldtolearntospeakaforeignlanguage.”Whetherthatwaspolitemodestyorgenuinefeelingsofinadequacy,wecannotknow,butitdoesatleastputcracksintheideathatsheapproachedlearningfromaplaceofunshakableconfidenceandtalent.Peeringdeeper,anotherpictureofSomervilleemerges.Shehadakeenintellect,yes,but

whatshepossessedinevengreaterquantitieswasanexceptionalabilitytofocus.Asanadolescent,whenshewasputtobedanddeniedacandleforreading,shewouldmentallyworkthroughtheworksofEuclidinmathematics.Whilestillbreastfeedingherchild,anacquaintanceencouragedhertostudybotany,soshedevoted“anhourofstudytothatscience”everymorning.Evenduringhergreatestachievement,thetranslationandexpansionofLaplace’sTraitédemécaniquecéleste,shehadtocarryoutallthehouseholddutiesofraisingchildren,cooking,andcleaning.“Iwasalwayssupposedtobeathome,”sheexplains,“andmyfriendsandacquaintancescamesofaroutoftheirwayonpurposetoseeme,it

wouldhavebeenunkindandungenerousnottoreceivethem.Nevertheless,Iwassometimesannoyedwheninthemidstofadifficultproblemonewouldenterandsay,‘Ihavecometospendafewhourswithyou.’However,Ilearntbyhabittoleaveasubjectandresumeitagainatonce,likeputtingamarkintoabookImightbereading.”Intherealmofgreatintellectualaccomplishmentsanabilitytofocusquicklyanddeeplyis

nearlyubiquitous.AlbertEinsteinfocusedsointenselyduringhisformulationofthegeneraltheoryofrelativitythathedevelopedstomachproblems.ThemathematicianPaulErdőswasaheavyuserofamphetaminestoincreasehiscapacityforfocus.Whenafriendbethimthathecouldnotgivethemup,evenforashorttime,hedidmanagetodoso.Later,however,hecomplainedthattheonlyresulthadbeenthatmathematicsasawholewassetbackamonthinhisunfocusedabsence.Intheseannalsofextremefocus,oneoftenconjuresupanimageofsolitarygeniuseslaboringawaywithoutdistraction,freefromworldlyconcerns.Howeverremarkablethisis,I’mmoreinterestedinthekindoffocusthatSomervilleseemedtopossess.Howcanoneinanenvironmentsuchashers,withconstantdistractions,littlesocialsupport,andcontinuousobligations,managetofocuslongenoughnotonlytolearnanimpressivebreadthofsubjects,buttosuchdepthsthattheFrenchmathematicianSiméonPoissononceremarkedthat“therewerenottwentymeninFrancewhocouldread[her]book”?HowdidSomervillebecomesogoodatfocusing?Whatcanwegleanfromherstrategiesin

gettingdifficultmentalworkdoneinless-than-idealconditions?Thestruggleswithfocusthatpeoplehavegenerallycomeinthreebroadvarieties:starting,sustaining,andoptimizingthequalityofone’sfocus.Ultralearnersarerelentlessincomingupwithsolutionstohandlethesethreeproblems,whichformthebasisofanabilitytofocuswellandlearndeeply.

Problem1:FailingtoStartFocusing(akaProcrastinating)Thefirstproblemthatmanypeoplehaveisstartingtofocus.Themostobviouswaythismanifestsitselfiswhenyouprocrastinate:insteadofdoingthethingyou’resupposedto,youworkonsomethingelseorslackoff.Forsomepeople,procrastinationistheconstantstateoftheirlives,runningawayfromonetasktoanotheruntildeadlinesforcethemtofocusandthenhavingtostruggletogetthejobdoneontime.Otherpeoplestrugglewithmoreacuteformsofprocrastinationthatmanifestthemselveswithparticularkindsoftasks.Iwasmorelikethissecondkindofperson,wheretherewerecertaintypesofactivitiesIwouldspendalldayprocrastinatingon.ThoughIhavenoproblemswritingessaysformyblog,whenIhadtodoresearchforthisbook,Idraggedmyfeet.Similarly,IhadnoproblemsittingandwatchingthevideosofMITclasses,butIalwaystackledthefirstproblemsetswithconsiderabletrepidation.HaditnotbeenfortheintensescheduleIwason,Imighthavefoundexcusestoavoiddoingsoformuchlonger.Infact,writingthischapterwasoneofthetasksIprocrastinatedonagreatdeal.Whydoweprocrastinate?Thesimpleansweristhatatsomelevelthere’sacravingthat

drivesyoutodosomethingelse,there’sanaversiontodoingthetaskitself,orboth.Inmycase,IprocrastinatedonwritingthischapterbecauseIhadalotofideasandIwasunsurewheretostart.Myanxietywasthatbycommittingsomethingtopaper,therewasagoodchanceImightendupwritingitpoorly.Silly,Iknow.Butmostmotivestoprocrastinatearesillywhenyouverbalizethem,yetthatdoesn’tstopthemfromrulingyourlife.Whichbringsmetothefirststeptoovercomingprocrastination:recognizewhenyouareprocrastinating.Muchprocrastinationisunconscious.You’reprocrastinating,butyoudon’tinternalizeitthat

way.Insteadyou’re“takingamuch-neededbreak”or“havingfun,becauselifecan’talwaysbeaboutworkallthetime.”Theproblemisn’tthosebeliefs.Theproblemiswhenthey’reusedtocoveruptheactualbehavior—youdon’twanttodothethingyouneedtobefocusingon,eitherbecauseyouaredirectlyaversetodoingitorbecausethere’ssomethingelseyouwanttodomore.Recognizingthatyou’reprocrastinatingisthefirststeptoavoidingit.Makeamentalhabitofeverytimeyouprocrastinate;trytorecognizethatyouarefeeling

somedesirenottodothattaskorastrongerdesiretodosomethingelse.Youmightevenwanttoaskyourselfwhichfeelingismorepowerfulinthatmoment—istheproblemmorethatyouhaveastrongurgetodoadifferentactivity(e.g.,eatsomething,checkyourphone,takeanap)orthatyouhaveastrongurgetoavoidthethingyoushouldbedoingbecauseyouimagineitwillbeuncomfortable,painful,orfrustrating?Thisawarenessisnecessaryforprogresstobemade,soifyoufeelasthoughprocrastinationisaweaknessofyours,makebuildingthisawarenessyourfirstprioritybeforeyoutrytofixtheproblem.Onceyoucaneasilyandautomaticallyrecognizeyourtendencytoprocrastinate,whenit

occurs,youcantakestepstoresisttheimpulse.Onewayistothinkintermsofaseriesof“crutches”ormentaltoolsthatcanhelpyougetthroughsomeoftheworstpartsofyour

tendencytoprocrastinate.Asyougetbetterabouttakingactionontheprojectyou’reworkingon,thesecrutchescanbechangedorgottenridofaltogetherwhenprocrastinationisnolongeraproblem.Afirstcrutchcomesfromrecognizingthatmostofwhatisunpleasantinatask(ifyouare

aversetoit)orwhatispleasantaboutanalternativetask(ifyou’redrawntodistraction)isanimpulsethatdoesn’tactuallylastthatlong.Ifyouactuallystartworkingorignoreapotentdistractor,itusuallyonlytakesacoupleminutesuntiltheworrystartstodissolve,evenforfairlyunpleasanttasks.Therefore,agoodfirstcrutchistoconvinceyourselftogetoverjustthefewminutesofmaximalunpleasantnessbeforeyoutakeabreak.Tellingyourselfthatyouneedtospendonlyfiveminutesonthetaskbeforeyoucanstopanddosomethingelseisoftenenoughtogetyoustarted.Afterall,almostanyonecanendurefiveminutesofanything,nomatterhowboring,frustrating,ordifficultitmaybe.However,onceyoustart,youmayendupcontinuingforlongerwithoutwantingtotakethebreak.Asyouprogress,yourfirstcrutchmaystarttogetintheway.Youmayfindyourselfstarting

butthen,becausethetaskisunpleasantandfocusishard,takingadvantageofthefive-minuteruletoooftentobeproductive.Ifthisisthecaseandyourproblemhasswitchedfrombeingunabletogetstartedtotakingbreakstoooften,youcantrysomethingalittleharder,saythePomodoroTechnique:twenty-fiveminutesoffocusfollowedbyafive-minutebreak.*Keepinmindthatit’sessentialnottoswitchtoahardergoalwhenyou’restillmostlyimpededbyanearlierproblem.Ifyoustillcan’tstartworking,evenwiththefive-minuterule,switchingtoharderandmoredemandingcrutchesmaybackfire.Insomecases,themomentoffrustrationmaynotcomeatthebeginning,butstillbe

predictable.WhenIwaslearningChinesecharactersthroughflashcards,forinstance,I’dalwaysfeelanurgetogiveupwheneverIcouldn’tremembertheanswertooneofmycards.Iknewthisfeelingwastemporary,however,soIaddedaruleformyself:IcanonlyquitwhenI’verememberedthemostrecentcardcorrectly.Inpractice,thecardswerequick,sothisusuallyonlytookanextratwentyorthirtysecondsofpersistence;however,mypatiencefordoingflashcardswentupdramaticallyasaresult.Eventually,ifworkingonyourprojectisnottroubledbyextremeprocrastination,youmay

wanttoswitchtousingacalendaronwhichyoucarveoutspecifichoursofyourdayinadvancetoworkontheproject.Thisapproachallowsyoutomakethebestuseofyourlimitedtime.However,itworksonlyifyouactuallyfollowit.Ifyoufindyourselfsettingadailyschedulewithchunkedhoursandthenfrequentlyignoreittodosomethingelse,gobacktothestartandtrybuildingbackupagainwiththefive-minuteruleandthenthePomodoroTechnique.Eventually,youmayreachMarySomerville’sleveloffocus,onethatshecouldactivateona

moment-to-momentbasis,makingadecisionastowhethershehadtimetospare.Despiteherformidablecapacityforfocus,itseemsthatevenSomervillewoulddeliberatelyblockouttimeforthestudyofparticularsubjects.Thereforeitwasaconscioushabit,notmerelyspontaneousstudying,thatenabledhermanysuccesses.Formyself,IfindthatsomelearningactivitiesaresointrinsicallyinterestingthatIcanfocusonthemforalongtimewithoutpressure.IgenerallyhadnoproblemwatchinglecturesduringtheMITChallenge,forinstance.Othertasks,however,requiredthefive-minuteruleformetogetpastmydesiretoprocrastinate.IfIhadtoscananduploadmyfiles,they’doftenbuildupinapilebeforeIwouldfinallytacklethem.Don’teverfeelbadifyouhavetobackupastage,either;youcannotcontrolyouraversionsortendencytodistraction,butwithpracticeyoucanlessentheirimpact.

Problem2:FailingtoSustainFocus(akaGettingDistracted)Thesecondproblempeopletendtoencounterisaninabilitytosustainfocus.Thiscanhappenwhenyou’vesatyourselfdowntostudyorpracticesomething,butthenyourphonebuzzesandyoulookaway,afriendknocksonthedoortosayhello,oryouspinoffintoadaydreamonlytorealizeyou’vebeenstaringatthesameparagraphforthelastfifteenminutes.Likethechallengeofinitiatingfocus,sustainingfocusisimportantifyouwanttomakeprogresslearninghardthings.BeforeItalkabouthowtosustainfocus,however,I’dliketoraiseaquestionaboutwhatkindoffocusisthebesttosustain.Flow,aconceptpioneeredbythepsychologistMihályCsíkszentmihályi,isoftenusedasthe

modelforwhatidealfocuslookslike.Thisisthestateofmindyouassociatewithbeing“inthezone.”Youstopbeinginterruptedbydistractingthoughts,andyourmindbecomescompletelyabsorbedinthetaskathand.Flowistheenjoyablestatethatslidesrightbetweenboredomandfrustration,whenataskisneithertoohardnortooeasy.Thisrosypicture,however,does

havesomedetractors.ThepsychologistK.AndersEricsson,theresearcherbehinddeliberatepractice,arguesthatflowhascharacteristicsthatare“inconsistentwiththedemandsofdeliberatepracticeformonitoringexplicitgoalsandfeedbackandopportunitiesforerrorcorrection.Hence,skilledperformersmayenjoyandseekoutflowexperiencesaspartoftheirdomain-relatedactivities,butsuchexperienceswouldnotoccurduringdeliberatepractice.”2Ultralearning,withitssimilarfocusonperformance-drivenlearning,wouldalsoappeartobeunsuitableforflow,inthesamewaythatEricssonoriginallyarguedfordeliberatepractice.Myownthoughtisthataflowstateisnotimpossibleduringultralearning.Manycognitive

activitiesassociatedwithlearningareintherangeofdifficultythatmakesflowpossibleorevenlikely.However,IalsoagreewithEricssonthatlearningofteninvolvesenteringintosituationsinwhichthedifficultymakesflowimpossible.Additionally,theself-consciousnessthatisabsentinflowmayneedtobepresentinbothultralearninganddeliberatepractice,asyouneedtoconsciouslyadjustyourapproach.Workingonaprogrammingproblematthelimitofyourabilities,pushingyourselftowriteinastylethatisunfamiliartoyou,ortryingtominimizeyouraccentwhenspeakinganewlanguageiseachataskthatgoesagainsttheautomaticpatternsyoumayhaveaccumulated.Thisresistancetowhatisnaturalmaymakeflowhardertoachieve,eventhoughitisultimatelybeneficialforaccomplishingyourlearninggoal.Myadvice?Don’tworryaboutflow.Insomelearningtasks,you’llachieveiteasily.Ioften

feltasthoughIwereinaflowstatewhiledoingpracticeproblemsduringtheMITChallenge,drillingvocabularywhilelearninglanguages,ordrawing.Atthesametime,don’tfeelguiltyifflowdoesn’tcomeautomatically.Yourgoalistoenhanceyourlearning,andthisofteninvolvespushingthroughsomesessionsthataremorefrustratingthanwhatcouldbeconsideredidealforflow.Remember,evenifyourlearningisintense,youruseoftheskilllateronwillnotbe.Investmentsmadeinpushingthroughlearningnowwillmakeskillfulpracticeamuchmoreenjoyableactivitydowntheroad.Afterconsideringhowyoushouldfocus,let’sconsiderduration.Howlongshouldyoustudy?

Whilethisproblempresumesthatyou’regettingdistractedandgivingupfocusinglongbeforeyoushould,theliteratureonfocusdoesnotsuggestthatever-longerperiodsoffocusareoptimalfromalearningstandpoint.Researchersgenerallyfindthatpeopleretainmoreofwhattheylearnwhenpracticeisbrokenintodifferentstudyingperiodsthanwhenitiscrammedtogether.Similarly,thephenomenonofinterleavingsuggeststhatevenwithinasolidblockoffocus,itcanmakesensetoalternatebetweendifferentaspectsoftheskillorknowledgetoberemembered.3Therefore,ifyouhaveseveralhourstostudy,you’repossiblybetteroffcoveringafewtopicsratherthanfocusingexclusivelyonone.Doingsohastrade-offs,however,soifyourstudytimebecomesmoreandmorefractured,itmaybedifficulttolearnatall.What’sneededisaproperbalance.Toachieveit,fiftyminutestoanhourisagoodlengthof

timeformanylearningtasks.Ifyourschedulepermitsonlymoreconcentratedchunksoftime,sayonceperweekforseveralhours,youmaywanttotakeseveralminutesasabreakattheendofeachhourandsplityourtimeoverdifferentaspectsofthesubjectyouwanttolearn.Ofcourse,thesearemerelyefficiencyguidelines;youultimatelyneedtofindwhatworksbestforyou,consideringnotonlywhatisoptimalforthepurposesofretentionbutalsowhatfitsyourschedule,personality,andworkflow.Forsomepeople,aslittleastwentyminutesmightfittheirlivesbest;othersmayprefertospendanentiredaylearning.Supposingthatyou’vefoundachunkoftimetolearnthatisasoptimalforyouasitcanbe,

howcanyousustainyourfocusduringthattime?I’vefoundthattherearethreedifferentsourcesthatcausefocustobreakdownanddistractiontooccur.Ifyou’restrugglingtoconcentrate,lookateachofthesethreeinturn.

DistractionSource1:YourEnvironment

Thefirstsourceofdistractionisyourenvironment.Doyouhaveyourphoneturnedoff?Areyouaccessingtheinternet,watchingtelevision,orplayinggames?Aretheredistractingnoisesandsounds?Areyoupreparedtowork,ormightyouneedtostoptolookforpens,abook,oralamp?Thisisasourceoftheproblemofsustainingfocus,butit’salsoanaspectpeoplefrequentlyignoreforthesamereasonstheyignorethefactthattheyareprocrastinating.Manypeopletellthemselvesthattheyfocusbetterwhilelisteningtomusic,let’ssay,buttherealitymightbethattheydon’twanttoworkonagiventask,somusicprovidesalow-level,amusingdistraction.Thisisn’ttocondemnanyonewhodoesn’tworkinaperfectenvironment.Icertainlydon’t.Rather,beawareofwhatenvironmentyouworkbestin,andtestit.Doyouactuallygetmoreworkdonewiththetelevisiononinthebackground,ordoyoujustlikehearingthetelevisionandfeelthatitmakestheworkmorebearable?Ifit’sthelatter,youcan

probablytrainyourselftoavoidmultitaskingandenjoygreaterproductivity.Multitaskingmayfeellikefun,butit’sunsuitableforultralearning,whichrequiresconcentratingyourfullmindonthetaskathand.It’sbettertoridyourselfofthisvicethantostrengthenbadhabitsofineffectivelearning.

DistractionSource2:YourTask

Thesecondsourceisthetaskyou’retryingtolearn.Certainactivities,duetotheirnature,arehardertofocusonthanothers.Ifindreadinghardertofocusonthanwatchingavideo,evenwhenthecontentisthesame.Wheneveryouhaveachoicebetweenusingdifferenttoolsforlearning,youmaywanttoconsiderwhichiseasiertofocusonwhenmakingthatdecision.Thischoiceofmaterialsshouldn’tsupersedeotherconsiderations—Iwouldn’toptforatoolthatismuchlessdirect(Principle3)oroffersnofeedback(Principle6),simplyforthesakeofgreaterfocus.Fortunately,theseprinciplesaregenerallyaligned,anditisactuallythesomewhatlesseffectivemethodsthatarelesscognitivelydemandingandthereforehardertosustainfocuson.Sometimesyoucansubtlymodifywhatyou’redoingtoenablegreaterfocus.IfIhavedifficultreadingtodo,Iwilloftenmakeanefforttojotdownnotesthatreexplainhardconceptsforme.Idothismostlybecause,whileI’mwriting,I’mlesslikelytoenterintothestateofreadinghypnosiswhereI’mpantomimingtheactofreadingwhilemymindisactuallyelsewhere.Moreintensestrategies,whethersolvingproblems,makingsomething,orwritingandexplainingideasaloud,arehardertodointhebackgroundofyourmind,sotherearefeweropportunitiesfordistractionstocreepin.

DistractionSource3:YourMind

Thethirdsourceisyourminditself.Negativeemotions,restlessness,anddaydreamingcanbesomeofthebiggestobstaclestofocus.Thisproblemhastwosides.First,it’sobviousthataclear,calmmindisbestforfocusingonalmostalllearningproblems.Amindfilledwithangers,anxieties,frustrations,orsadnesswillbehardertostudywith.Thismeansthatifyou’restrugglingwithproblemsinyourlife,you’llhaveahardertimelearningwell,andyoumaywanttolookatdealingwiththosefirst.Beinginatoxicrelationship,havinganxietyaboutsomeothertaskyou’reprocrastinatingon,orsimplyknowingyou’regoingdownthewrongroadinlifecaninterferewithyourmotivation,soit’softenbestnottoignoretheseissues.However,sometimesthere’snothingyoucandoaboutyouremotions,andfeelingsarisespontaneouslywithoutrequiringyoutodosomethingaboutthem.Arandomworryaboutsomefutureeventmightbubbleup,let’ssay,butyouknowyoushouldn’tstoptheactivityyou’reworkingonrightnowinordertodealwithit.Herethesolutionistoacknowledgethefeeling,beawareofit,andgentlyadjustyourfocusbacktoyourtaskandallowthefeelingtopass.Allowingnegativefeelingstopass,ofcourse,isaloteasiersaidthandone.Emotionscan

hijackthemindandmaketheprocessofreturningawarenesstoyourprojectfeellikeaSisypheantask.IfI’mreallyanxiousaboutsomething,forinstance,ImayfeelasthoughI’mreturningmyattentiontoatask,onlyforittojumpawayfifteensecondslater,repeatingagainandagainforanhourormore.Insuchmoments,recognizethatbynotreactingtotheemotionatthelevelofabandoningyourtaskentirely,you’lldiminishitsintensityinthefuture.You’llalsostrengthenyourcommitmenttocontinueworkinginfuturesituationslikethis,sotheywillbecomeeasier.MindfulnessresearcherandpsychiatristSusanSmalleyandmeditationteacherDianaWinstonofUCLA’sMindfulAwarenessResearchCenterarguethatwhenweareengaginginabehavior,ourtypicalreactionistotrytosuppressdistractingthoughts.Ifinsteadyou“learntoletitarise,noteit,andreleaseitorletitgo,”thiscandiminishthebehavioryou’retryingtoavoid.4Ifiteverfeelsasthoughcontinuingworkingispointlessbecauseyou’resodistractedbyanegativeemotionthatyoucan’tpossiblywork,rememberthatthelong-termstrengtheningofyourabilitytopersistonthistaskwillbeuseful,sothetimeisnotwastedevenifyoudon’taccomplishmuchinthisparticularlearningsession.

Problem3:FailingtoCreatetheRightKindofFocusAthird,problem,subtlerthantheothertwo,hastodowiththequalityanddirectionofyourattention.Supposingyou’vemanagedtowrangletheproblemsofprocrastinationanddistractiondownlongenoughtofocusonyourtask,howshouldyoudoit?What’stheoptimal

degreeofalertnesstomaximizeyourlearning?Herethereissomeinterestingresearchrelatingtwodifferentvariables,arousalandtask

complexity,tothequestionofhowyoushouldapplyyourattention.Arousal(thegeneral,notsexual,variety)isyouroverallfeelingofenergyoralertness.Whenyou’resleepy,youhavelowarousal;whenyou’reexercising,youhavehigharousal.Thisbodilyphenomenonoccursduetosympatheticnervoussystemactivation,anditconsistsofarangeofeffectsinthebodythatoftenoccurtogether,includingfasterheartrate,increasedbloodpressure,pupildilation,andsweating.Mentally,arousalalsoinfluencesattention.Higharousalcreatesafeelingofkeenalertness,whichisoftencharacterizedbyafairlynarrowrangeoffocus,butonethatcanalsobesomewhatbrittle.5Thiscanbeverygoodforfocusingonrelativelysimpletasksoronesthatrequireintenseconcentrationtowardasmalltarget.Athletesrequirethiskindofconcentrationtothrowadartatatargetorshootabasketballproperly,wherethetaskisfairlysimplebutrequiresconcentrationtoexecuteproperly.Toomucharousal,however,andfocusstartstosuffer.6Itbecomesveryeasytobedistracted,andyoumayhaveahardtimeholdingfocusatanyparticularspot.Anyonewho’sdrunktoomuchcoffeeandfeelsjitteryknowshowthiscanimpactyourwork.Morecomplextasks,suchassolvingmathproblemsorwritingessays,tendtobenefitfroma

morerelaxedkindoffocus.7Herethespaceoffocusisoftenlargerandmorediffuse.Thishasadvantageswhen,inordertosolvetheproblemyou’refacing,youmustconsidermanydifferentinputsorideas.Tryingtosolveacomplexmathproblemorwritealovesonnetislikelytorequirethismentalquietness.Whendoingaparticularlycreativetask,ifyougetstuck,youmaybenefitfromnofocusatall.8Takingabreakfromtheproblemcanwidenthespaceoffocusenoughthatpossibilitiesthatwerenotinyourconsciousnessearliercanconjoinandyoucanmakenewdiscoveries.Thisisascientificexplanationof“Eureka!”momentsoccurringduringleisureorwhilefallingasleep,insteadofwhileatwork.Still,beforeyoubegintothinkthatslothisthekeytocreativity,it’sclearthatsuchanapproachoftenonlyworkswhenonehasbeenfocusingonaproblemforlongenoughthattheresidueofideasremainsinone’smind.Notworkingatallisunlikelytoleadtocreativegenius,buttakingabreakmayhelpbreathefreshperspectiveintoahardproblem.Therelationshipbetweentaskcomplexityandarousalisinterestingbecausethelattercan

bemodified.Inoneexperiment,sleep-deprivedandwell-restedsubjectsworkedonacognitivetask.9Unsurprisingly,thesleepysubjectsdidn’tdoaswell.Moreinteresting,however,wasthatthesleepysubjectsdidbetterwhenaloudnoisewasplayedinthebackground,whilethewell-restedsubjectsdidworse.Theconclusiondrawnbytheresearcherswasthatthenoiseincreasedarousallevels,whichbenefitedthelow-arousalsleepysubjects,butitincreasedarousaltoomuchforthewell-restedones,causingtheirdeclineinperformance.Thisimpliesthatyoumaywanttoconsideroptimizingyourarousallevelstosustaintheidealleveloffocus.Complextasksmaybenefitfromlowerarousal,soworkinginaquietroomathomemightbetherightideaformathproblems.Simplertasksmightbenefitfromanoisierenvironment,sayworkingatacoffeeshop.Thislaboratoryexperimentshowsthatyoushouldfindoutwhatworksbestforyourownabilitytofocusthroughself-testing.Youmayfindyoucanworkbetteroncomplextaskseveninthenoisycoffeeplace,oryoumayfindthatevenforsimpletasksyouneedthequietroominthelibrary.

ImprovingYourAbilitytoFocusFocusdoesn’tneedtobeexclusivetothedomainofthosewhohaveendlesshoursandlargeswathsoffreetimeontheirschedule.AswasthecasewithSomerville,theabilitytofocusisevenmoreimportantforthosewhoselivesmakesuchlargecommitmentsoftimeimpossible.Withpracticeyoucanimproveyourabilitytofocus.I’magnosticaboutwhetherfocuscanbetrainedasanability,ingeneral.Justbecauseyou’redisciplinedaboutonethingdoesn’tautomaticallymakeyoudisciplinedabouteverythingelse.However,whatdoesgeneralizeisthatthereisaprocedureyoucanfollowtogetbetteratfocusing.Myadviceisthis:recognizewhereyouare,andstartsmall.Ifyou’rethekindofpersonwhocan’tsitstillforaminute,trysittingstillforhalfaminute.Halfaminutesoonbecomesoneminute,thentwo.Overtime,thefrustrationsyoufeellearningaparticularsubjectmaybecometransmutedintogenuineinterest.Theimpulsetoengageindistractionswillweakeneachtimeyouresistit.Withpatienceandpersistence,yourfewminutesmaybecomelargeenoughtoaccomplishgreatthings,justasSomervilledidalmosttwohundredyearsago.Nowthatwe’vediscussedhowtogetstartedonlearninghardthings,let’smoveto

discussingtherightwaytolearnthem.Thenextprinciple,directness,isthefirsttoexplainwhattypesofthingsyoushoulddowhilelearningand,moreimportant,whichyoushould

avoidifyouwanttobeabletousewhatyoulearn.

ChapterVIPrinciple3Directness

GoStraightAhead

Hewhocangotothefountaindoesnotgotothewaterjar.—LeonardodaVinci

AftergrowingupinIndia,VatsalJaiswalmovedtoCanadawiththedreamofbecominganarchitect.Now,fouryearslater,armedwithanewlyminteddegreeandenteringintotheworstjobmarketsincetheGreatDepression,thatdreamwasbeginningtoseemveryfaraway.Gettingafootholdinarchitecturecanbedifficult,eveningoodeconomictimes.Butjustafewyearsoutfromthemarketcrashof2007,itwasnearlyimpossible.Firmswerelayingoffevenexperiencedarchitects.Ifanyonewashiring,theyweren’ttakingchancesonsomekidjustoutofschool.Outofhisgraduatingclass,almostnobodyhadfoundanarchitecturejobyet.Mosthadgivenup,takingjobsoutsidethefield,goingbackformoreeducation,ormovinginwithparentsuntiltheeconomicstormsabated.Anotherrejection.Jaiswalleavestheofficesofyetanotherarchitecturefirm,walkingback

tohissliveroftheone-bedroomapartmentheshareswithtworoommates.1Afterhundredsofrésuméssubmittedwithnoreply,he’smovedontotryingamoreaggressivetacticofgoingdirectlytoafirm’soffices,pleadingtospeakwithwhomeverisincharge.Still,afterweeksofknockingondoorsandmakingdozensofunsolicitedofficevisits,there’snojobofferinsight.Hehasn’tevengottenacallbackforasingleinterview.Still,Jaiswalsuspectedthathisstrugglescouldbeblamedonmorethanjusttherecession.

Fromthesnippetsoffeedbackhecouldpryoutoftheplacesheappliedto,hesensedthatthecompaniesdidn’tseehimasausefulemployee.Hehadstudiedarchitectureinschool,buthisprogramhadfocusedmostlyondesignandtheory.Hehadbeentrainedincreativedesignprojectsthatwereisolatedfromtherealityofbuildingcodes,constructioncosts,andtrickysoftware.Becausehisportfolioofschoolprojectsdidn’tresemblethedetailedtechnicaldocumentsthearchitectsworkedwith,theythoughthiringhimwouldinvolvealengthytrainingperiod,somethingfewfirmscouldcurrentlyafford.Jaiswalneededtocomeupwithaplan.Morerésumésubmissionsandofficewalk-ins

weren’tgoingtowork.Heneededanewportfoliothatcouldprovehehadtheexactskillsfirmswanted.Heneededtoshowthemthat,ratherthanbeingaburden,hecouldgettoworkstraightawayandbeavaluableteammemberfromthefirstday.Todothis,hewouldneedtoknowmoreabouthowarchitectsactuallydrewplansfor

buildings—notjustthebigtheoriesanddesigns,whichhehadlearnedinschool,butlittledetailsofhowtheydidtheirdrawings,whatcodestheyusedtorepresentdifferentmaterials,andwhatthedrawingsshowedandomitted.Todothat,hefoundajobatalarge-formprintshop,thekindthatdoesprintingonthelargesheetsofpaperfavoredforarchitecturalblueprints.Lowpayingandlowskilled,ajobinaprintshopwasn’tJaiswal’sendgoal.Still,itcouldhelphimscrapebyfinanciallywhilehepreparedhisnewportfolio.Evenbetter,theprintstoregavehimdailyexposuretotheblueprintsfirmswereusing.Thatallowedhimtoabsorbcountlessdetailsabouthowthedrawingswereputtogether.Next,Jaiswalwouldneedtoupgradehistechnicalskills.Fromhiswalk-invisits,hewas

awarethatmanyofthefirmshewasapplyingatwereusingacomplexdesignsoftwarecalledRevit.Ifhecouldmasteritsinsandouts,hethought,hecouldbeimmediatelyusefulinthetechnology-heavyentry-levelpositionhedesired.Atnight,hepushedthroughonlinetutorialsandtaughthimselfthesoftware.

Finally,hewasreadytoconstructanewportfolio.CombininghisnewRevitknowledgewiththeknowledgeofarchitecturaldrawingshehadgainedwhileworkingattheprintshop,hemadeanewportfolio.Insteadoftheassortedprojectsfromuniversity,hefocusedonasinglebuildingofhisowndesign:athree-towerresidentialstructurewithraisedcourtyardsandamodernaesthetic.Theprojectpushedhisskillswithsoftwarefurther,forcinghimtolearnnewmethodsandideasbeyondthebasicsofhisonlinetutorialsandexposureattheprintshop.Eventually,afterafewmonthsofwork,hewasready.Newportfolioinhand,Jaiswalsubmitteditagain,thistimetojusttwoarchitecturefirms.To

hissurprise,theybothimmediatelyofferedhimajob.

TheImportanceofBeingDirectJaiswal’sstoryperfectlyillustratesthethirdprincipleofultralearning:directness.Byseeinghowarchitecturewasactuallybeingdoneandlearningasetofskillsthatwascloselyrelatedtothejobpositionhewantedtoperform,hewasabletocutthroughtheswathsofrecentgraduateswithunimpressiveportfolios.Directnessistheideaoflearningbeingtiedcloselytothesituationorcontextyouwantto

useitin.InJaiswal’scase,whenhewantedtogetenougharchitecturalskillthatfirmswouldhirehim,heoptedtobuildaportfoliousingthesoftwarethosefirmsusedanddesigninthestylethosefirmspracticed.Therearemanyroutestoself-education,butmostofthemaren’tverydirect.IncontrasttoJaiswal,anotherarchitectIspokewithaimedtoimprovehisemployabilitybydeepeninghisknowledgeofdesigntheories.Thoughthatmighthavebeeninterestingandfun,itwasdisconnectedfromtheactualskillshewouldbeusinginentry-levelwork.JustasJaiswalstruggledtogetworkwithhisuniversityportfolio,manyofusarebuildingthewrongportfolioofskillsforthekindsofcareerandpersonalachievementswewanttocreate.Wewanttospeakalanguagebuttrytolearnmostlybyplayingonfunapps,ratherthanconversingwithactualpeople.Wewanttoworkoncollaborative,professionalprogramsbutmostlycodescriptsinisolation.Wewanttobecomegreatspeakers,sowebuyabookoncommunication,ratherthanpracticepresenting.Inallthesecasestheproblemisthesame:directlylearningthethingwewantfeelstoouncomfortable,boring,orfrustrating,sowesettleforsomebook,lecture,orapp,hopingitwilleventuallymakeusbetterattherealthing.Directnessisthehallmarkofmostultralearningprojects.*RogerCraigdidhisJeopardy!

testingontheactualquestionsfrompastshows.EricBaronelearnedvideogameartbymakingartforhisvideogame.BennyLewislearnstospeaklanguagesquicklybyfollowingapolicyofattemptingsomeback-and-forthdialogfromtheveryfirstday.Whattheseapproachesshareisthatthelearningactivitiesarealwaysdonewithaconnectiontothecontextinwhichtheskillslearnedwilleventuallybeused.Theoppositeofthisistheapproachsooftenfavoredinmoretraditionalclassroom-style

learning:studyingfacts,concepts,andskillsinawaythatisremovedfromhowthosethingswilleventuallybeapplied:masteringformulasbeforeyouunderstandtheproblemthey’retryingtosolve;memorizingthevocabularyofalanguagebecauseit’swrittenonalist,notbecauseyouwanttouseit;solvinghighlyidealizedproblemsthatyou’llneverseeagainaftergraduation.Indirectapproachestolearning,however,aren’tlimitedtotraditionaleducation.Manyself-

directedlearnersfallintothetrapofindirectlearning.ConsiderDuolingo,currentlyoneofthemostpopularlanguage-learningapplications.Onthesurface,there’salottolikeaboutthisapp.It’scolorfulandfunandgivesyouapotentsenseofprogress.ButIsuspectthatmuchofthesenseofprogressisanillusion,atleastifyourgoalistoeventuallybeabletospeakthelanguage.Tounderstandwhy,considerhowDuolingoencouragesyoutopractice.ItprovidesEnglishwordsandsentencesandthenasksyoutopickwordsfromawordbanktotranslatethem.*Theproblemisthatthisisnothinglikeactuallyspeakingalanguage!Inreallife,youmaystartbytryingtotranslateanEnglishsentenceintothelanguageyouwanttolearn.However,realspeakingsituationsdon’tpresentthemselvesasamultiplechoice.Instead,youhavetodredgeuptheactualwordsfrommemoryorfindalternativewordsifyouhaven’tlearnedoneoftheonesyouwanttouse.Thisis,cognitivelyspeaking,quiteadifferenttaskfrompickingoutmatchingtranslationsfromahighlylimitedwordbank,andalsomuchmoredifficult.BennyLewis’smethodofspeakingfromthestartmaybehard,butittransfersperfectlytothetaskheeventuallywantstobecomegoodat:havingconversations.DuringtheMITChallenge,Irecognizedthatthemostimportantresourceforbeingableto

eventuallypasstheclasseswasn’thavingaccesstorecordedlectures,itwashavingaccesstoproblemsets.Yet,intheyearssincethisproject,whenIamaskedforhelpbystudents,they

oftendecrytheabsenceoflecturevideosfromsomeclasses,onlyrarelycomplainingaboutincompleteorinsufficientproblemsets.Thismakesmethinkthatmoststudentsviewsittingandlisteningtoalectureasthemainwaythattheylearnthematerial,withdoingproblemsthatlooksubstantiallysimilartothoseonthefinalexamasbeingasuperficialcheckontheirknowledge.Thoughfirstcoveringthematerialisoftenessentialtobegindoingpractice,theprincipleofdirectnessassertsthatit’sactuallywhiledoingthethingyouwanttogetgoodatwhenmuchoflearningtakesplace.Theexceptionstothisrulearerarerthantheymayfirstappear,andthereforedirectnesshasbeenathornyprobleminthesideofeducationforoveracentury.Theeasiestwaytolearndirectlyistosimplyspendalotoftimedoingthethingyouwantto

becomegoodat.Ifyouwanttolearnalanguage,speakit,asBennyLewisdoes.Ifyouwanttomastermakingvideogames,thenmakethem,asEricBaronedoes.Ifyouwanttopassatest,practicesolvingthekindsofproblemsthatarelikelytoappearonit,asIdidinmyownMITChallenge.Thisstyleoflearningbydoingwon’tworkforallprojects.The“real”situationmaybeinfrequent,difficult,orevenimpossibletocreate,andthuslearninginadifferentenvironmentisunavoidable.RogerCraigcouldn’tpracticeJeopardy!bybeingontheshowhundredsoftimes.Heknewhehadtolearninadifferentenvironmentandpreparetotransferthatknowledgetotheshowwhenitcametimetodoso.Insuchsituations,directnessisn’tanall-or-nothingfeaturebutsomethingyoucangraduallyincreasetoimproveyourperformance.Craig’sapproachtostartbylearningfromactualpastJeopardy!questionswasalotmoreeffectivethanifhehadjuststartedlearningtriviafromrandomtopics.Jaiswalwassimilarlylimitedwhenlearningarchitecturalskills,astheplaceshewantedtoworkwouldn’thirehim.However,heworkedaroundthatbytrainingonthesamesoftwaretheyusedanddesigningaportfoliothatwasbasedonthesametypesofdrawingsandrenderingsthatweredoneinactualpractice.Thetwinchallengeofdirectnessisthatsometimestheexactsituationinwhichyouwanttousetheskillisn’tavailableforeasypractice.Evenifyoucangostraightintolearningbydoing,thisapproachisoftenmoreintenseanduncomfortablethanpassivelywatchinglecturevideosorplayingaroundwithafunapp.Ifyoudon’tpayattentiontodirectness,therefore,it’sveryeasytoslipintolousylearningstrategies.OneofthebigtakeawaysofJaiswal’sstorymightnotbethetriumphofhisself-directed

learningprojectbutthefailureofhisformaleducation.Afterall,hisdifficultiesstartedafterhehadalreadyspentfouryearsstudyingarchitectureintenselyatuniversity.Why,then,wouldsuchasmallproject,postgraduation,makesuchalargedifferenceinhisemployability?Toanswerthat,I’dliketoturntooneofthemoststubbornanddisturbingproblemsineducationalpsychology:theproblemoftransfer.

Transfer:Education’sDirtySecretTransferhasbeencalledthe“HolyGrailofeducation.”Ithappenswhenyoulearnsomethinginonecontext,sayinaclassroom,andareabletouseitinanothercontext,sayinreallife.Althoughthismaysoundtechnical,transferreallyembodiessomethingweexpectofalmostalllearningefforts—thatwe’llbeabletousesomethingwestudyinonesituationandapplyittoanewsituation.Anythinglessthanthisishardtodescribeaslearningatall.Unfortunately,transferisalsosomethingthat,despitemorethanacenturyofintensework

andresearch,haslargelyfailedtooccurinformaleducation.ThepsychologistRobertHaskellhassaidinhisexcellentcoverageofthevastliteratureontransferinlearning,“Despitetheimportanceoftransferoflearning,researchfindingsoverthepastninedecadesclearlyshowthatasindividuals,andaseducationalinstitutions,wehavefailedtoachievetransferoflearningonanysignificantlevel.”Helateradded,“Withoutexaggeration,it’saneducationscandal.”2Thesituationisevenmoredisturbingthanitsounds.Haskellpointedout,“Weexpectthat

therewillbetransferoflearning,forexample,fromahighschoolcourseinintroductorypsychologytoacollege-levelintroductiontopsychologycourse.Ithasbeenknownforyears,however,thatstudentswhoentercollegehavingtakenahighschoolpsychologycoursedonobetterthanstudentswhodidn’ttakepsychologyinhighschool.Somestudentswhohavetakenapsychologycourseinhighschooldoevenworseinthecollegecourse.”Inanotherstudy,collegegraduateswereaskedquestionsabouteconomicissuesandnodifferenceinperformancewasfoundbetweenthosewhohadtakenaneconomicsclassandthosewhohadnot.3

Providingmultipleexamplesseemstoaidtransferabit,yetthecognitivescienceresearcherMicheleneChinotedthat“inalmostalltheempiricalworktodate,ontheroleofexample

solutions,astudentwhohasstudiedexamplesoftencannotsolveproblemsthatdeviateslightlyfromtheexamplesolution.”4InhisbookTheUnschooledMind:HowChildrenThinkandHowSchoolsShouldTeach,thedevelopmentalpsychologistHowardGardnerpointedtothebodyofevidenceshowingthateven“studentswhoreceivehonorsgradesincollege-levelphysicscoursesarefrequentlyunabletosolvebasicproblemsandquestionsencounteredinaformslightlydifferentfromthatonwhichtheyhavebeenformallyinstructedandtested.”5Norhasthisfailureoftransferbeenlimitedtoschools.Corporatetrainingalsosuffers,withtheformerTimesMirrorTrainingGroupchairmanJohnH.Zengerwriting“Researcherswhorigorouslyevaluatetraininghavesaidthatdemonstrablechangesfollowingtrainingarehardtofind.”6Therecognitionofthefailureofgeneraltransferhasahistoryaslongasthestudyofthe

problemitself.ThefirstattackontheproblemcamefromthepsychologistsEdwardThorndikeandRobertWoodworthin1901,withtheirseminalpaper“TheInfluenceofImprovementinOneMentalFunctionupontheEfficiencyofOtherFunctions.”Init,theyattackedthedominanttheoryofeducationatthetime,so-calledformaldisciplinetheory.Thistheorysuggestedthatthebrainwasanalogoustoamuscle,containingfairlygeneralcapacitiesofmemory,attention,andreasoning,andthattrainingthosemuscles,irrespectiveofthecontent,couldresultingeneralimprovement.ThiswasthepredominanttheorybehinduniversalinstructioninLatinandgeometry,ontheideathatitwouldhelpstudentsthinkbetter.Thorndikewasabletorefutethisideabyshowingthattheabilitytotransferwasmuchnarrowerthanmostpeoplehadassumed.

AlthoughstudyingLatinhasfallenoutoffavor,manyeducationalpunditsarerevivingnewincarnationsoftheformaldisciplinetheorybysuggestingthateveryonelearnprogrammingorcriticalthinkinginordertoimprovetheirgeneralintelligence.Manypopular“brain-training”gamesalsosubscribetothisviewofthemind,assumingthatdeeptrainingononesetofcognitivetaskswillextendtoeverydayreasoning.It’sbeenmorethanonehundredyearssincetheverdictcamein,yettheallureofageneraltransferprocedurestillhasmanysearchingfortheHolyGrail.Despiteallthis,thesituationisn’twithouthope.Althoughempiricalworkandeducational

institutionshaveoftenfailedtodemonstratesignificanttransfer,itisnotthecasethattransferdoesn’texist.WilbertMcKeachie,inreviewingthehistoryoftransfer,notedthat“Transferisparadoxical.Whenwewantit,wedonotgetit.Yetitoccursallthetime.”7Wheneveryouuseananalogy,sayingsomethingislikesomethingelse,you’retransferringknowledge.IfyouknowhowtoiceskateandlaterlearntoRollerblade,you’retransferringskills.AsHaskellpointedout,iftransferwerereallyimpossible,wewouldbeunabletofunction.Sowhatexplainsthedisconnect?Whyhaveeducationalinstitutionsstruggledto

demonstratesignificanttransfer,iftransferissomethingweallneedtofunctionintheworld?Haskellsuggeststhatamajorreasonisthattransfertendstobeharderwhenourknowledgeismorelimited.Aswedevelopmoreknowledgeandskillinanarea,theybecomemoreflexibleandeasiertoapplyoutsidethenarrowcontextsinwhichtheywerelearned.However,I’dliketoaddmyownhypothesisasanexplanationforthetransferproblem:mostformallearningiswoefullyindirect.

OvercomingtheProblemofTransferwithDirectnessDirectnesssolvestheproblemoftransferintwoways.Thefirstandmostobviousisthatifyoulearnwithadirectconnectiontotheareainwhichyoueventuallywanttoapplytheskill,theneedforfartransferissignificantlyreduced.Givenacenturyofresearchshowingthedifficultiesoftransferalongwithproposedsolutionsthathavefailedtoprovidelastingresults,anystudentmusttakeseriouslythenotionthattransferringwhathasbeenlearnedbetweenverydifferentcontextsandsituationswillbetreacherous.Ifourlearningis,asHaskellsuggests,“weldedtoaplaceorsubjectmatter,”itisalotbetterthatthosesituationsbeclosetotheonesweactuallywanttouse.Second,Ibelievethatdirectnessmayhelpwithtransfertonewsituations,beyonditsmore

obviousroleinpreventingtheneedforfartransfer.Manyreal-lifesituationssharemanysubtledetailswithotherreal-lifesituationsthattheyneversharewiththeabstractenvironmentoftheclassroomortextbook.Learningsomethingnewrarelydependsjustonthemassofeasilyarticulatedandcodifiedknowledgepresentbutonthemyriadtinydetailsofhowthatknowledgeinteractswithreality.Bylearninginarealcontext,onealsolearnsmanyofthehiddendetailsandskillsthatarefarmorelikelytotransfertoanewreal-lifesituationthanfromtheartificialenvironmentofaclassroom.Usingapersonalexample,oneofthe

skillsIfoundmostimportantintheno-Englishprojectwasbeingabletoquicklyuseadictionaryortranslationapponmyphone,soIcouldfillgapsinmylinguisticknowledgeinmidconversation.However,it’sexactlythiskindofpracticalskillthatisrarelycoveredinalanguage-learningcurriculum.Whilethisisatrivialexample,real-lifesituationscontainthousandsofsuchpiecesofskillandknowledgethatarenecessaryifyou’regoingtoapplyacademicallylearnedsubjectsintherealworld.Ultimately,itwillbeforresearcherstodecidewhethertheHolyGrailofeducationwillever

befound.Inthemeantime,aslearners,wemustacceptthatinitiallearningeffortsoftenstickstubbornlytothesituationswelearnthemin.Theprogrammerwholearnsaboutanalgorithmfromaclassmayhavetroublerecognizingwhentouseitinhercode.Theleaderwholearnsanewmanagementphilosophyfromabusinessbookmaygobacktoworkingwiththesameapproachshehasalwaysusedwithheremployees.Myfavoriteexample,though,hastobewhenagroupoffriendsinvitedmetojointhematacasino.Iaskedthemiftheirstudieseverkeptthemfromenjoyinggambling,andtheyjustlookedatmeblankly.Ithoughtitwasfunnybecausethestudentswereactuaries.Theiryearsspentstudyingstatisticsintheclassroomshouldhaveconvincedthemthatyoucan’texpecttobeatthehouse,yetthatconnectiondidn’tseemtodawnonthem.Whenwelearnnewthings,therefore,weshouldalwaysstrivetotiethemdirectlytothecontextswewanttousethemin.Buildingknowledgeoutwardfromthekernelofarealsituationismuchbetterthanthetraditionalstrategyoflearningsomethingandhopingthatwe’llbeabletoshiftitintoarealcontextatsomeundeterminedfuturetime.

HowUltralearnersAvoidtheProblemofTransferandLearnDirectly

Giventheproblemoftransferandtheimportanceoflearningdirectly,let’slookatsomeofthewaysthatthisismanagedindifferentultralearningprojects.Thesimplestwaytobedirectistolearnbydoing.Wheneverpossible,ifyoucanspendagoodportionofyourlearningtimejustdoingthethingyouwanttogetbetterat,theproblemofdirectnesswilllikelygoaway.Ifthisisn’tpossible,youmayneedtocreateanartificialprojectorenvironmenttotestyourskills.Whatmattersmosthereisthatthecognitivefeaturesoftheskillyou’retryingtomasterandthewayyoupracticeitbesubstantiallysimilar.ConsideragainCraig’ssimulationofJeopardy!gamesbydoingquestionsfromoldtests.Thefactthathewasusingactualpastquestionsismoreimportantthanwhetherhisprogrammatchedthesignaturebluebackgroundcolorpresentontheshow’sdisplay.Thisisbecausethebackgroundcolordidn’tprovideanyinformationthatwouldhavechangedhisresponsestothequestions.Theskillhewaspracticingwasn’tchangedmuchbyit.Incontrast,ifhehadtakentriviaquestionsfromadifferentgame(saytheboardgameTrivialPursuit)theremighthavebeendifferencesinhowquestionsaretypicallyasked,thetopicstheyaredrawnfrom,orthedifficultylevel.Worse,ifhehadspentallhistimereadingrandomWikipediaarticlestolearntrivia,hewouldn’thavebeenpracticingthefundamentalskillofrecallinganswersbasedoncrypticJeopardy!-stylecluesatall.Inothercases,whatyou’retryingtoachievemaynotbeapracticalskill.Manyofthe

ultralearnersIencounteredwanted,astheirendgoal,tounderstandasubjectparticularlywell,suchasVishalMainiwithmachinelearningandartificialintelligence.EvenmyownMITChallengewasbasedaroundgainingadeepunderstandingofcomputerscience,asopposedtoamorepracticalgoalofbuildinganapporvideogame.Thoughthismayseemlikeacasewheredirectnessnolongermatters,thatreallyisn’ttrue.It’ssimplythattheplaceyouwanttoapplytheseideasislessobviousandconcrete.InMaini’scase,hewantedtobeabletothinkandtalkintelligentlyaboutmachinelearning,enoughtobeabletolandanontechnicalroleinacompanythatutilizedthosemethods.Thatmeantthatbeingabletocommunicatehisideasarticulately,understandingtheconceptsclearly,andbeingabletodiscussthemwithbothknowledgeablepractitionersandlaypeoplewasimportant.That’swhyhisgoaltomakeaminicourseexplainingthebasicsofmachinelearningfitsowell.Hislearningwasdirectlyconnectedwithwherehewantedtoapplytheskill:communicatingittoothers.Althoughthefindingsoftheresearchontransferarefairlybleak,thereisaglimmerof

hope,whichisthatgainingadeeperknowledgeofasubjectwillmakeitmoreflexibleforfuturetransfer.Whereasthestructuresofourknowledgestartoutbrittle,weldedtotheenvironmentsandcontextswelearnthemin,withmoreworkandtimetheycanbecomeflexibleandcanbeappliedmorebroadly.ThisistheconclusionofRobertHaskell,andalthoughitdoesnotprovideashort-termsolutiontotheproblemfornewlearners,itdoessuggestapathoutforthosewhowanttocontinueworkingonasubjectuntiltheymasterit.Manyultralearnerswhohavespecializedinasmallersubsetoffieldsaremastersattransfer;

nodoubtthisislargelyduetotheirdepthofknowledge,whichmakestransfereasiertoaccomplish.DanEverett,whowasfeaturedintheopeningofthechapteronthefirstprinciple,metalearning,isaprimeexampleofthis.Hislinguisticdepthallowshimtolearnnewlanguagesrelativelyeasily,comparedtosomeonewhohaslearnedonlyasecondlanguageorhaslearnedonlylanguagesacademically.

HowtoLearnDirectlyGiventhewell-documenteddifficultywithindirectformsoflearning,whyaretheystillthedefaultbothinschoolsandinmanyfailedattemptsatself-education?Theansweristhatlearningdirectlyishard.Itisoftenmorefrustrating,challenging,andintensethanreadingabookorsittingthroughalecture.Butthisverydifficultycreatesapotentsourceofcompetitiveadvantageforanywould-beultralearner.Ifyou’rewillingtoapplytacticsthatexploitdirectnessdespitethesedifficulties,youwillenduplearningmuchmoreeffectively.Let’sexaminesomeofthetacticsultralearnersusetomaximizethisprincipleandtake

advantageoftheinadequaciesofmoretypicalschooling.

Tactic1:Project-BasedLearning

Manyultralearnersoptforprojectsratherthanclassestolearntheskillstheyneed.Therationaleissimple:ifyouorganizeyourlearningaroundproducingsomething,you’reguaranteedtoatleastlearnhowtoproducethatthing.Ifyoutakeclasses,youmayspendalotoftimetakingnotesandreadingbutnotachieveyourgoal.Learningtoprogrambycreatingyourowncomputergameisaperfectexampleofproject-

basedlearning.Engineering,design,art,musicalcomposition,carpentry,writing,andmanyotherskillsnaturallylendthemselvestoprojectsthatproducesomethingattheend.However,anintellectualtopiccanalsobethebasisofaproject.OneultralearnerIinterviewed,whoseprojectisstillongoing,wantedtolearnmilitaryhistory.Hisproject,inthiscase,wastoworktowardproducingathesispaper.Sincehisendgoalwastobeabletoconverseknowledgeablyaboutthesubject,aprojecttoproduceanoriginalpaperappliedlearningmoredirectlythansimplytryingtoreadalotofbookswithoutcreatinganything.

Tactic2:ImmersiveLearning

Immersionistheprocessofsurroundingyourselfwiththetargetenvironmentinwhichtheskillispracticed.Thishastheadvantageofrequiringmuchlargeramountsofpracticethanwouldbetypical,aswellasexposingyoutoafullerrangeofsituationsinwhichtheskillapplies.Learningalanguageisthecanonicalexampleofwhereimmersionworks.Byimmersing

yourselfinanenvironmentwherealanguageisspoken,notonlydoyouguaranteethatyou’llenduppracticingthelanguagealotmorethanyouwouldotherwise(sinceyouhavenochoice),butyoualsofaceabroaderdiversityofsituationsthatrequirelearningnewwordsandphrases.However,languagelearningisnottheonlyplacewhereyoucanapplyimmersiontolearnmore.Joiningcommunitiesofpeoplewhoareactivelyengagedinlearningcanhaveasimilarimpact,sinceitencouragesconstantexposuretonewideasandchallenges.Forexample,noviceprogrammersmightjoinopen-sourceprojectstoexposethemselvestonewcodingchallenges.

Tactic3:TheFlightSimulatorMethod

Immersionandprojectsaregreat,butformanyskillsthere’snowaytoactuallypracticetheskilldirectly.Forskillssuchaspilotingaplaneorperformingsurgery,it’snotevenlegaltopracticetheminarealsituationuntilyou’vealreadyinvestedconsiderabletimeintotraining.Howcanyouovercomethis?It’simportanttonotethatwhatmattersfortransferisnoteverypossiblefeatureofthe

learningenvironment,suchaswhatroomyou’reinorwhatclothesyou’rewearingwhileyoulearn.Rather,it’sthecognitivefeatures—situationswhereyouneedtomakedecisionsaboutwhattodoandcueknowledgeyou’vestoredinyourhead.Thissuggeststhatwhendirectpracticeisimpossible,asimulationoftheenvironmentwillworktothedegreetowhichitremainsfaithfultothecognitiveelementsofthetaskinquestion.Forflyingaplane,thismeansthatpracticingonaflightsimulatormaybeasgoodforlearningasflyinganactual

planeifitsufficientlycallsonthediscriminationsanddecisionsapilotneedstomake.Bettergraphicsandsoundsaren’timportant,unlesstheychangethenatureofthedecisionsbeingmadeorthecuespilotsreceiveforwhentousecertainskillsorknowledge.8Whenevaluatingdifferentmethodsforlearning,thosethatsignificantlysimulatethedirect

approachwilltransferalotbetter.Therefore,ifyou’retryingtoevaluatewhat’sthebestwaytolearnFrenchbeforeyourtriptoFrance,you’llgetmore(althoughnotperfect)transferfromdoingSkypetutoringthanyouwillfromflippingthroughflashcards.

Tactic4:TheOverkillApproach

ThelastmethodI’vefoundforenhancingdirectnessistoincreasethechallenge,sothattheskilllevelrequirediswhollycontainedwithinthegoalthatisset.TristandeMontebello,whenpreparingtocompeteintheWorldChampionshipofPublicSpeaking,pushedtospeakatmiddleschools,givingearlyversionsofhistalk.HisfeelingwasthatthefeedbackhereceivedatToastmastersclubsmightbetoosoftorcongratulatorytocutdeepatwhatworkedanddidn’tworkinhisspeech.Middleschoolstudents,incontrast,wouldbemerciless.Ifajokehesaidwasn’tfunnyorhisdeliverywasboringorcheesy,hewouldbeabletotellimmediatelyfromtheirfaceswhatneededtobereworked.Theoverkillapproachistoputyourselfintoanenvironmentwherethedemandsaregoingtobeextremelyhigh,soyou’reunlikelytomissanyimportantlessonsorfeedback.Goingintothisenvironmentcanfeelintense.Youmayfeelasthoughyou’re“notready”to

startspeakingalanguageyou’vebarelylearned.Youmaybeafraidtostandonstageanddeliveraspeechyouhaven’tmemorizedperfectly.Youmightnotwanttodiverightintoprogrammingyourownapplicationandprefertosticktowatchingvideoswheresomeoneelsedoesthecoding.Butthesefearsareoftenonlytemporary.Ifyoucangetenoughmotivationtostartthismethod,it’softenaloteasiertocontinueitlongterm.Thefirstweekineachnewcountryinmylanguagelearningprojectwasalwaysashock,butsoonitbecamecompletelynormaltoliveentirelywithinthenewlanguage.Onewayyoucanoverkillaprojectistoaimforaparticulartest,performance,orchallenge

thatwillbeabovetheskilllevelyoustrictlyrequire.BennyLewislikestoattemptlanguageexams,becausetheyprovideaconcretechallenge.InhisGermanproject,hewantedtoattemptthehighest-levelexam,becausehisawarenessofthatgoalwouldpushhimtostudymorethanhemightifheweresatisfiedwithcomfortableconversationsalone.Anotherfriendofminedecidedtoexhibitherphotographyasameansofpushingherskillsandtalent.Decidinginadvancethatyourworkwillbeviewablepubliclyaltersyourapproachtolearningandwillgearyoutowardperformanceinthedesireddomain,ratherthanjustcheckingoffboxesoffactslearned.

LearnStraightfromtheSourceLearningdirectlyisoneofthehallmarksofmanyofthesuccessfulultralearningprojectsI’veencountered,particularlybecauseofhowdifferentitcanbefromthestyleofeducationmostofusareusedto.Wheneveryoulearnanythingnew,it’sagoodhabittoaskyourselfwhereandhowtheknowledgewillmanifestitself.Ifyoucananswerthat,youcanthenaskwhetheryou’redoinganythingtotiewhatyou’relearningtothatcontext.Ifyou’renot,youneedtotreadcarefully,astheproblemoftransfermayrearitsuglyhead.Theactoflearningdirectly,however,isonlyhalfoftheanswertothequestionofwhatyou

shoulddotolearnwell.Doingalotofdirectpracticeintheenvironmentwhereyouwanttoeventuallyuseyourskillsisanimportantstart.However,inordertomasterskillsquickly,bulkpracticeisn’tenough.Thisbringsustoournextprincipleofultralearning:drill.

ChapterVIIPrinciple4

DrillAttackYourWeakestPoint

Takecareofthebarsandthepiecewilltakecareofitself.—PhilipJohnston,composer

OfalltherolesBenjaminFranklinplayedthroughouthislife—entrepreneur,inventor,scientist,diplomat,andfoundingfatheroftheUnitedStates—hewasfirstandforemostawriter.Itwasinwritingthathefirstfoundsuccess.AfterfleeingBostontoescapethefinalyearsofhisindenturedlaborasanapprenticetohisbrother’sprintingcompany,hewenttoPhiladelphia.There,pennilessandunknown,hefirstworkedforanotherprintingcompanybeforeestablishinghimselfasacompetitor.HisPoorRichard’sAlmanackbecameaninternationalbestsellerandallowedhimtoretireatforty-two.However,itwasinthelatterhalf1ofhislifethathiswritingwouldhaveworld-changingconsequences.2Asascientist,Franklinwasbadatmathandmoreinterestedinpracticalconsequencesthan

ingrandtheoriesoftheuniverse.However,hisprosewas“writtenequallywellfortheuninitiatedaswellasthephilosopher,”notedtheEnglishchemistSirHumphreyDavy,adding“hehasrenderedhisdetailsasamusingaswellasperspicuous.”3Thestrengthofhiswritinganditspracticalconsequencesmadehimaninternationalsensation.Inpolitics,itwasagainFranklin’swritingtalentthathelpedhimwinalliesandpersuade

potentialantagonists.PriortotheAmericanRevolution,hepennedanessay,supposedlywrittenbyKingFrederickIIofPrussia,entitled“AnEdictbytheKingofPrussia.”InithesatirizedBritish-Americanrelationsbyproposingthat,duetoearlysettlersoftheBritishIslesbeingofGermanorigin,“revenue[should]beraisedfromsaidcoloniesinBritain”bythePrussianking.Later,hisskillwithapenwouldmakehiswritingintotheDeclarationofIndependence,

whereheeditedThomasJefferson’swordstobecomethenowfamous“Weholdthesetruthstobeself-evident.”Withsuchanamazingskillforwritingandpersuasion,it’sworthaskinghowFranklin

acquiredit.Fortunately,unlikesomanyothergreatwriters,whoseeffortsathoningtheirskillsremainmysterious,wehaveFranklin’sownwordsforhowhedidit.InhisAutobiography,hedetailshissophisticatedeffortstosliceapartsectionsofhiswritingskillforpracticeasayoungboy.Beginningwithachildhooddebateagainstafriendaboutthemeritsofeducatingwomen(Franklinwasfor,hisfriendagainst),hisfathernoticedthataspectsofhiswritinglackedpersuasiveability.Franklinthus“determinedtoendeavoratimprovement”andwentaboutaseriesofexercisestopracticehiswritingskill.Onesuchexercisehedocumentswastakingafavoritemagazineofhis,TheSpectator,and

takingnotesonarticlesthatappearedthere.Hewouldthenleavethenotesforafewdaysandcomebacktothem,tryingtoreconstructtheoriginalargumentfrommemory.Afterfinishing,he“comparedmySpectatorwiththeoriginal,discoveredsomeofmyfaults,andcorrectedthem.”Realizingthathisvocabularywaslimited,hedevelopedanotherstrategy.Byturningtheproseintoverse,hecouldreplacewordswithsynonymsthatmatchedinmeterorrhyme.Toimprovehissenseoftherhetoricalflowofanessay,hetriedhisimitationapproachagain,butthistimehejumbledupthehintssohewouldhavetodeterminethecorrectorderofthesequenceofideasashewroteagain.Oncehehadestablishedsomeofthemechanicsofwriting,hemovedontothemoredifficult

taskofwritinginastylethatwouldpersuade.WhenreadinganEnglishgrammarbook,he

wasexposedtotheideaoftheSocraticmethod,ofchallenginganother’sideasthroughprobingquestionsratherthandirectcontradiction.Hethenwenttowork,carefullyavoiding“abruptcontradictionandpositiveargumentation,”insteadfocusingonbeingthe“humbleinquireranddoubter.”Thoseearlyeffortsproducedresults.Atagesixteen,hewantedtotrytogethiswork

published.Fearingthathiselderbrothermightrejectitoutofhand,however,hedisguisedhispenmanshipandsubmittedhisessayunderthepseudonymSilenceDogood,purportingtobeawidowedwomanlivinginthecountryside.Hisbrother,notknowingthetrueauthor,approvedandpublishedtheessay,soFranklinreturnedandwrotemore.Althoughinitiatedasarusetohavehiswritingconsideredfairly,Franklin’spracticeinadoptingothercharacterswouldproveinvaluableinhislatercareer.PoorRichard’sAlmanack,forexample,waswrittenfromtheperspectiveofasimplehusbandandwife,RichardandBridgetSaunders,andhispoliticalessayssuchashis“AnEdictbytheKingofPrussia”similarlymadeuseofhisflexibilitytoadoptimaginedperspectives.It’sdifficulttoimagineFranklinhavingbecomethehouseholdnameheistodaywithouthis

havingfirstestablishedamasteryofwriting.Whetheritwasbusiness,science,orstatecraft,theunchangingcoreofwhatmadehimpersuasiveandgreatwashisabilitytowritewell.WhatdistinguishedFranklinwasn’tmerelytheamounthewroteorhisrawtalentbuthowhepracticed.Thewayinwhichhedecidedtobreakaparttheskillofwritingandpracticeitselementsinisolationenabledhimtomasterwritingatayoungageandapplyittotheotherpursuitsforwhichhewouldlaterbecomefamous.Suchcarefulanalysisanddeliberatepracticeformsthebasisforthefourthultralearningprinciple:drill.

TheChemistryofLearningInchemistry,there’sausefulconceptknownastherate-determiningstep.Thisoccurswhenareactiontakesplaceovermultiplesteps,withtheproductsofonereactionbecomingthereagentsforanother.Therate-determiningstepistheslowestpartofthischainofreactions,formingabottleneckthatultimatelydefinestheamountoftimeneededfortheentirereactiontooccur.Learning,I’dliketoargue,oftenworkssimilarly,withcertainaspectsofthelearningproblemformingabottleneckthatcontrolsthespeedatwhichyoucanbecomemoreproficientoverall.Considerlearningmathematics.Thisisacomplexskillthathasmanydifferentparts:you

needtobeabletounderstandthefundamentalconcepts,youneedtobeabletorememberthealgorithmforsolvingacertaintypeofproblem,andyouneedtoknowinwhatcontextitapplies.Underlyingthisability,however,istheabilitytodoarithmeticandalgebrasoastobeabletosolvetheproblemsinquestion.Ifyourarithmeticisweakoryouralgebrasloppy,you’llgetthewronganswersevenifyou’vemasteredtheotherconcepts.Anotherrate-determiningstepcouldbevocabularywhenlearningaforeignlanguage.The

numberofsentencesyoucansuccessfullyutterdependsonhowmanywordsyouknow.Ifyouknowtoofew,youwon’tbeabletotalkaboutverymuch.Ifyouwereabletosuddenlyinjecthundredsofnewwordsintoyourmentaldatabase,youmightdrasticallyexpandyourfluencyevenifyourpronunciation,grammar,orotherlinguisticknowledgeremainsunchanged.Thisisthestrategybehinddoingdrills.Byidentifyingarate-determiningstepinyour

learningreaction,youcanisolateitandworkonitspecifically.Sinceitgovernstheoverallcompetenceyouhavewiththatskill,byimprovingatityouwillimprovefasterthanifyoutrytopracticeeveryaspectoftheskillatonce.ThatwasFranklin’sinsightthatallowedhimtorapidlyimprovehiswriting:byidentifyingcomponentsoftheoverallskillofwriting,figuringoutwhichmatteredinhissituation,andthencomingupwithcleverwaystoemphasizetheminhispractice,hecouldgetbettermorequicklythanifhehadjustspentalotoftimewriting.

DrillsandCognitiveLoadRate-determiningstepsinlearning—whereonecomponentofacomplexskilldeterminesyouroveralllevelofperformance—areapowerfulreasontoapplydrills.However,theyaren’ttheonlyone.Evenifthereisn’toneisolatableaspectoftheskillthatisholdingbackyourperformance,itmaystillbeagoodideatoapplydrills.Thereasonisthatwhenyouarepracticingacomplexskill,yourcognitiveresources

(attention,memory,effort,etc.)mustbespreadovermanydifferentaspectsofthetask.WhenFranklinwaswriting,hehadtoconsidernotonlythelogicalcontentoftheargumenthewasmakingbutwordchoiceandrhetoricalstyle.Thiscancreatealearningtrap.Inorderto

improveyourperformanceinoneaspect,youmayneedtodevotesomuchattentiontothatoneaspectthattheotherpartsofyourperformancestarttogodown.Ifyoucanjudgeyourselfonlyonhowmuchyouimproveattheoveralltask,itcanleadtoasituationinwhichyourimprovementslowsdownbecauseyouwillbegettingworseattheoveralltaskwhilebecomingbetterataspecificcomponentofit.Drillsresolvethisproblembysimplifyingaskillenoughthatyoucanfocusyourcognitive

resourcesonasingleaspect.WhenFranklinfocusedonreconstructingtheorderofanessayhehadreadpreviously,hecoulddevoteallhisattentiontoaskingwhatsequenceofideasleadstoagoodessayratherthanalsoneedingtoworryaboutwordusage,grammar,andthecontentofthearguments.Astutereaderswillprobablynoticeatensionbetweenthisprincipleandthelast.Ifdirect

practiceinvolvesworkingonawholeskillnearesttothesituationinwhichitwilleventuallybeused,drillsareapullintheoppositedirection.Adrilltakesthedirectpracticeandcutsitapart,sothatyouarepracticingonlyanisolatedcomponent.Howcanyouresolvethiscontradiction?

TheDirect-Then-DrillApproachThetensionbetweenlearningdirectlyanddoingdrillscanberesolvedwhenweseethemasbeingalternatingstagesinalargercycleoflearning.Themistakemadeinmanyacademicstrategiesforlearningistoignorethedirectcontextorabstractitaway,inthehopethatifenoughcomponentskillsaredeveloped,theywilleventuallytransfer.Ultralearners,incontrast,frequentlyemploywhatI’llcalltheDirect-Then-DrillApproach.Thefirststepistotrytopracticetheskilldirectly.Thismeansfiguringoutwhereandhow

theskillwillbeusedandthentryingtomatchthatsituationascloseasisfeasiblewhenpracticing.Practicealanguagebyactuallyspeakingit.Learnprogrammingbywritingsoftware.Improveyourwritingskillsbypenningessays.Thisinitialconnectionandsubsequentfeedbackloopensurethatthetransferproblemwon’toccur.Thenextstepistoanalyzethedirectskillandtrytoisolatecomponentsthatareeitherrate-

determiningstepsinyourperformanceorsubskillsyoufinddifficulttoimprovebecausetherearetoomanyotherthingsgoingonforyoutofocusonthem.Fromhereyoucandevelopdrillsandpracticethosecomponentsseparatelyuntilyougetbetteratthem.Thefinalstepistogobacktodirectpracticeandintegratewhatyou’velearned.Thishas

twopurposes.Thefirstisthateveninwell-designeddrills,therearegoingtobetransferhiccupsowingtothefactthatwhatwaspreviouslyanisolatedskillmustbemovedtoanewandmorecomplexcontext.Thinkofthisasbeinglikebuildingtheconnectivetissuetojointhemusclesyoustrengthenedseparately.Thesecondfunctionofthisstepisasacheckonwhetheryourdrillwaswelldesignedandappropriate.Manyattemptstoisolateadrillmayendinfailurebecausethedrilldoesn’treallycutattheheartofwhatwasdifficultinrealpractice.That’sokay;thisfeedbackisimportanttohelpyouminimizewastingtimelearningthingsthatdon’tmattermuchtoyourendgoals.Theearlieryouareinthelearningprocess,thefasterthiscycleshouldbe.Cyclingbetween

directpracticeanddrills,evenwithinthesamelearningsession,isagoodideawhenyou’rejuststartingout.Later,asyougetbetteratwhatyouaretryingtodoandalotmoreeffortisrequiredtonoticeablyimproveyouroverallperformance,it’smoreacceptabletotakelongerdetoursintodrills.Asyouapproachmastery,yourtimemayendupfocusedmostlyondrillsasyourknowledgeofhowthecomplexskillbreaksdownintoindividualcomponentsbecomesmorerefinedandaccurateandimprovinganyindividualcomponentgetsharderandharder.

TacticsforDesigningDrillsTherearethreemajorproblemswhenapplyingthisprinciple.Thefirstisfiguringoutwhenandwhattodrill.Youshouldfocusonwhataspectsoftheskillmightbetherate-determiningstepsinyourperformance.Whichaspectoftheskill,ifyouimprovedit,wouldcausethegreatestimprovementtoyourabilitiesoverallfortheleastamountofeffort?YouraccountingskillsmightbelimitedbythefactthatyourExcelknowledgeissuperficial,whichpreventsyoufromapplyingallthethingsyouknowtopracticalsituations.Yourlanguageabilitiesmaybeheldbackbyhavinginaccuratepronunciation,eventhoughyouknowtherightwords.Lookaswelltoaspectsofaskillthatyouneedtojugglesimultaneously.Thesemaybehardertoimprovebecauseyoucan’tdevoteenoughcognitiveresourcestoimprovingthem.Whenwritinganewarticle,youmayhavetojuggleresearch,storytelling,vocabulary,andmany

otheraspectssimultaneously,makingithardtogetalotbetteratjustone.Determiningwhattodrillmayseemtricky,butitdoesn’thavetobe.Thekeyistoexperiment.Makeahypothesisaboutwhatisholdingyouback,attackitwithsomedrills,usingtheDirect-Then-DrillApproach,andyoucanquicklygetfeedbackaboutwhetheryou’reright.Theseconddifficultywiththisprincipleisdesigningthedrilltoproduceimprovement.This

isoftenhardbecauseevenifyourecognizeanaspectofyourperformanceyou’reweakon,itmaybetrickytodesignadrillthattrainsthatcomponentwithoutartificiallyremovingwhatmakesitdifficultinactualapplication.Franklin’sdrillswereuncommon,Ibelieve,becausemostpeople,evenrecognizingspecificdeficitsintheirwritingability,wouldnothavehadtheingenuitytofindwaystodrillsubskillssuchasorderingargumentspersuasivelyandemulatingasuccessfulwritingstyle.Finally,doingdrillsishardandoftenuncomfortable.Teasingouttheworstthingaboutyour

performanceandpracticingthatinisolationtakesguts.It’smuchmorepleasanttospendtimefocusingonthingsyou’realreadygoodat.Giventhisnaturaltendency,let’slookatsomegoodwaystododrillssoyoucanstartapplyingthemyourself.

Drill1:TimeSlicing

Theeasiestwaytocreateadrillistoisolateasliceintimeofalongersequenceofactions.Musiciansoftendothiskindoftrainingwhentheyidentifythehardestpartsofapieceofmusicandpracticeeachoneuntilit’sperfectbeforeintegratingitbackintothecontextoftheentiresongorsymphony.Athletessimilarlyengageinthisprocesswhentheydrillskillsthatarenormallyafractionoftotalplayingtime,suchaslayupsorpenaltyshots.Intheearlyphaseoflearninganewlanguage,Ioftenobsessivelyrepeatafewkeyphrases,sotheyquicklygetembeddedintomylong-termmemory.Lookforpartsoftheskillyou’relearningthatcanbedecomposedintospecificmomentsoftimethathaveheighteneddifficultyorimportance.

Drill2:CognitiveComponents

Sometimeswhatyou’llwanttopracticeisn’tasliceintimeofalargerskillbutaparticularcognitivecomponent.Whenspeakingalanguage,grammar,pronunciation,andvocabularyoccuratallmoments,buttheyformdifferentcognitiveaspectsthatmustbemanagedsimultaneously.Thetactichereistofindawaytodrillonlyonecomponentwhen,inpractice,otherswouldbeappliedatthesametime.WhenlearningMandarinChinese,Iwoulddotonedrillsthatinvolvedpronouncingpairsofwordswithdifferenttonesandrecordingmyselfspeaking.Thatallowedmetopracticeproducingdifferenttonesquickly,withoutthedistractionofneedingtorememberwhatthewordsmeantorhowtoformgrammaticallycorrectsentences.

Drill3:TheCopycat

Adifficultywithdrillsinmanycreativeskillsisthatitisoftenimpossibletopracticeoneaspectwithoutalsodoingtheworkoftheothers.WhenFranklinwastryingtoimprovehisabilitytoorderargumentslogically,forinstance,itwasn’tpossibletodosowithoutwritinganentireessay.Tosolvethisprobleminyourownlearning,youcantakeapagefromFranklin:bycopyingthepartsoftheskillyoudon’twanttodrill(eitherfromsomeoneelseoryourpastwork),youcanfocusexclusivelyonthecomponentyouwanttopractice.Notonlydoesthissavealotoftime,becauseyouneedtorepeatonlythepartyou’redrilling,italsoreducesyourcognitiveburden,meaningyoucanapplymorefocustogettingbetteratthatoneaspect.Whenpracticingdrawing,Istartedbydrawingnotjustfromphotosbutfromdrawingsotherpeoplehaddone.Thathelpedmefocusontheskillofaccuratelyrenderingthepicture,simplifyingthedecisionabouthowtoframethesceneandwhichdetailstoinclude.Forflexiblecreativeworks,editingworksyou’vecreatedinthepastmayhavethesameeffect,allowingyoutoselectivelyimproveanaspectofyourworkwithouthavingtoconsidertheotherdemandsofanoriginalcomposition.

Drill4:TheMagnifyingGlassMethod

Supposeyouneedtocreatesomethingnewandcan’teditorseparateoutthepartyouwanttopractice.Howcanyoucreateadrill?TheMagnifyingGlassMethodistospendmoretimeononecomponentoftheskillthanyouwouldotherwise.Thismayreduceyouroverall

performanceorincreaseyourinputtime,butitwillallowyoutospendamuchhigherproportionofyourtimeandcognitiveresourcesonthesubskillyouwanttomaster.Iappliedthismethodwhentryingtoimprovemyabilitytodoresearchwhenwritingarticles,byspendingabouttentimesaslongonresearchasIhadpreviously.AlthoughIstillhadtodoalltheotherpartsofwritingthearticle,byspendingmuchlongeronresearchthanIwouldnormally,Icoulddevelopnewhabitsandskillsfordoingso.

Drill5:PrerequisiteChaining

OnestrategyI’veseenrepeatedlyfromultralearnersistostartwithaskillthattheydon’thavealltheprerequisitesfor.Then,whentheyinevitablydopoorly,theygobackastep,learnoneofthefoundationaltopics,andrepeattheexercise.Thispracticeofstartingtoohardandlearningprerequisitesastheyareneededcanbefrustrating,butitsavesalotoftimelearningsubskillsthatdon’tactuallydriveperformancemuch.EricBarone,forinstance,startedhispixelartexperimentssimplybymakingthem.Whenhestruggledwithcertainaspects,suchascolors,hewentback,learnedcolortheory,andrepeatedhiswork.BennyLewishasasimilarhabitofstartingwithspeakingfromaphrasebookandonlylaterlearningthegrammarthatexplainshowthephrasesfunction.

MindfulDrillingTomany,theideaofdrillingmayseemtobeapushinthewrongdirection.We’veallspenttimedoinghomeworkdesignedtodrillintousfactsandproceduresthatturnedouttobeatotalwasteoftime.Thatwasoftenbecausewedidn’tknowthereasonsbehindwhatwewerepracticingorhowitfitintoabroadercontext.Drillingproblemswithoutcontextismind-numbing.However,onceyou’veidentifiedthatit’sthebottleneckpreventingyoufromgoingfurther,theybecomeinstilledwithnewpurpose.Inultralearning,whichisdirectedbythestudent,notanexternalsource,drillstakeonanewlight.Insteadofbeingforcedtodothemforunknownpurposes,itisnowuptoyoutofindawaytoenhancethelearningprocessbyacceleratinglearningonthespecificthingsthatyoufindmostdifficult.Inthissense,drillstakeonaverydifferentflavorinultralearningasopposedtotraditionallearning.Farfrombeingmeaninglessdrudgery,carefullydesigneddrillselicitcreativityandimaginationasyoustrivetosolveamorecomplexlearningchallengebybreakingitintospecificparts.Drillsarehardtodo,whichiswhymanyofuswouldratheravoidthem.Whenwedoengage

indrills,it’softeninsubjectswherewefeelcompetentandcomfortable.Drillsrequirethelearnernotonlytothinkdeeplyaboutwhatisbeinglearnedbutalsofigureoutwhatismostdifficultandattackthatweaknessdirectlyratherthanfocusonwhatisthemostfunorwhathasalreadybeenmastered.Thisrequiresstrongmotivationandacomfortwithlearningaggressively.Franklin,inhisAutobiography,remarkedaboutthelengthshewenttosohecoulddedicatehimselftohiswritingdrills:“Mytimefortheseexercisesandforreadingwasatnight,afterworkorbeforeitbeganinthemorning.”Despitetheprominencewritingwouldplayinhislife,Franklinstillhadtoworklonghoursunderhistaskmasterbrotherintheprintshop,diligentlyimprovinghiscraftinwhatlittleleisuretimehehad.EricBaronesimilarlyrepeatedhispixelartdozensoftimes,goingbacktomasterprerequisiteconceptsandtheoryuntilhegotitperfect.Thedifficultyandusefulnessofdrillsrepeatapatternthatwillrecurthroughoutthe

ultralearningprinciples:thatsomethingmentallystrenuousprovidesagreaterbenefittolearningthansomethingeasy.Nowhereisthispatternmoreclearthaninthenextprinciple,retrieval,wheredifficultyitselfmaybethekeytomoreeffectivelearning.

ChapterVIIIPrinciple5Retrieval

TesttoLearn

Itpaysbettertowaitandrecollectbyaneffortfromwithin,thantolookatthebookagain.—WilliamJames,psychologist

Inthespringof1913,themathematicianG.H.Hardyreceivedaletterthatwouldforeverdefinethecourseofhislife.SentbyanaccountingclerkworkingforthePortTrustOfficeofMadrasinIndia,thelettercontainedahumblenoteofintroductionalongwithsomestartlingassertions.Theauthorclaimedthathehadfoundtheoremsforproblemsthatthebestmathematicalmindsofthetimehadyettosolve.What’smore,heclaimedthathehad“noUniversityeducation”andhadderivedtheseresultsfromhisownsolitaryinvestigations.1Receivinglettersfromamateurcrackpotswhoclaimedtohavesolutionstofamousproblems

wasacommonoccurrenceforsomeoneofHardy’sstatureinmathematics,soatfirsthesimplydismissedtheletterasbeingmoreofthesame.Still,flippingthroughtheseveralpagesofnotesattachedtotheletter,theequationswouldn’tleavehismind.Whenhefoundhimselfthinkingaboutthemhourslater,hebroughtthelettertotheattentionofhiscolleagueJohnLittlewood.Asthetwoofthemtoyedattryingtoprovethestrangeassertions,theyfoundthatsomeofthemtheywereabletoprovewithgreateffort,whileothersremained,inHardy’swords,“scarcelypossibletobelieve.”Maybe,Hardythought,thiswasn’taletterfromacrackpotbutsomethingratherdifferent.TheformulaswrittenweresobizarreandalienthatHardyremarked,“Theymustbetrue

because,iftheywerenottrue,noonewouldhavehadtheimaginationtoinventthem.”Whatheonlyvaguelyunderstoodthatdaywasthathehadjusthadhisfirstintroductiontooneofthemostbrilliantandbizarremathematiciansofalltime,SrinivasaRamanujan.

Ramanujan’sGeniusBeforewritinghislettertoHardy,whichchangedthecourseofmathematicalhistory,Ramanujanwasapoor,pudgysouthIndianboywithaspecialloveofequations.Morethananythingelse,helovedmath.Infact,hisloveofmathoftengothimintodifficulties.Hisunwillingnesstostudyothersubjectsflunkedhimoutofuniversity.Equationswereallhecaredabout.Inhissparetimeandduringstretchesofunemployment,hewouldsitforhoursonthebenchinfrontofhisfamilyhome,slateinhand,playingwithformulas.Sometimeshewouldstayupsolatethathismotherwouldneedtoputfoodintohishandsohewouldeat.Ashewasthousandsofmilesawayfromthecenterofmathematicsofhisday,accessto

high-qualitytextbookswasquiteachallengeforRamanujan.OneresourcehedidencounterandminedextensivelywasavolumebyGeorgeShoobridgeCarrcalledASynopsisofElementaryResultsinPureandAppliedMathematics.Carrhimselfwashardlyatoweringfigureofmathematicalgenius.Thebook,intendedasaguideforstudents,includedlargelistsofvarioustheoremsfromdifferentfieldsofmathematics,usuallywithoutexplanationorproof.However,evenwithouthavingproofsorexplanationsavailable,Carr’sbookbecameapowerfulresourceinthehandsofsomeonesmartandobsessedlikeRamanujan.Forinsteadofsimplycopyingandmemorizinghowcertaintheoremswerederived,hehadtofigurethemoutforhimself.Thoughmanycommentatorsofthetime,includingHardy,arguedthatRamanujan’s

impoverishedupbringingandlateaccesstothecuttingedgeofmathematicslikelydidirreparableharmtohisgenius,modernpsychologicalexperimentsmayofferanalternativeperspective,forwhenRamanujandealtonlywithCarr’sextensivelistoftheoremsusinghisownquirkyobsessionwithmathematicalformulas,hewasunwittinglypracticingoneofthemostpowerfulmethodsknowntobuildadeepunderstanding.

TheTestingEffectImagineyou’reastudentpreparingforanexam.Youhavethreechoicesabouthowyoucanallocateyourlimitedstudyingtime.First,youcanreviewthematerial.Youcanlookoveryournotesandbookandstudyeverythinguntilyou’resureyou’llrememberit.Second,youcantestyourself.Youcankeepthebookshutandtrytorememberwhatwasinit.Finally,youcancreateaconceptmap.Youcanwriteoutthemainconceptsinadiagram,showinghowthey’reorganizedandrelatedtootheritemsyouneedtostudy.Ifyoucanpickonlyone,whichoneshouldyouchoosetodobestonthefinalexam?ThisisessentiallythequestionposedbythepsychologistsJeffreyKarpickeandJanellBlunt

inonestudyexaminingstudents’choiceoflearningstrategy.2Inthestudy,studentsweredividedintofourgroups,eachgiventhesameamountoftimebuttoldtousedifferentstudystrategies:reviewingthetextasingletime,reviewingitrepeatedly,freerecall,andconceptmapping.Ineachgroup,studentswereaskedtopredicttheirscoreontheupcomingtest.Thosewhodidrepeatedreviewingpredictedthatthey’dscorethebest,followedbythesingle-studyandconcept-mappinggroups.Thosewhopracticedfreerecall(tryingtorememberasmuchastheycouldwithoutlookinginthebook)predictedtheworstfortheirfinalperformance.Theactualresults,however,weren’tevenclose.Testingyourself—tryingtoretrieve

informationwithoutlookingatthetext—clearlyoutperformedallotherconditions.Onquestionsbaseddirectlyonthecontentofthetext,thosewhopracticedfreerecallrememberedalmost50percentmorethantheothergroups.Howcouldstudents,whohavespentyearsgettingfirsthandexperienceaboutwhatmatterstolearning,besomisguidedaboutwhatactuallyproducesresults?Onemightbetemptedtoarguethatthisbenefitofself-testingisanartifactoftheway

successismeasured.Theprincipleofdirectnessassertsthattransferisdifficult.Sinceself-testingandactualtestingaremostsimilar,perhapsitisthissimilaritythatallowsthismethodtoworkbetter.Hadthemethodofevaluationdiffered,itmightbereasonabletosuspectthatrevieworconceptmappingmightcomeoutontop.Interestingly,inanotherexperiment,KarpickeandBluntshowedthatthiswasn’ttheexplanation,either.Inthisexperimentthefinaltestwastoproduceaconceptmap.Despitetheoverwhelmingsimilaritytotheevaluationtask,freerecallstilldidbetterthanusingconceptmappingtostudy.Anotherpossibleexplanationforwhyself-testingworksisfeedback.Whenyoureview

somethingpassively,youdon’tgetanyfeedbackaboutwhatyouknowanddon’tknow.Sincetestsusuallycomewithfeedback,thatmightexplainwhystudentswhopracticedself-testingbeattheconceptmappersorpassivereviewers.Thoughitistruethatfeedbackisvaluable,onceagain,retrievaldoesn’tsimplyreducedowntogettingmorefeedback.Intheexperimentsmentioned,studentswereaskedtodofreerecallbutweren’tprovidedanyfeedbackaboutitemstheymissedorgotwrong.Theactoftryingtosummonupknowledgefrommemoryisapowerfullearningtoolonitsown,beyonditsconnectiontodirectpracticeorfeedback.ThisnewperspectiveonlearningshowshowCarr’sbook,withitslistsofproofswithout

solutions,couldhavebecome,inthehandsofsomeonesufficientlymotivatedtomasterthem,anincredibletoolforbecomingbrilliantatmath.Withouttheanswersathand,Ramanujanwasforcedtoinventhisownsolutionstotheproblems,retrievinginformationfromhismindratherthanreviewingitinabook.

TheParadoxofStudyingIfretrievalpractice—tryingtorecallfactsandconceptsfrommemory—issomuchbetterforlearning,whydon’tstudentsrealizeit?Whydomanyprefertosticktoconceptmappingortheevenlesseffectivepassivereview,whensimplyclosingthebookandtryingtorecallasmuchaspossiblewouldhelpthemsomuchmore?Karpicke’sresearchpointstoapossibleexplanation:Humanbeingsdon’thavetheabilityto

knowwithcertaintyhowwellthey’velearnedsomething.Instead,weneedtorelyonclues

fromourexperienceofstudyingtogiveusafeelingabouthowwellwe’redoing.Theseso-calledjudgmentsoflearning(JOLs)arebased,inpart,onhowfluentlywecanprocesssomething.Ifthelearningtaskfeelseasyandsmooth,wearemorelikelytobelievewe’velearnedit.Ifthetaskfeelslikeastruggle,we’llfeelwehaven’tlearnedityet.Immediatelyafterspendingsometimestudying,theseJOLsmayevenbeaccurate.Minutesafterstudyingsomethingusingastrategyofpassivereview,studentsperformbetterthantheywouldiftheyhadpracticedretrieval.3Thefeelingthatyou’relearningmorewhenyou’rereadingratherthantryingtorecallwithaclosedbookisn’tinaccurate.Theproblemcomesafter.Testagaindayslater,andretrievalpracticebeatspassivereviewbyamile.Whathelpedintheimmediatetimeafterstudyingturnsoutnottocreatethelong-termmemoryneededforactuallearningtotakeplace.Anotherexplanationforwhystudentsoptforlow-efficiencyreviewinsteadofretrievalis

thattheydon’tfeeltheyknowthematerialwellenoughtotestthemselvesonit.Inanotherexperiment,Karpickehadstudentschooseastrategyforlearning.Inevitably,studentswhowereperformingmoreweaklyelectedtoreviewthematerialfirst,waitinguntiltheywere“ready”tostartpracticetesting.4Ifthroughexperimentalintervention,however,theywereforcedtopracticeretrievalearlier,theylearnedmore.Whetheryouarereadyornot,retrievalpracticeworksbetter.Especiallyifyoucombineretrievalwiththeabilitytolookuptheanswers,retrievalpracticeisamuchbetterformofstudyingthantheonesmoststudentsapply.

IsDifficultyDesirable?Whatmakespracticingretrievalsomuchbetterthanreview?OneanswercomesfromthepsychologistR.A.Bjork’sconceptofdesirabledifficulty.5Moredifficultretrievalleadstobetterlearning,providedtheactofretrievalisitselfsuccessful.Freerecalltests,inwhichstudentsneedtorecallasmuchastheycanrememberwithoutprompting,tendtoresultinbetterretentionthancuedrecalltests,inwhichstudentsaregivenhintsaboutwhattheyneedtoremember.Cuedrecalltests,inturn,arebetterthanrecognitiontests,suchasmultiple-choiceanswers,wherethecorrectanswerneedstoberecognizedbutnotgenerated.Givingsomeoneatestimmediatelyaftertheylearnsomethingimprovesretentionlessthangivingthemaslightdelay,longenoughsothatanswersaren’tinmindwhentheyneedthem.Difficulty,farfrombeinganobstacletomakingretrievalwork,maybepartofthereasonitdoesso.Theideaofdesirabledifficultiesinretrievalmakesapotentcasefortheultralearning

strategy.Low-intensitylearningstrategiestypicallyinvolveeitherlessoreasierretrieval.Pushingdifficultyhigherandoptingfortestingoneselfwellbeforeyouare“ready”ismoreefficient.OnecanthinkbacktoBennyLewis’sstrategyofspeakinganewlanguagefromthefirstday.Thoughthisapproachishighindifficulty,researchsuggestswhyitmightbemoreusefulthaneasierformsofclassroomstudy.PlacinghimselfinamoredifficultcontextmeansthateverytimeLewisneedstorecallawordorphrase,itwillberememberedmorestronglythanwhendoingthesameactofretrievalinaclassroomsettingandmuchbetterthanwhensimplylookingoveralistofwordsandphrases.Difficultycanbecomeundesirableifitgetssohardthatretrievalbecomesimpossible.

Delayingthefirsttestofanewlylearnedfacthassomebenefitsovertestingimmediately.6However,ifyoudelaythetesttoolong,theinformationmaybeforgottenentirely.7Theidea,therefore,istofindtherightmidpoint:farenoughawaytomakewhateverisretrievedremembereddeeply,notsofarawaythatyou’veforgotteneverything.Althoughwaitingtoolongbeforeyoutestyourselfmayhavedisadvantages,increasingdifficultybygivingyourselffewercluesandpromptsarelikelyhelpful,providedthatyoucangetsomefeedbackonthemlater.

ShouldYouTaketheFinalExamBeforetheClassEvenBegins?

Thestandardwayofviewingtestsisthattheyworktoevaluatetheknowledgeyouhavelearnedelsewhere—throughreadingorlisteningtolectures.Theconceptofretrievalflipsthisviewonitshead,suggestingthattheactoftakingatestnotonlyisasourceoflearningbutresultsinmorelearningthanasimilaramountoftimespentinreview.However,thisstillfitswithintheconventionalideaofknowledgebeingfirstacquired,andthenstrengthenedor

testedlater.Aninterestingobservationfromretrievalresearch,knownastheforward-testingeffect,

showsthatretrievalnotonlyhelpsenhancewhatyou’velearnedpreviouslybutcanevenhelpprepareyoutolearnbetter.8Regulartestingofpreviouslystudiedinformationcanmakeiteasiertolearnnewinformation.Thismeansthatretrievalworkstoenhancefuturelearning,evenwhenthereisnothingtoretrieveyet!Avarietyofmechanismshasbeenproposedforexplainingwhythisforwardtestingeffect

exists.Someresearchersarguethatitmaybethattryingtofindknowledgethathasn’tbeenlearnedyet—say,bytryingtosolveaproblemyouhaven’tlearnedtheanswertoyet—nonethelesshelpsreinforcesearchstrategiesthatareputtouseoncetheknowledgeisencounteredlater.Ananalogyhereisthattryingtoretrieveananswerthatdoesn’tyetexistinyourmindislikelayingdownaroadleadingtoabuildingthathasn’tbeenconstructedyet.Thedestinationdoesn’texist,butthepathtogettowhereitwillbe,onceconstructed,isdevelopedregardless.Otherresearchersarguethatthemechanismmightbeoneofattention.Byconfrontingaproblemyoudon’tyetknowhowtoanswer,yourmindautomaticallyadjustsitsattentionalresourcestospotinformationthatlookslikeasolutionwhenyoulearnitlater.Whatevertheexactmechanismis,therealityoftheforward-testingeffectimpliesthatpracticingretrievalmightnotonlybenefitfromstartingearlierthanoneis“ready”butevenbeforeyouhavethepossibilityofansweringcorrectly.

WhatShouldBeRetrieved?Theresearchisclear:ifyouneedtorecallsomethinglater,you’rebestoffpracticingretrievingit.However,thisneglectsanimportantquestion:Whatkindsofthingsshouldyouinvestthetimeintorememberinthefirstplace?Retrievalmaytakelesstimethanreviewtogetthesamelearningimpact,butnotlearningsomethingatallisfasterstill.Thisisanimportantpracticalquestion.Nobodyhastimetomastereverything.DuringtheMITChallenge,Icoveredalotofdifferentideas.SomeweredirectlyrelevanttothekindofprogrammingIwantedtodowhenIwasdone,somakingsureIretainedthoseideaswasapriority.Otherswereinteresting,butsinceIhadnoplanstousethemimmediately,Iputmoreeffortintopracticingretrievingtheunderlyingconceptsthandoingtechnicalcalculations.OneclassIdid,forinstance,wasModalLogic.AsIhavenoplanstobealogician,Icanhonestlysay,eightyearslater,thatIcouldn’tprovetheoremsinmodallogictoday.However,Icantellyouwhatmodallogicisforandwhenitisused,soifasituationarisesinwhichthetechniquesIlearnedinthatclassmightbeuseful,I’dhaveamuchbettertimespottingit.*Therewillalwaysbesomethingsyouchoosetomasterandothersyousatisfyyourselfwithknowingyoucanlookupifyouneedto.Onewaytoanswerthisquestionissimplytododirectpractice.Directnesssidestepsthis

questionbyforcingyoutoretrievethethingsthatcomeupofteninthecourseofusingtheskill.Ifyou’relearningalanguageandneedtorecallaword,you’llpracticeit.Ifyouneverneedaword,youwon’tmemorizeit.Theadvantageofthisstrategyisthatitautomaticallyleadsyoutolearnthethingswiththehighestfrequency.Thingsthatarerarelyusedorthatareeasiertolookupthantomemorizewon’tberetrieved.Thesetendtobethethingsthatdon’tmattersomuch.Theproblemwithrelyingondirectpracticeexclusivelyisthatknowledgethatisn’tinyour

headcan’tbeusedtohelpyousolveproblems.Forinstance,aprogrammermayrealizeaneedtouseacertainfunctiontosolveaproblembutforgetshowtowriteitout.Needingtolookupthesyntaxmightslowherdown,butshewillstillbeabletosolvetheproblem.However,ifyoudon’thaveenoughknowledgestoredtorecognizewhenyoucanuseafunctiontosolveyourproblem,nolookingupcanhelpyou.Considerthatoverthelasttwentyyears,theamountofknowledgeeasilyaccessiblefromaquickonlinesearchhasexploded.Nearlyanyfactorconceptisnowavailableondemandtoanyonewithasmartphone.Yetdespitethisincredibleadvance,itisnotasiftheaveragepersonisthousandsastimesassmartaspeoplewerewasagenerationago.Beingabletolookthingsupiscertainlyanadvantage,butwithoutacertainamountofknowledgeinsideyourhead,itdoesn’thelpyousolvehardproblems.Directpracticealonecanfailtoencourageenoughretrievalbyomittingknowledgethatcan

helpyousolveaproblembutisn’tstrictlynecessarytodoso.Considerourprogrammerwhohastwodifferentwaystosolveherproblem,AandB.OptionAismuchmoreeffective,butBwillalsogetthejobdone.NowsupposethatsheknowsonlyaboutoptionB.She’llcontinuetousethewaysheknowstosolvetheproblem,eventhoughitislesseffective.Here,ourfledglingprogrammermightreadaboutoptionAonablogsomewhere.Butsincesimplyreadingismuchlesseffectivethanrepeatedretrievalpractice,chancesarethatshe’llforget

aboutitwhenitcomestimetoapplythetechnique.Thismaysoundabstract,butI’darguethatthisisquitecommonwithprogrammers,andoftenthethingseparatingmediocreprogrammersfromgreatonesisn’ttherangeofproblemstheycansolvebutthatthelatteroftenknowdozensofwaystosolveproblemsandcanselectthebestoneforeachsituation.Thiskindofbreadthrequiresacertainamountofpassiveexposure,whichinturnbenefitsfromretrievalpractice.

HowtoPracticeRetrievalRetrievalworks,butitisn’talwayseasy.Notonlyistheeffortitselfanobstacle,butsometimesit’snotclearexactlyhowtodoit.Passivereviewmaynotbeveryefficient,butatleastit’sstraightforward:youopenyourbookandrereadmaterialuntilyouretainit.Mostbooksandresourcesdon’thaveahandylistofquestionsattheendtotestyoutoseeifyourememberwhattheycontain.Tohelpwiththat,belowaresomeusefulmethodsthatcanbeusedtoapplyretrievaltoalmostanysubject.

Tactic1:FlashCards

Flashcardsareanamazinglysimple,yeteffective,waytolearnpairedassociationsbetweenquestionsandanswers.Theoldwayofcreatingpaperflashcardstodrillyourselfispowerful,butithaslargelybeensupersededbyspaced-repetitionsystems,asI’lldiscussinPrinciple7.Thesesoftwarealgorithmscanhandletensofthousandsof“cards”andalsoorganizeareviewschedulesoyoucanmanagethem.Themajordrawbackofflashcardsisthattheyworkreallywellforaspecifictypeof

retrieval—whenthere’sapairingbetweenaspecificcueandaparticularresponse.Forsomeformsofknowledge,forexamplememorizingforeign-languagevocabulary,thisworksperfectly.Similarly,maps,anatomicaldiagrams,definitions,andequationscanoftenbememorizedviaflashcards.However,whenthesituationinwhichyouneedtoremembertheinformationishighlyvariable,thiskindofpracticecanhavedrawbacks.Programmerscanmemorizesyntaxviaflashcards,butconceptsthatneedtobeappliedinrealprogramsoftendon’tfitthecue-responseframeworkthatflashcardsdemand.

Tactic2:FreeRecall

Asimpletacticforapplyingretrievalis,afterreadingasectionfromabookorsittingthroughalecture,totrytowritedowneverythingyoucanrememberonablankpieceofpaper.Freerecalllikethisisoftenverydifficult,andtherewillbemanythingsmissed,evenifyoujustfinishedreadingthetextinquestion.However,thisdifficultyisalsoagoodreasonwhythispracticeishelpful.Byforcingyourselftorecallthemainpointsandarguments,you’llbeabletorememberthembetterlater.Whiledoingresearchforthisbook,forinstance,Iwouldoftenprintoutjournalarticlesandputtheminabinderwithafewblanksheetsofpaperaftereachofthem.AfterIhadfinishedreading,I’ddoaquickfreerecallexercisetomakesureIwouldretaintheimportantdetailswhenitcametimeforwriting.

Tactic3:TheQuestion-BookMethod

Moststudentstakenotesbycopyingthemainpointsastheyencounterthem.However,anotherstrategyfortakingnotesistorephrasewhatyou’verecordedasquestionstobeansweredlater.InsteadofwritingthattheMagnaCartawassignedin1215,youcouldinsteadwritethequestion“WhenwastheMagnaCartasigned?”withareferencetowheretofindtheanswerincaseyouforget.Bytakingnotesasquestionsinsteadofanswers,yougeneratethematerialtopracticeretrievalonlater.OnemistakeI’vemadeinapplyingthistechniqueistofocusonthewrongkindsofthingsto

askquestionsabout.Itriedapplyingthismethodtoabookoncomputationalneuroscience,andIendedupaskingmyselfallsortsofdetailedquestionssuchaswhatwasthefiringrateofcertainneuronalcircuitsorwhoproposedaspecifictheory.Thatwasn’tintentionalbutratheraby-productoflazilyrestatingthefactualcontentinthebookasquestions.What’sharderandmoreusefulistorestatethebigideaofachapterorsectionasaquestion.Sincethisisoftenimplicit,itrequiressomedeeperthinkingandnotjustaddingaquestionmarktosomenotesyoucopiedverbatim.OneruleI’vefoundhelpfulforthisistorestrictmyselftoonequestionpersectionofatext,thusforcingmyselftoacknowledgeandrephrasethemainpointrather

thanzoominonadetailthatwillbelargelyirrelevantlater.

Tactic4:Self-GeneratedChallenges

Theabovetacticsworkbestwithretrievalofsimpleinformation,suchasfactsorsummariesofbroadideasyoumightencounterinabookorlecture.However,ifyou’retryingtopracticeaskill,notmerelyrememberinformation,theymightnotbeenough.Foraprogrammer,it’snotenoughtoknowwhatanalgorithmmeans,butbeabletowriteitincode.Inthiscase,asyougothroughyourpassivematerial,youcancreatechallengesforyourselftosolvelater.Youmayencounteranewtechniqueandthenwriteanotetodemonstratethattechniqueinanactualexample.Creatingalistofsuchchallengescanserveasapromptformasteringthatinformationlaterinpracticeandcanexpandyourlibraryoftoolsthatyouareabletoactuallyapply.

Tactic5:Closed-BookLearning

Nearlyanylearningactivitycanbecomeanopportunityforretrievalifyoucutofftheabilitytosearchforhints.Conceptmapping,thestrategythatdidn’tworkparticularlywellforstudentsinKarpickeandBlunt’sexperiments,couldbebeefedupconsiderablybypreventingyourselffromlookingatthebookwhengeneratingyourconceptmap.Isuspectthathadthisbeendoneintheoriginalexperiment,studentsusingthisformofclosed-bookconceptmappingwouldlikelyhavedonebetterontheeventualtestthatreliedoncreatingaconceptmap.Anypractice,whetherdirectoradrill,canbecutofffromtheabilitytolookthingsup.Bypreventingyourselffromconsultingthesource,theinformationbecomesknowledgestoredinsideyourheadinsteadofinsideareferencemanual.

RevisitingRamanujanRamanujanwassmart,there’snodenyingit.However,hisgeniuswasaidedimmeasurablybytwohallmarksoftheultralearner’stoolkit:obsessiveintensityandretrievalpractice.Asheworkedonhisslatefrommorningtonight,tryingtofigureoutCarr’ssparselywrittenlistoftheoremswasincrediblyhardwork.Butitalsocreatedthedesirabledifficultiesthatallowedhimtobuildahugementallibraryoftoolsandtricksthatwouldassisthiminhislatermathematicalefforts.RetrievalplayedanimportantroleinRamanujan’smathematicalupbringing,butheis

hardlytheonlyonetotakeadvantageofthetactic.InnearlyeverybiographyofgreatgeniusesandcontemporaryultralearnersIhaveencountered,someformofretrievalpracticeismentioned.BenjaminFranklinpracticedhiswritingbyreconstructingessaysfrommemory.MarySomervilleworkedthroughproblemsmentallywhennocandlewasavailablefornightreading.RogerCraigpracticedtriviaquestionswithoutlookingattheanswers.Retrievalisnotasufficienttooltocreategenius,butitmaybeanecessaryone.Tryingtoproducetheanswerratherthanmerelyreviewingitisonlyhalfofabiggercycle,

however.Tomakeretrievalreallyeffective,ithelpstoknowwhethertheansweryoudredgedupfromyourmindwascorrect.Justasweoftenavoidtestingourselvesuntilwe’rereadybecausestrugglingwithatestisuncomfortable,weoftenavoidseekinginformationaboutourskillleveluntilwethinkitwillbefavorable.Beingabletoprocessthatinformationeffectively,hearingthemessageitcontainsloudandclear,isn’talwayseasy.Yetthisisalsowhyitissoimportant.Thisbringsustothenextprincipleofultralearning:feedback.

ChapterIXPrinciple6Feedback

Don’tDodgethePunches

Everybodyhasaplanuntiltheygetpunchedinthemouth.—MikeTyson

Fromanarrowstaircaseintheback,ChrisRockentersthestagejustashisnameisbeingannounced.Withsold-outshowsandHBOspecials,Rockisnoneophytetostand-upcomedy.Hisperformancesfeellikearockconcert.Withanenergeticandpunctuateddelivery,he’sknownforrepeatingthekeyphraseofajokelikethechorusofasong,therhythmofitsoprecisethatyougetthefeelinghewouldbeabletomakeanythingfunny.Andthat’sexactlytheproblem.Wheneverythingyoudoisfunny,howdoyouknowwhatreallymakesajokegood?Farfromthepackedconcerthallsandjubilantcrowds,Rockwalkstothemiconthemodestbrick-backedstageattheComedyCellarinGreenwichVillage,NewYorkCity.Inhishandarescrapsofcardsonwhichhehasscribbledbitsofphrases,atrickforworkingoutnewmaterialhelearnedfromhisgrandfather,acabdriverwhopreachedonweekends.Insteadofhissignatureaggressivestyle,heslumpsagainstthebackwall.Thisishislaboratory,andhe’sgoingtoperformcomedywiththeprecisionofanexperiment.“It’snotgoingtobethatgood,”Rockwarnsthecrowd,whoarestunnedathisunannouncedarrivalonthesmallcomedystage.“Notattheseprices,”headds,joking“Attheseprices,Icouldleaverightnow!”Heenvisionsthereviews:“Chriscameoutandheleft.Itwasgood!Hedidn’ttellanyjokes—butitwasgood!”Notesinhand,Rockwarnstheaudienceplayfullythatthisisn’tgoingtobeatypicalChrisRockperformance.Instead,hewantstoworkoutnewmaterialundercontrolledconditions.“They’llgiveyouaboutsixminutesbecauseyou’refamous,”heexplains.“...thenyou’rebacktosquareone.”Hewantstoknowwhat’sfunny,whenhe’snottryingtobefunny.1Rock’smethodisnotunique.TheComedyCellarisfamousforbig-namedrop-ins:DaveChappelle,JonStewart,andAmySchumerarejustafewcomedianswhohavetestedouttheirmaterialinfrontofsmallcrowdsherebeforeperformingitonprime-timespecialsandinconcert-scalegigs.Whyperformatasmallclubwhenyoucaneasilydrawlargecrowdsandthousandsofdollarsfromahugeperformance?Whyshowupunannouncedandthendeliberatelyundersellyourowncomedicabilities?WhatRockandtheseotherfamouscomediansrecognizeistheimportanceofthesixthprincipleofultralearning:feedback.

ThePowerofInformationFeedbackisoneofthemostconsistentaspectsofthestrategyultralearnersuse.FromthesimplefeedbackofRogerCraigtestinghimselfonJeopardy!clueswithoutknowingtheanswertotheuncomfortablefeedbackofBennyLewis’sapproachofwalkinguptostrangerstospeakalanguageheonlystartedlearningthedayprior,gettingfeedbackwasoneofthemostcommontacticsoftheultralearnersIencountered.Whatoftenseparatedtheultralearningstrategyfrommoreconventionalapproacheswastheimmediacy,accuracy,andintensityofthefeedbackbeingprovided.TristandeMontebellocouldhavetakenthenormalrouteofcarefullypreparinghisscriptandthendeliveringaspeechonceeverymonthortwo,asisthecaseformostToastmasters.Insteadhedovestraightin,speakingseveraltimesper

week,jumpingamongdifferentclubstogatherdifferentperspectivesonhisperformance.Thisdeepdiveintofeedbackwasuncomfortable,buttherapidimmersionalsodesensitizedhimtoalotoftheanxietythatbeingonstagecancreate.Feedbackfeaturesprominentlyintheresearchondeliberatepractice,ascientifictheoryoftheacquisitionofexpertiseinitiatedbyK.AndersEricssonandotherpsychologists.Inhisstudies,Ericssonhasfoundthattheabilitytogainimmediatefeedbackonone’sperformanceisanessentialingredientinreachingexpertlevelsofperformance.Nofeedback,andtheresultisoftenstagnation—longperiodsoftimewhenyoucontinuetouseaskillbutdon’tgetanybetteratit.Sometimesthelackoffeedbackcanevenresultindecliningabilities.Manymedicalpractitionersgetworsewithmoreexperienceastheiraccumulatedknowledgefrommedicalschoolbeginstofadeandtheaccuracyoftheirdiagnosesisnotgiventherapidfeedbackthatwouldnormallypromotefurtherlearning.2

CanFeedbackBackfire?Theimportanceoffeedbackprobablyisn’ttoosurprising;weallintuitivelysensehowgettinginformationaboutwhatwe’redoingrightandwrongcanacceleratelearning.Moreinterestingly,theresearchonfeedbackshowsthatmoreisn’talwaysbetter.Crucially,whatmattersisthetypeoffeedbackbeinggiven.Inalargemeta-analysis,AvrahamKlugerandAngeloDeNisilookedathundredsofstudiesontheimpactofprovidingfeedbackforlearning.3Thoughtheoveralleffectoffeedbackwaspositive,it’simportanttonotethatinover38percentofcases,feedbackactuallyhadanegativeimpact.Thisleadstoaconfusingsituation.Ontheonehand,feedbackisessentialforexpertattainment,asdemonstratedbythescientificstudiesofdeliberatepractice.Feedbackalsofiguresprominentlyinultralearningprojects,andit’sdifficulttoimaginetheirbeingsuccessfuliftheirsourcesoffeedbackhadbeenturnedoff.Atthesametime,areviewoftheevidencedoesn’tpaintthepictureoffeedbackbeinguniversallypositive.What’stheexplanation?KlugerandDeNisiarguethatthediscrepancyisinthetypeoffeedbackthatisgiven.Feedbackworkswellwhenitprovidesusefulinformationthatcanguidefuturelearning.Iffeedbacktellsyouwhatyou’redoingwrongorhowtofixit,itcanbeapotenttool.Butfeedbackoftenbackfireswhenitisaimedataperson’sego.Praise,acommontypeoffeedbackthatteachersoftenuse(andstudentsenjoy),isusuallyharmfultofurtherlearning.Whenfeedbacksteersintoevaluationsofyouasanindividual(e.g.,“You’resosmart!”or“You’relazy”),itusuallyhasanegativeimpactonlearning.Further,evenfeedbackthatincludesusefulinformationneedstobecorrectlyprocessedasamotivatorandtoolforlearning.KlugerandDeNisinotedthatsomeofthestudiesthatshowedanegativeimpactoffeedbackoccurredbecausethesubjectsthemselveschosenottousethefeedbackconstructively.Theymayhaverejectedthefeedback,loweredthestandardstheyexpectfromthemselves,orgivenuponthelearningtaskaltogether.Theresearchersnotethatwhoisgivingthefeedbackcanmatter,asfeedbackcomingfromapeerorteacherhasimportantsocialdynamicsbeyondmereinformationonhowtoimproveone’sabilities.Ifindtwothingsinterestingaboutthisresearch.First,itisclearthatalthoughinformativefeedbackisbeneficial,itcanbackfireifitisprocessedinappropriatelyorifitfailstoprovideusefulinformation.Thismeansthatwhenseekingfeedback,theultralearnerneedstobeonguardfortwopossibilities.Thefirstisoverreactingtofeedback(bothpositiveandnegative)thatdoesn’tofferspecificinformationthatleadstoimprovement.Ultralearnersneedtobesensitivetowhatfeedbackisactuallyusefulandtuneouttherest.Thisiswhy,althoughalltheultralearnersImetemployedfeedback,theydidn’tactoneverypieceofpossiblefeedback.EricBarone,forinstance,didnotattendtoeverycommentandcritiqueonearlydraftsofhisgame.Inmanycasesheignoredthem,whenthefeedbackconflictedwithhisvision.Second,whenitisincorrectlyapplied,feedbackcanhaveanegativeimpactonmotivation.Notonlycanoverlynegativefeedbackloweryourmotivation,butsocanoverlypositivefeedback.Ultralearnersmustbalancebothconcerns,pushingfortherightleveloffeedbackfortheircurrentstageoflearning.Thoughweallknow(andinstinctivelyavoid)harshandunhelpfulcriticism,theresearchalsosupportsRock’sstrategyofdisregardingthepositivefeedbackthathiscelebrityautomaticallygenerates.Thesecondinterestingpointaboutthisresearchisthatitexplainswhyfeedback-seekingeffortsareoftenunderusedandthusremainapotentsourceofcomparativeadvantageforultralearners.Feedbackisuncomfortable.Itcanbeharshanddiscouraging,anditdoesn’talwaysfeelnice.Standinguponastageinacomedyclubtodeliverjokesisprobablyoneofthebestwaystogetbetteratstand-upcomedy.Buttheactitselfcanbeterrifying,asan

awkwardsilencecutsdeep.Similarly,speakingimmediatelyinanewlanguagecanbepainful,asthesenseofyourabilitytocommunicategoesdownprecipitouslyfromwhenyouuseyournativetongue.Fearoffeedbackoftenfeelsmoreuncomfortablethanexperiencingthefeedbackitself.Asaresult,itisnotsomuchnegativefeedbackonitsownthatcanimpedeprogressbutthefearofhearingcriticismthatcausesustoshutdown.Sometimesthebestactionisjusttodivestraightintothehardestenvironment,sinceevenifthefeedbackisverynegativeinitially,itcanreduceyourfearsofgettingstartedonaprojectandallowyoutoadjustlaterifitprovestooharshtobehelpful.Alloftheseactsrequireself-confidence,resolve,andpersistence,whichiswhymanyself-directedlearningeffortsignoreseekingtheaggressivefeedbackthatcouldgeneratefasterresults.Insteadofgoingtothesource,takingfeedbackdirectly,andusingthatinformationtolearnquickly,peopleoftenchoosetododgethepunchesandavoidapotentiallyhugesourceoflearning.Ultralearnersacquireskillsquicklybecausetheyseekaggressivefeedbackwhenothersoptforpracticethatincludesweakerformsoffeedbackornofeedbackatall.

WhatKindofFeedbackDoYouNeed?Feedbackshowsupinmanydifferentformsfordifferenttypesoflearningprojects.Gettinggoodatstand-upcomedyandlearningtowritecomputerprogramsinvolveverydifferentkindsoffeedback.Learninghighermathandlearninglanguagesaregoingtousefeedbackindifferentways.Theopportunitiesforseekingbetterfeedbackwillvarydependingonwhatyou’retryingtolearn.Ratherthantrytospelloutexactlywhatfeedbackyouneedforyourlearningproject,Ithinkit’simportanttoconsiderdifferenttypesoffeedback,alongwithhoweachonecanbeusedandcultivated.Byknowingwhatkindoffeedbackyou’regetting,youcanmakesuretouseitbest,whilealsorecognizingitslimitations.Inparticular,Iwanttoconsiderthreetypesoffeedback:outcomefeedback,informationalfeedback,andcorrectivefeedback.Outcomefeedbackisthemostcommonandinmanysituationstheonlytypeoffeedbackavailable.Informationalfeedbackisalsofairlycommon,andit’simportanttorecognizewhenyoucansplitapartoutcomestogetfeedbackonpartsofwhatyou’relearningandwhenfeedbackonlyonholisticoutcomesispossible.Correctivefeedbackisthetoughesttofindbutwhenemployedwellcanacceleratelearningthemost.

OutcomeFeedback:AreYouDoingItWrong?

Thefirsttypeoffeedback,andtheleastgranular,isoutcomefeedback.Thistellsyousomethingabouthowwellyou’redoingoverallbutoffersnoideasastowhatyou’redoingbetterorworse.Thiskindoffeedbackcancomeintheformofagrade—pass/fail,A,B,orC—oritcancomeintheformofanaggregatefeedbacktomanydecisionsyou’remakingsimultaneously.TheapplauseTristandeMontebelloreceived(orthecricketsheheard)afteraspeechisanexampleofoutcomefeedback.Itcouldtellhimifhewasgettingbetterorworse,butitcouldn’treallysaywhyorhowtofixit.Everyentrepreneurexperiencesthiskindoffeedbackwhenanewproducthitsthemarket.Itmaysellwildlywellorabysmally,butthatfeedbackcomesinbulk,notdirectlydecomposableintothevariousaspectsoftheproduct.Didtheproductcosttoomuch?Wasthemarketingmessagenotclearenough?Wasthepackagingunappealing?Customerreviewsandcommentscanprovideclues,butultimatelythesuccessorfailureofanynewproductisacomplexbundleoffactors.Thistypeoffeedbackisoftentheeasiesttoget,andresearchshowsthatevengettingthisfeedback,whichlacksaspecificmessageaboutwhatyouneedtoimprove,canbehelpful.Inonestudy,feedbackforataskinvolvingvisualacuityfacilitatedlearning,evenwhenitwasdeliveredinblocksthatweretoolargetogetanymeaningfulinformationaboutwhichresponseswerecorrectandwhichwereincorrect.4Manyprojectsthatwhollylackfeedbackcaneasilybechangedtogetthisbroad-scalefeedback.EricBarone,forinstance,providedadevelopmentblogtopublishworkonhisgameandsolicitfeedbackfromearlydrafts.Itcouldn’tprovidehimwithdetailedinformationaboutwhatexactlytoimproveandchange,buthissimplybeingimmersedinanenvironmentthatprovidedfeedbackatallwashelpful.Outcomefeedbackcanimprovehowyoulearnthroughafewdifferentmechanisms.Oneisbyprovidingyouwithamotivationalbenchmarkagainstyourgoal.Ifyourgoalistoreachacertainqualityoffeedback,thisfeedbackcangiveyouupdatesonyourprogress.Anotheristhatitcanshowyoutherelativemeritsofdifferentmethodsyou’retrying.Whenyouareprogressingrapidly,youcansticktothoselearningmethodsandapproaches.Whenprogressstalls,youcanseewhatyoumightbeabletochangeinyourcurrentapproach.Although

outcomefeedbackisn’tcomplete,itisoftentheonlykindavailableandcanstillhaveapotentimpactonyourlearningrate.

InformationalFeedback:WhatAreYouDoingWrong?

Thenexttypeoffeedbackisinformationalfeedback.Thisfeedbacktellsyouwhatyou’redoingwrong,butitdoesn’tnecessarilytellyouhowtofixit.Speakingaforeignlanguagewithanativespeakerwhodoesn’tsharealanguagewithyouisanexerciseininformationalfeedback.Thatperson’sconfusedstarewhenyoumisuseawordwon’ttellyouwhatthecorrectwordis,butitwilltellyouthatyou’regettingitwrong.TristandeMontebello,inadditiontotheoverallassessmentofhisperformancebyaudiencemembersattheendofaspeech,canalsogetliveinformationalfeedbackabouthowit’sgoingmomenttomoment.Didthatjokework?Ismystoryboringthem?Thisissomethingyoucanspotinthedistractedglancesorbackgroundchatterthroughoutyourspeech.Rock’sstand-upexperimentisalsoatypeofinformationalfeedback.Hecantellwhenacertainjokelandsordoesn’t,basedonthereactionoftheaudience.However,theycan’ttellhimwhattodotomakeitfunnier—he’sthecomedian,notthem.Thiskindoffeedbackiseasytoobtainwhenyoucangetreal-timeaccesstoafeedbacksource.Acomputerprogrammerwhogetserrormessageswhenherprogramsdon’tcompileproperlymaynothaveenoughknowledgetounderstandwhatshe’sdoingwrong.Butaserrorsincreaseordiminish,dependingonwhatshedoes,shecanusethatsignaltofixherproblems.Self-providedfeedbackisalsoubiquitous,andinsomepursuitsitcanbealmostasgoodasfeedbackfromothers.Whenpaintingapicture,youcansimplylookatitandgetasenseofwhetheryourbrushstrokesareaddingtoordetractingfromtheimageyouwanttoconvey.Becausethiskindoffeedbackoftencomesfromdirectinteractionwiththeenvironment,itoftenpairswellwiththethirdprinciple,directness.

CorrectiveFeedback:HowCanYouFixWhatYou’reDoingWrong?

Thebestkindoffeedbacktogetiscorrectivefeedback.Thisisthefeedbackthatshowsyounotonlywhatyou’redoingwrongbuthowtofixit.Thiskindoffeedbackisoftenavailableonlythroughacoach,mentor,orteacher.However,sometimesitcanbeprovidedautomaticallyifyouareusingtherightstudymaterials.DuringtheMITChallenge,Ididmostofmypracticebygoingbackandforthbetweenassignmentsandtheirsolutions,sothatwhenIfinishedaproblem,IwasshownnotonlywhetherIhadgottenitrightorwrongbutexactlyhowmyanswerdifferedfromthecorrectone.Similarly,flashcardsandotherformsofactiverecallprovidecorrectivefeedbackbyshowingyoutheanswertoaquestionafteryoumakeyourguess.TheeducatorsMariaAraceliRuiz-PrimoandSusanM.Brookhartargue,“Thebestfeedbackisinformativeandusablebythestudent(s)whoreceiveit.OptimalfeedbackindicatesthedifferencebetweenthecurrentstateandthedesiredlearningstateANDhelpsstudentstotakeasteptoimprovetheirlearning.”5Themainchallengeofthiskindoffeedbackisthatittypicallyrequiresaccesstoateacher,expert,ormentorwhocanpinpointyourmistakesandcorrectthemforyou.However,sometimestheaddededgeofhavingcorrectiveovermerelyinformationalfeedbackcanbeworththeeffortneededtofindsuchpeople.TristandeMontebelloworkedwithMichaelGendlertohelphimwithhispublicspeakingperformance,andthathelpedhimspotsubtleweaknessesinhispresentationsthatwouldhavegoneunnoticedbyhimselforbyalessexperiencedaudiencemembergivingbroaderfeedback.Thistypeoffeedbacktrumpsoutcomefeedback,whichcan’tindicatewhatneedsimproving,andinformationalfeedback,whichcanindicatewhattoimprovebutnothow.However,itcanalsobeunreliable.TristandeMontebellowouldoftengetconflictingadviceafterdeliveringaspeech;someaudiencememberswouldtellhimtoslowdown,whileotherssaidtospeedup.Thiscanalsobeasituationinwhichpayingforatutorcanbeuseful,becausethatpersoncanspottheexactnatureofyourmistakeandcorrectitwithlessstruggleonyourpart.Theself-directednatureofultralearningshouldn’tconvinceyouthatlearningisbestdoneasanentirelysolitarypursuit.

FurtherNotesonTypesofFeedbackAfewthingsareworthnotinghere.First,youneedtobecarefulwhentryingto“upgrade”

feedbackfromaweakerformtoastrongerformifit’snotactuallypossible.Toswitchfromoutcomefeedbacktoinformationalfeedback,youneedtobeabletoelicitfeedbackonaperelementbasisofwhatyou’redoing.Ifinsteadthefeedbackisbeingprovidedasaholisticassessmentofeverythingyou’redoing,tryingtoturnitintoinformationalfeedbackcanbackfire.Gamedesignersknowtowatchoutforthis,becauseaskingplaytesterswhattheydon’tlikeaboutagamecanoftenreturnspuriousresults:forexample,theydon’tlikethecolorofthecharacterorthebackgroundmusic.Thetruthis,theplayersareevaluatingthegameholistically,sotheyoftencan’tofferthiskindoffeedback.Iftheirresponsescomefromusingitasawhole,notfromeachaspectindividually,askingforgreaterspecificitymayleadtoguessesfromthosegivingfeedback.Similarly,correctivefeedbackrequiresa“correct”answerortheresponseofarecognizedexpert.Ifthereisnoexpertorasinglecorrectapproach,tryingtoturninformationalfeedbackintocorrectivefeedbackcanworkagainstyouwhenthewrongchangeissuggestedasanimprovement.DeMontebellonotedtomethattheadvicemostpeoplegavehimwasn’tterriblyuseful,buttheconsistencyofitwas.Ifhisspeechelicitedwildlydifferentreactionseachtime,heknewtherewasstillalotofworktodo.Whenthespeechstartedtogetmuchmoreconsistentcomments,heknewhewasontosomething.Thisillustratesthatultralearningisn’tsimplyaboutmaximizingfeedbackbutalsoknowingwhentoselectivelyignoreelementsofittoextracttheusefulinformation.Understandingthemeritsofthesedifferenttypesoffeedback,aswellasthepreconditionsthatmakethempossible,isabigpartofchoosingtherightstrategyforanultralearningproject.

HowQuickShouldFeedbackBe?Aninterestingquestionintheresearchonfeedbackishowquickitshouldbe.Shouldyougetimmediateinformationaboutyourmistakesorwaitsomeperiodoftime?Ingeneral,researchhaspointedtoimmediatefeedbackbeingsuperiorinsettingsoutsideofthelaboratory.JamesA.KulikandChen-LinC.Kulikreviewtheliteratureonfeedbacktimingandsuggestthat“Appliedstudiesusingactualclassroomquizzesandreallearningmaterialshaveusuallyfoundimmediatefeedbacktobemoreeffectivethandelay.”6ExpertiseresearcherK.AndersEricssonagrees,arguinginfavorofimmediatefeedbackwhenitassistsinidentifyingandcorrectingmistakesandwhenitallowsonetoexecuteacorrectedversionoftheirperformancerevisedinresponsetothefeedback.7Interestingly,laboratorystudiestendtoshowthatdelayingthepresentationofthecorrectresponsealongwiththeoriginaltask(delayedfeedback)ismoreeffective.Thesimplestexplanationofthisresultisthatpresentingthequestionandansweragainoffersasecond,spacedexposuretotheinformation.Ifthisexplanationwerecorrect,allitwouldmeanisthatthatimmediatefeedbackisbestpairedwithdelayedreview(orfurthertesting)tostrengthenyourmemorycomparedwithasingleexposure.I’llcovermoreonspacingandhowitimpactsyourmemoryinthenextchapteronretention.Despitethesuperficiallymixedresultsonthetimingoffeedbackfromthescientificliterature,Igenerallyrecommendfasterfeedback.Thisenablesaquickerrecognitionofmistakes.However,there’sapossibleriskthatthisrecommendationmightbackslideintogettingfeedbackbeforeyou’vetriedyourbesttoanswerthequestionorsolvetheproblemathand.Earlystudiesonfeedbacktimingtendedtoshowaneutralornegativeimpactofimmediatefeedbackonlearning.Inthosestudies,however,experimentersoftengavesubjectstheabilitytoseethecorrectanswerbeforesubjectshadfinishedfillingouttheprompt.8Thatmeantsubjectscouldoftencopythecorrectanswerratherthantrytoretrieveit.Feedbacktoosoonmayturnyourretrievalpracticeeffectivelyintopassivereview,whichwealreadyknowislesseffectiveforlearning.Forhardproblems,Isuggestsettingyourselfatimertoencourageyoutothinkhardondifficultproblemsbeforegivinguptolookatthecorrectanswer.

HowtoImproveYourFeedbackBynowyouseetheimportanceoffeedbacktoyourlearningefforts.I’veexplainedwhyfeedback,especiallywhendeliveredtoothers,cansometimesbackfire.I’vealsoshowedhowthethreetypes—outcome,informational,andcorrective—havedifferentstrengthsandthepreconditionsthatneedtobeinplaceinordertomakethemeffective.NowIwanttofocusonsomeconcretetacticsyoucanapplytogetbetterfeedback.

Tactic1:NoiseCancellation

Anytimeyoureceivefeedback,therearegoingtobebothasignal—theusefulinformationyouwanttoprocess—andnoise.Noiseiscausedbyrandomfactors,whichyoushouldn’toverreacttowhentryingtoimprove.Sayyou’rewritingarticlesthatyoupostonline,tryingtoimproveyourwritingability.Mostofthemwon’tattractmuchattention,andwhentheydo,it’softenbecauseoffactorsoutsideofyourcontrol;forexample,justtherightpersonhappenstoshareit,causingittospillacrosssocialnetworks.Thequalityofyourwritingdoesdrivethesefactors,butthere’senoughrandomnessthatyouneedtobecarefulnottochangeyourentireapproachbasedononedatapoint.Noiseisarealproblemwhentryingtoimproveyourcraftbecauseyouneedtodofarmoreworktogetthesameinformationabouthowtowritewell.Bymodifyingandselectingthestreamsoffeedbackyoupayattentionto,youcanreducethenoiseandgetmoreofthesignal.Anoise-cancellingtechniqueusedinaudioprocessingisfiltering.Soundengineersknowthathumanspeechtendstofallwithinaparticularrangeoffrequencies,whereaswhitenoiseisalloverthespectrum.Theycanboostthesignal,therefore,byamplifyingthefrequenciesthatoccurinhumanspeechandquietingeverythingelse.Onewaytodothisistolookforproxysignals.Thesedon’texactlyequalsuccess,buttheytendtoeliminatesomeofthenoisydata.Forblogwriting,onewaytodosowouldbetousetrackingcodetofigureoutwhatpercentageofpeoplereadyourarticlesallthewaytotheend.Thisdoesn’tproveyourwritingisgood,butit’salotlessnoisythanrawtrafficdata.

Tactic2:HittingtheDifficultySweetSpot

Feedbackisinformation.Moreinformationequalsmoreopportunitiestolearn.Ascientificmeasureofinformationisbasedonhoweasilyyoucanpredictwhatmessageitwillcontain.Ifyouknowthatsuccessisguaranteed,thefeedbackitselfprovidesnoinformation;youknewitwouldgowellallalong.Goodfeedbackdoestheopposite.Itisveryhardtopredictandthusgivesmoreinformationeachtimeyoureceiveit.Themainwaythisimpactsyourlearningisthroughthedifficultyyou’refacing.Manypeopleintuitivelyavoidconstantfailure,becausethefeedbackitoffersisn’talwayshelpful.However,theoppositeproblem,ofbeingtoosuccessful,ismorepervasive.Ultralearnerscarefullyadjusttheirenvironmentsothatthey’renotabletopredictwhetherthey’llsucceedorfail.Iftheyfailtoooften,theysimplifytheproblemsotheycanstartnoticingwhenthey’redoingthingsright.Iftheyfailtoolittle,they’llmakethetaskharderortheirstandardsstrictersothattheycandistinguishthesuccessofdifferentapproaches.Basically,youshouldtrytoavoidsituationsthatalwaysmakeyoufeelgood(orbad)aboutyourperformance.

Tactic3:Metafeedback

Typicalfeedbackisperformanceassessment:yourgradeonaquiztellsyousomethingabouthowwellyouknowthematerial.However,there’sanothertypeoffeedbackthat’sperhapsevenmoreuseful:metafeedback.Thiskindoffeedbackisn’taboutyourperformancebutaboutevaluatingtheoverallsuccessofthestrategyyou’reusingtolearn.Oneimportanttypeofmetafeedbackisyourlearningrate.Thisgivesyouinformationabouthowfastyou’relearning,oratleasthowfastyou’reimprovinginoneaspectofyourskill.ChessplayersmighttracktheirEloratingsgrowth.LSATstudiersmighttracktheirimprovementsonmockexams.Languagelearnersmighttrackvocabularylearnedorerrorsmadewhenwritingorspeaking.Therearetwowaysyoucanusethistool.Oneistodecidewhenyoushouldfocusonthestrategyyou’realreadyusingandwhenyoushouldexperimentwithothermethods.Ifyourlearningrateisslowingtoatrickle,thatmightmeanyou’rehittingdiminishingreturnswithyourcurrentapproachandcouldbenefitfromdifferentkindsofdrills,difficulties,orenvironments.Asecondwayyoucanapplymetafeedbackisbycomparingtwodifferentstudymethodstoseewhichworksbetter.DuringtheMITChallenge,I’doftensplitupquestionsfromdifferentsubtopicsbeforetestingmyselfonanexamandtrydifferentapproachessidebyside.Doesitworkbettertodivestraightintotryingtoanswerquestionsortospendalittletimetotrytoseethatyouunderstandthemainconceptsfirst?Theonlywayyoucanknowistotestyourownlearningrates.

Tactic4:High-Intensity,RapidFeedback

Sometimestheeasiestwaytoimprovefeedbackissimplytogetalotmoreofitalotmoreoften.Thisisparticularlytruewhenthedefaultmodeoflearninginvolveslittleorinfrequent

feedback.DeMontebello’sstrategyofimprovingpublicspeakingreliedlargelyongettingfarmorefrequentexposuretothestagethanmostspeakersdo.Lewis’slanguageimmersionexposeshimtoinformationabouthispronunciationatapointwhenmoststudentsstillhaven’tutteredaword.High-intensity,rapidfeedbackoffersinformationaladvantages,butmoreoftentheadvantageisemotional,too.Fearofreceivingfeedbackcanoftenholdyoubackmorethananything.Bythrowingyourselfintoahigh-intensity,rapidfeedbacksituation,youmayinitiallyfeeluncomfortable,butyou’llgetoverthatinitialaversionmuchfasterthanifyouwaitmonthsoryearsbeforegettingfeedback.Beinginsuchasituationalsoprovokesyoutoengageinlearningmoreaggressivelythanyoumightotherwise.Knowingthatyourworkwillbeevaluatedisanincrediblemotivatortodoyourbest.Thismotivationalangleforcommittingtohigh-intensityfeedbackmayendupoutweighingtheinformationaladvantageitprovides.

BeyondFeedbackReceivingfeedbackisn’talwayseasy.Ifyouprocessitasamessageaboutyouregoratherthanyourskills,it’seasytoletapunchbecomeaknockout.Thoughcarefullycontrollingthefeedbackenvironmentsoitismaximallyencouragingmaybeatantalizingoption,realliferarelyaffordssuchanopportunity.Instead,it’sbettertogetinandtakethepunchesearlysothattheydon’tputyoudownforthecount.Thoughshort-termfeedbackcanbestressful,onceyougetintothehabitofreceivingit,itbecomeseasiertoprocesswithoutoverreactingemotionally.Ultralearnersusethistotheiradvantage,exposingthemselvestomassiveamountsoffeedbacksothatthenoisecanbestrippedawayfromthesignal.Feedbackandtheinformationitprovides,however,isusefulonlyifyourememberthelessonsitteaches.Forgettingishumannature,soitisnotenoughtolearn;youalsoneedtomaketheinformationstick.Thisbringsustothenextprincipleofultralearning,retention,inwhichwe’lldiscussstrategiesthatwillensurethelessonsyoulearnaren’tforgotten.

ChapterXPrinciple7Retention

Don’tFillaLeakyBucket

Memoryistheresidueofthought.—DanielWillingham,cognitivepsychologist

InthesmallBelgiancityofLouvain-la-Neuve,NigelRichardshasjustwontheWorldScrabbleChampionships.Onitsown,thisisn’ttoosurprising.Richardshaswonachampionshipthreetimesbefore,andbothhisprowesswiththegameandhismysteriouspersonalityhavemadehimsomethingofalegendincompetitiveScrabblecircles.Thistime,however,isdifferent:insteadoftheoriginalEnglish-languageversionofthefamouscrosswordgame,RichardshaswontheFrenchWorldChampionship.Thisisamuchharderfeat:mostEnglishdictionaryversionshaveroughly200,000validwordentries;French,withitsgenderednounsandadjectivesandcopiousconjugations,hasnearlydoublethatwitharound386,000validwordforms.1Topulloffsuchafeatisquiteremarkable,evenmoresoduetoonesimplefact:Richardsdoesn’tspeakFrench.

Richards,anengineerbornandraisedinChristchurch,NewZealand,isanunusualcharacter.Withhislongbeardandretroaviatorsunglasses,helookslikeacrossbetweenGandalfandNapoleonDynamite.HisskillsatScrabble,however,arenojoke.Alatestartertothegame,hismotherencouragedhimtostartinhislatetwenties,saying“Nigel,sinceyou’renogoodatwords,youwon’tbegoodatthisgame,butitwillkeepyouoccupied.”2FromthoseinauspiciousbeginningsRichardshasgoneontodominatethecompetitiveScrabblescene.Somepeopleevenarguethathemaybethegreatestplayerofalltime.

Incaseyou’vebeenlivingunderarock,Scrabbleisbasedonformingcrosswords.Eachplayerhassevenlettertiles,drawnfromabag,withwhichtoformwords.Thecatchisthatthewordsmustlinkupwiththewordsalreadyontheboard.Tobeagoodplayerrequiresavoluminousmemory,notonlyofthewordsweuseeverydaybutofobscurewordsthatareusefulbecauseoftheirlengthortheletterstheycontain.Adecentcasualplayerquicklylearnsallthevalidtwo-letterwords,includingunusualonessuchas“AA”(atypeoflava)and“OE”(awindstormintheFaroeIslands).Toperformattournamentlevel,however,requiresmemorizingnearlyalloftheshortwords,aswellaslongerseven-andeight-letterwords,sinceifaplayerusesupallseventilesinoneturn,thereisanextrafifty-pointbonus(or“bingo,”inScrabblejargon).Memory,however,isn’ttheonlyskillneeded.Likeothercompetitivegames,tournamentScrabbleusesatimingsystem,soskilledplayersmustnotonlybeabletoconstructvalidwordsfromascrambledsetoftilesbutquicklyfindspacesandcalculatewhichwordswillscorethemostpoints.Inthisregard,Richardsisamaster:giventhetilesCDHLRNandoneblank(whichcanbeusedforanyletter),RichardsignoredtheobviousCHILDRENandinsteadlinkedupmultiplecrosswordstomaketheevenhigherscoringCHLORODYNE.

Richards’svirtuosityisonlyintensifiedbythemysterythatsurroundsit.Heisquietandmostlykeepstohimself.Herefusesallinterviewswithreportersandseemscompletelyuninterestedinfame,fortune,orevenprovidingexplanationsforhowhedoesit.Afellowcompetitor,BobFelt,bumpingintoRichardsatatournamentnotedhismonklikeserenity,tellinghim“WhenIseeyou,Icannevertellwhetheryou’vewonorlost.”“That’sbecauseIdon’tcare”wasRichard’smonotoneresponse.3EvenhiscompetinginBelgium,whichbrieflypulledhimintotheinternationalmediaspotlight,wasdoneasanexcusetodoacyclingtripthroughEurope.Infact,priortohisvictory,hehadspentonlynineweekspreparing.Afterhe

beataFrancophoneplayer,SchelickIlagouRekawefromGabon,inthefinalmatch,hewasgivenastandingovationbutneededatranslatortothanktheaudience.

WhatIsNigelRichards’sSecret?ThemoreIreadaboutNigelRichards,themoreintriguedIbecame.Richardswasasmysteriousashewasincredibleinhismnemonicabilities.Hesteadfastlyignoresopportunitiesforinterviewsandisfamouslylaconicindescriptionsofhismethods.AfterhisvictoryinLouvain-la-Neuve,onereporteraskedhimifhehadanyspecialmethodsformemorizingallthosewords.“No”wasRichards’smonosyllabicresponse.Still,evenifhewouldn’tdivulgehisstrategiespublicly,perhapssomediggingcouldrevealclues.

ThefirstthingIdiscoveredwasthatalthoughRichards’svictoryinBelgiumwasastounding,itwasn’tentirelywithoutprecedent.OtherplayersofthegamehavewonWorldChampionshipswithoutbeingfluentinthelanguageofcompetition.ScrabbleisparticularlypopularinThailand,forinstance,andtwoformerworldchampions,PanupolSujjayakornandPakornNemitrmansuk,arenotfluentinEnglish.Thereasonissimple:rememberingwordsinone’snativelanguageandrememberingwordsinScrabblearedifferentmnemonicfeats.Inspokenlanguage,themeaningofaword,itspronunciation,anditsfeelareimportant.InScrabble,thosethingsdon’tmatter;wordsarejustcombinationsofletters.RichardscouldwinatFrenchScrabblewithoutspeakingFrenchbecausethegamewasn’tmuchdifferentfromEnglish;hejusthadtomemorizedifferentpatternsofletters.Anativespeakerhasanadvantage,ofcourse,sincemanyspellingswillalreadybefamiliar.Buttherewillstillbealargenumberofarcaneandunfamiliarwordstomemorize,andtheskillofrearrangingthelettersintovalidboardpositionsandcalculatingtoachievemaximalpointsremainsthesameineverylanguageinwhichScrabblecanbeplayed.

ThenextpieceofthepuzzleIdiscoveredwasthatScrabble,itturnsout,isn’ttheonlyactivityinwhichRichardspossessesastrangeintensity.Hisotherloveiscycling.Indeed,inanearlytournamentinDunedin,NewZealand,hegotontohisbicycleafterworkfinished,pedaledthroughthenightfromChristchurchtoDunedin,adistanceofovertwohundredmiles,withoutsleeping,andstartedthetournamentfirstthinginthemorning.Afterhewon,competitorshemetatthetournamentofferedtogivehimaridehome.Hepolitelydeclined,preferringtobicyclebacktheentirewayhometoChristchurchforanothersleeplessnightbeforestartingworkagainMondaymorning.4Atfirstthatfeltlikejustanotheroddquirkinhisprofile,likehishome-donehaircutsandreluctancetobeinterviewed.Now,though,Ibelieveitmayholdsomekeystounlockingsomeofhismystery.

Cycling,ofcourse,isn’tagreatmnemonictechnique.Ifitwere,LanceArmstrongwouldhavebeenafiercecontender.However,itdoesillustrateacommonthemeinRichards’spersonalitythatoverlapswiththatofotherultralearnersIhaveencountered:anobsessiveintensitythatexceedswhatisconsideredanormalinvestmentofeffort.Richards’scycling,itturnsout,alsolinesupwellwiththeonlyothercluesI’vebeenabletouncoverabouthismethods:hereadslists;longlistsofwords,startingwithtwo-letterwordsandthenmovingup.“Thecyclinghelps,”heexplains,“Icangothroughlistsinmymind.”5Hereadsthedictionary,focusingexclusivelyoncombinationsofletters,ignoringdefinitions,tenses,andplurals.Then,drawingfrommemory,herepeatsthemoverandoveragainashecyclesforhours.Thisaspectalsocorrespondswithamethodthatiscommontootherultralearnersandthathasshownupinotherprinciplesoflearningsofar:activerecallandrehearsal.Byretrievingwords,Richardslikelytakeshisalreadyimpressivememoryandmakesitunassailablethroughactivepractice.

ThereareothercluesaboutRichards’sperformance:hefocusesonmemory,notanagramming(rearrangingthetilestocreatewords);heworksforwardandbackward,startingfromsmallwords,goingontobigonesandbackagain;heclaimstorecallthewordsvisually,ashecannotrememberwordswhenthey’respoken.AllofthesecluesprovideglimpsesintoRichards’smind,buttheyleaveoutevenmorethantheyreveal.Howmanytimesdoeshehavetoreadthewordsfromhislistbeforehecanrehearseitmentally?Arethewordsorganizedinsomewayorjustlistedalphabetically?Isheasavantwithexceptionalabilitiesandlower-than-normalgeneralintelligenceoranall-roundgeniusforwhommemorizingScrabblewordsisjustoneofmanyimpressiveabilities?MaybehisintelligenceisquiteaverageandhisdominanceinScrabblerepresentshisextremededicationtothegame.Wemightneverknowtheanswerstothosequestions.

Icertainlycan’truleoutthetheorythatRichards’smindissimplyhardwireddifferentlyorbetterformemorythanmyown.Afterall,nothingI’veencounteredsofarabouthismethodissoboldlyoriginalthatseriousScrabbleplayerswouldbeunawareofit.YetRichardshas

completelydominatedhiscompetition.Partofmesuspectsthathisintense,obsessivepersonality,whichenableshimtocycleforhoursreviewinglistsmentally,mightalsoformatleastapartialexplanation.Whatevergiftshemightpossess,healsoseemstopossesstheultralearnerethosI’vedescribedthusfarinthebook.Forwhateveritisworth,Richardshimselfarguesformoreofthelatterthantheformer:“It’shardwork,youhavetohavededicationtolearn,”6elsewhereadding“I’mnotsurethereisasecret,it’sjustamatteroflearningthewords.”7

Scrabblewordsmaynotbeimportanttoyourlife.However,memoryisessentialtolearningthingswell.Programmersmustrememberthesyntaxforthecommandsintheircode.Accountantsneedtomemorizeratios,rules,andregulations.Lawyersmustrememberprecedentsandstatutes.Doctorsneedtoknowtensofthousandsoffactoids,fromanatomicaldescriptionstodruginteractions.Memoryisessential,evenwhenitiswrappedupinbiggerideassuchasunderstanding,intuition,orpracticalskill.Beingabletounderstandhowsomethingworksorhowtoperformaparticulartechniqueisuselessifyoucannotrecallit.Retentiondependsonemployingstrategiessothethingsyoulearndon’tleakoutofyourmind.Beforediscussingstrategiesofretention,however,let’stakealookatwhyrememberingthingsissodifficult.

WhyIsItSoHardtoRememberThings?Richardsisanextremecase,buthisstorynonethelessillustratesmanythemesthatareimportantforanyonewhowantstolearnsomething:Howcanyouretainallofthethingsyoulearn?Howcanyoudefendagainstforgettinghard-wonfactsandskills?Howcanyoustoretheknowledgeyou’veacquiredsothatitcanbeeasilyretrievedexactlywhenyouneedit?Inordertounderstandlearning,youneedtounderstandhowandwhyyouforget.

Losingaccesstopreviouslylearnedknowledgehasbeenaperennialproblemforeducators,students,andpsychologists.Fadingknowledgeimpactstheworkyoudoaswell.Onestudyreportedthatdoctorsgiveworsemedicalcarethelongertheyhaveworked,astheirstoredknowledgefrommedicalschoolisgraduallyforgotten,despitetheirworkingintheprofessionfull-time.Quotingfromtheoriginalabstract:

Physicianswithmoreexperiencearegenerallybelievedtohaveaccumulatedknowledgeandskillsduringyearsinpracticeandthereforetodeliverhigh-qualitycare.However,evidencesuggeststhatthereisaninverserelationshipbetweenthenumberofyearsthataphysicianhasbeeninpracticeandthequalityofcarethatthephysicianprovides.8

HermannEbbinghaus,inoneofthefirstpsychologicalexperimentsinhistory,spentyearsmemorizingnonsensesyllables,muchinthesamewayRichardsmemorizesScrabblewords,andcarefullytrackinghisabilitytorecallthemlater.Fromthisoriginalresearch,laterverifiedbymoreexperimentallyrobuststudies,Ebbinghausdiscoveredtheforgettingcurve.Thiscurveshowsthatwetendtoforgetthingsincrediblyquicklyafterlearningthem,therebeinganexponentialdecayinknowledge,whichissteepestrightafterlearning.However,Ebbinghausnoted,thisforgettingtapersoff,andtheamountofknowledgeforgottenlessensovertime.Ourmindsarealeakybucket;however,mostoftheholesarenearthetop,sothewaterthatremainsatthebottomleaksoutmoreslowly.

Overtheinterveningyears,psychologistshaveidentifiedatleastthreedominanttheoriestohelpexplainwhyourbrainsforgetmuchofwhatweinitiallylearn:decay,interference,andforgottencues.Thoughthejuryisstilloutontheexactmechanismunderlyinghumanlong-termmemory,thesethreeideaslikelyformsomepartofexplainingwhywetendtoforgetthingsand,conversely,provideinsightintohowwemightbetterretainwhatwe’velearned.

Decay:ForgettingwithTime

Thefirsttheoryofforgettingisthatmemoriessimplydecaywithtime.Thisideadoesseemtomatchcommonsense.Werememberevents,news,andthingslearnedinthepastweekmuchmoreclearlythanthingsfromlastmonth.Thingslearnedthisyeararerecalledwithmuchgreateraccuracythaneventsfromadecadeago.Bythisunderstanding,forgettingissimplyaninevitableerosionbytime.Likesandsinanhourglass,ourmemoriesinexorablyslipawayfromusaswebecomemoredistantfromthem.

Thereareflawswiththistheorybeingthecompleteexplanation,however.Manyofuscanvividlyrecalleventsfromearlychildhood,evenifwecan’trememberwhatweateforbreakfastlastTuesday.Therealsoseemtobepatternsinwhichthingsarerememberedand

whichareforgottenthatgobeyondthetimesincetheywereoriginallylearned:vivid,meaningfulthingsaremoreeasilyrecalledthanbanalorarbitraryinformation.Evenifthereisacomponenttoourforgettingthatissimplydecay,itseemsexceedinglyunlikelythatthisistheonlyfactor.

Interference:OverwritingOldMemorieswithNewOnes

Interferencesuggestsadifferentidea:thatourmemories,unlikethefilesofacomputer,overlaponeanotherinhowtheyarestoredinthebrain.Inthisway,memoriesthataresimilarbutdistinctcancompetewithoneanother.Ifyou’relearningprogramming,forinstance,youmaylearnwhataforloopisandrememberitintermsofdoingsomethingrepeatedly.Later,youmaylearnaboutwhileloops,recursion,repeat-untilloops,andgo-tostatements.Now,eachofthesehastodowithdoingsomethingrepeatedly,butindifferentways,sotheymayinterferewithyourabilitytoremembercorrectlywhataforloopdoes.Thereareatleasttwoflavorsofthis:proactiveinterferenceandretroactiveinterference.Proactiveinterferenceoccurswhenpreviouslylearnedinformationmakesacquiringnewknowledgeharder.Thinkofthisasifthe“space”wherethatinformationwantstobestoredisalreadyoccupied,soformingthenewmemorybecomesharder.Thiscanhappenwhenyouwanttolearnthedefinitionofawordbuthavedifficultybecausethatwordalreadyhasadifferentassociationinyourmind.Considertryingtolearntheconceptofnegativereinforcementinpsychology—heretheword“negative”hasthemeaning“absent,”asopposedto“bad,”sonegativereinforcementiswhenyouencourageabehaviorbyremovingsomething,sayapainfulstimulus.However,sincetheearliermeaningofnegativeas“bad”alreadyexists,youmayhavedifficultyrememberingthisanditbecomeseasytoincorrectlyequatenegativereinforcementwithpunishment.Retroactiveinterferenceistheopposite—wherelearningsomethingnew“erases”orsuppressesanoldmemory.AnyonewhohaslearnedSpanishandlatertriedtolearnFrenchknowshowtrickyretroactiveinterferencecanbe,asFrenchwordspopoutwhenyouwanttospeakSpanishagain.

ForgottenCues:ALockedBoxwithNoKey

Thethirdtheoryofforgettingsaysthatmanymemorieswehavearen’tactuallyforgottenbutsimplyinaccessible.Theideahereisthatinordertosaythatonehasrememberedsomething,itneedstoberetrievedfrommemory.Sincewearen’tconstantlyexperiencingtheentiretyofourlong-termmemoriessimultaneously,thismeanstheremustbesomeprocessfordredginguptheinformation,givenanappropriatecue.Whatmayhappeninthiscaseisthatoneofthelinksinthechainofretrievingtheinformationhasbeensevered(perhapsbydecayorinterference)andthereforetheentirememoryhasbecomeinaccessible.However,ifthatcuewererestored,orifanalternativepathtotheinformationcouldbefound,wewouldremembermuchmorethaniscurrentlyaccessibletous.

Thisexplanationalsohassomeadvantages.Intuitivelyitseemstobesomewhattrue,asweallknowthetip-of-the-tongueexperience,whenwefeelasthoughweshouldbeabletorememberafactorwordbutwe’renotabletosummonitupimmediately.Itmightalsosuggestthatrelearningthingsismuchfasterthanlearningtheminitially,becauserelearningisclosertorepairwork,whileoriginallearningisacompletelynewconstruction.Forgettingcuesseemshighlylikelyasapartial,ifnotcomplete,explanationofforgettingmanythings.

Cueforgettingasacompleteexplanationforourmemorywoesisn’twithoutitsproblems,however.Manymemoryresearchersnowbelievethattheactofrememberingisnotapassiveprocess.Inrecallingfacts,events,orknowledge,we’reengaginginacreativeprocessofreconstruction.Thememoriesthemselvesareoftenmodified,enhanced,ormanipulatedintheprocessofremembering.Itmaybe,then,that“lost”memoriesthatareretrievedthroughnewcuesareactuallyfabrications.Thisseemsespeciallylikelyinthecaseof“recovered”witnesstestimonyfromtraumaticevents,asexperimentshaveshownthatevenhighlyvividmemoriesthatfeelcompletelyauthentictothesubjectcanbeuntrue.9

HowCanYouPreventForgetting?Forgettingisthedefault,nottheexception,sotheultralearnersIencounteredhaddevisedvariousstrategiesforcopingwiththisfactoflife.Thesemethodsroughlydivideintotacklingtwosimilarbutdifferentproblems.Thefirstsetofmethodsdealswiththeproblemofretentionwhileundertakingtheultralearningproject:Howcanyouretainthethingsyou

learnedthefirstweek,sothatyoudon’tneedtorelearnthembythelastweek?Thisisparticularlyimportantformemory-intensiveultralearningeffortssuchasBennyLewis’slanguagelearningandRogerCraig’sJeopardy!triviamastery.Inthesedomainsandmanyothers,thevolumeofinformationtobelearnedisoftensolargethattheforgettingbecomesapracticalobstaclealmostimmediately.Thesecondsetofmethods,incontrast,hastodowiththelongevityoftheskillsandknowledgeacquiredaftertheprojecthasbeencompleted:Oncealanguagehasbeenlearnedtoalevelyou’resatisfiedwith,howcanyoukeepyourselffromforgettingitcompletelyacoupleyearslater?

TheultralearnersIencounteredhaddeviseddifferingmethodsfordealingwiththesetwoproblems,whichvariedineffortandintensity.Some,likeCraig,preferredelaborateelectronicsystemsthatcanoptimizememorywithfancyalgorithms,leavinglittlewasteandinefficiency,ifatthecostofintroducinggreatercomplexity.Others,likeRichards,seemtopreferbasicsystemsthatsucceedontheirsimplicity.

Youneedtopickamnemonicsystem,whichwillbothaccomplishyourgoalsandbesimpleenoughtostickto.Duringintenseperiodsoflanguagelearning,thesheervolumeofvocabularyoftenmeantthatspaced-repetitionsystemswerehelpfulforme.Othertimes,Ipreferredhavingconversationstomaintainmyspeakingability,eventhoughthismethodisnotquiteasprecise.Withothersubjects,I’mhappiertoallowforsomedegreeofforgettingaslongasIpracticetheskillsIneedtousecontinuouslyandhavetheabilitytorelearn.

Myapproachesmaynotreachatheoreticalideal,buttheymayendupworkingbetterbecausetheyhavefewerpossibilitiesforerrorandcanbesustainedmoreeasily.Regardlessoftheexactsystemused,however,allsystemsseemedtoworkaccordingtooneoffourmechanisms:spacing,proceduralization,overlearning,ormnemonics.Let’slookateachofthesemechanismsofretentionfirst,inordertomakesenseofthequitedifferentandidiosyncraticmanifestationsusedindifferentultralearningprojects.

MemoryMechanism1—Spacing:RepeattoRemember

Oneofthepiecesofstudyingadvicethatisbestsupportedbyresearchisthatifyoucareaboutlong-termretention,don’tcram.Spreadinglearningsessionsovermoreintervalsoverlongerperiodsoftimetendstocausesomewhatlowerperformanceintheshortrun(becausethereisachanceforforgettingbetweenintervals)butmuchbetterperformanceinthelongrun.ThiswassomethingIneededtobecarefulaboutduringtheMITChallenge.Aftermyfirstfewclasses,Iswitchedfromdoingoneclassatatimetodoingafewinparallel,tominimizetheimpactthatthecrammedstudytimewouldhaveonmymemory.

Ifyouhavetenhourstolearnsomething,therefore,itmakesmoresensetospendtendaysstudyingonehoureachthantospendtenhoursstudyinginoneburst.Obviously,however,iftheamountoftimebetweenstudyintervalsgetslongerandlonger,theshort-termeffectsstarttooutweighthelong-termones.Ifyoulearnsomethingwithadecadeseparatingstudyintervals,it’squitepossiblethatyou’llcompletelyforgetwhateveryouhadlearnedbeforeyoureachthesecondsession.

Findingtheexacttrade-offpointbetweentoolongandtooshorthasbeenaminorobsessionforsomeultralearners.Spaceyourstudysessionstooclosely,andyouloseefficiency;spacethemtoofarapart,andyouforgetwhatyou’vealreadylearned.Thishasledmanyultralearnerstoapplywhatareknownasspaced-repetitionsystems(SRS)asatoolfortryingtoretainthemostknowledgewiththeleasteffort.SRSwasamajorforcebehindRogerCraig’sJeopardy!triviamemorization,andIusedthesystemsextensivelywhenlearningChineseandKorean.Althoughyoumaynothaveheardofthisterm,thegeneralprincipleisthebackboneofmanylanguage-learningproducts,includingPimsleur,Memrise,andDuolingo.Theseprogramstendtohidethespacingalgorithminthebackground,soyoudon’tneedtobotheryourselfwithit.However,otherprograms,suchastheopen-sourceAnki,arethepreferredtoolofmoreextremeultralearnerswhowanttosqueezeoutalittlemoreperformance.

SRSisanamazingtool,butittendstohavequitefocusedapplications.Learningfacts,trivia,vocabularywords,ordefinitionsisideallysuitedforflashcardsoftware,whichpresentsknowledgeintermsofaquestionwithasingleanswer.It’smoredifficulttoapplytomorecomplicateddomainsofknowledge,whichrelyoncomplexinformationassociationsthatarebuiltuponlythroughreal-worldpractice.Still,forsometasks,thebottleneckofmemoryissotightthatSRSisapowerfultoolforwideningit,eveniftherearesomedrawbacks.TheauthorsofapopularstudyguideformedicalstudentscentertheirapproacharoundSRS,becauseamedicalstudentmustremembersomanythingsandthedefaultstrategyofforgettingandrelearningisquitecostlyintermsoftime.10

Spacingdoesnotrequirecomplexsoftware,however.AsRichards’sstoryclearly

demonstrates,simplyprintinglistsofwords,readingthemover,andthenrehearsingthemmentallywithouthavingtheminfrontofyouisanincrediblypowerfultechnique.Similarly,semiregularpracticeofaskillisoftenquitehelpful.Aftermyyearoflearninglanguages,IwantedtoensurethatIdidn’tforgetthem.Myapproachwasfairlysimple:schedulethirtyminutesofconversationpracticeonceaweek,tobedoneoverSkypeusingitalki,anonlineservicefortutoringandlanguageexchangepartnersallovertheworld.Imaintainedthisforoneyear,afterwhichIdroppedtoonce-per-monthpracticeforanothertwoyears.Idon’tknowwhetherthispracticeschedulewasideal,andIhadotheropportunitiestopracticethatcameupspontaneouslyinthattimeperiodthatalsohelped,butIbelieveitwasmuchbetterthandoingnothingandlettingtheskillsatrophy.Whenitcomestoretention,don’tletperfectbecometheenemyofgoodenough.

Anotherstrategyforapplyingspacing,whichcanworkbetterformoreelaborateskillsthatarehardertointegrateintoyourdailyhabits,istosemiregularlydorefresherprojects.IleanedtowardthisapproachforthethingsIlearnedduringtheMITChallenge,sincetheskillIwantedmosttoretainwaswritingcode,whichistrickytodoononlyhalfanhourperweek.Thisapproachhasthedisadvantageofsometimesdeviatingquitealotfromoptimalspacing;however,ifyou’repreparedtodoalittlebitofrelearningtocompensate,itcanstillbeabetterapproachthancompletelygivinguppractice.Schedulingthiskindofmaintenanceinadvancecanalsobehelpful,asitwillremindyouthatlearningisn’tsomethingdoneonceandthenignoredbutaprocessthatcontinuesforyourentirelife.

MemoryMechanism2—Proceduralization:AutomaticWillEndure

Whydopeoplesayit’s“likeridingabicycle”andnot“likerememberingtrigonometry?”Thiscommonexpressionmayberootedindeeperneurologicalrealitiesthanitfirstappears.There’sevidencethatproceduralskills,suchasridingabicycle,arestoredinadifferentwayfromdeclarativeknowledge,suchasknowingthePythagoreanTheoremortheSineRulefortriangles.Thisdifferencebetweenknowinghowandknowingthatmayalsohavedifferentimplicationsforlong-termmemory.Proceduralskills,suchastheever-rememberedbicycling,aremuchlesssusceptibletobeingforgottenthanknowledgethatrequiresexplicitrecalltoretrieve.11

Thisfindingcanactuallybeusedtoouradvantage.Onedominanttheoryoflearningsuggeststhatmostskillsproceedthroughstages—startingdeclarativebutendingupproceduralasyoupracticemore.Aperfectexampleofthisdeclarative-to-proceduraltransitionistypewriting.Whenyoustarttypingonakeyboard,youmustmemorizethepositionsoftheletters.Eachtimeyouwanttotypeaword,youhavetothinkintermsofitsletters,recalleachone’spositiononthekeyboard,andthenmoveyourfingertothatspottopressit.Thisprocessmayfail;youmayforgetwhereakeyisandneedtolookdowntotypeit.However,ifyoupracticemoreandmore,youstophavingtolookdown.Eventuallyyoustophavingtothinkabouttheletters’positionsorhowtomoveyourfingerstomeetthem.Youmayevenreachapointwhereyoudon’tthinkoflettersatallandwholewordscomeoutatatime.Suchproceduralknowledgeisquiterobustandtendstoberetainedmuchlongerthandeclarativeknowledge.Aquickobservationisenoughtoverifythis:whenyou’vegottenreallygoodattypingandsomeoneasksyoutoquicklysaywhereonakeyboardtheletterwis,youmightneedtoactuallyputyourhandsinthekeyboardposition(orimagineyou’redoingso)andpretendtotypethewtosaydefinitively.ThisisexactlywhathappenedtomeasIwastypingoutthisparagraph.Whathashappenedisthatwhatwasoriginallytheprimaryaccesspointtoknowledge,yourexplicitmemoryofthekeylocation,hasfadedawayandnowneedstoberecalledwiththemoredurableproceduralknowledgeencodedinyourmotormovements.Ifyou’veeverhadtoenterapasswordorpincodeyouuseoften,youmaybeinasimilarposition,whereyourememberitbyfeelandnotbyitsexplicitcombinationofnumbersandletters.

Becauseofthefactthatproceduralknowledgeisstoredforlonger,thismaysuggestausefulheuristic.Insteadoflearningalargevolumeofknowledgeorskillsevenly,youmayemphasizeacoresetofinformationmuchmorefrequently,sothatitbecomesproceduralandisstoredfarlonger.Thiswasanunintentionalsideeffectofmyfriend’sandmylanguage-learningproject.Beingforcedtospeakalanguageconstantlymeantthatacoresetofphrasesandpatternswasrepeatedsooftenthatneitherofuswilleverforgetthem.Thismaynotholdtrueforabunchoflessfrequentlyusedwordsorphrases,butthestartingpointsofconversationsarenearlyimpossibletoforget.Theclassicapproachtolanguagestudies,inwhichstudents“moveon”frombeginnerwordsandgrammaticalpatternstomorecomplicatedonesmaysidestepthis,sothatthosecorepatternsaren’tstickyenoughtolastforyearswithoutrepeatedpractice.

Failingtofullyproceduralizecoreskillswasamajorflawofmyfirstmajorself-educationeffort,theMITChallenge,whichIwasabletoimproveuponinmysubsequentlanguage-learningandportrait-drawingprojects.WhereastheMITChallengedidhavecoremathematicalandprogrammingskillsthatwereoftenrepeated,whatendedupbeingproceduralizedwasmorehaphazardratherthanreflectingaconsciousdecisiontoautomatethemostessentialskillsofapplyingcomputerscience.

Mostskillswelearnareincompletelyproceduralized.Wemaybeabletodosomeofthemautomatically,butotherpartsrequireustoactivelysearchourminds.Youmight,forinstance,beabletoeasilymovevariablesfromonesideofanequationtotheotherinalgebrawithoutthinking.Butyoumayhavetothinkabitmorewhenexponentsortrigonometryisinvolved.Perhaps,owingtotheirnature,someskillscannotbecompletelyautomatedandwillalwaysrequiresomeconsciousthought.Thiscreatesaninterestingmixofknowledge,withsomethingsretainedquitestablyoverlongerperiodsoftimeandotherssusceptibletobeingforgotten.Onestrategyforapplyingthisconceptmightbetoensurethatacertainamountofknowledgeiscompletelyproceduralizedbeforepracticeconcludes.Anotherapproachmightbetospendextraefforttoproceduralizesomeskills,whichwillserveascuesoraccesspointsforotherknowledge.Youmayaimtocompletelyproceduralizetheprocessyouusetostartworkingonanewprogrammingproject,forexample,sothatyoucangetoverthathumpintheprocessofwritinganewprogram.Thesestrategiesaresomewhatspeculative,butIthinktherearelotsofpotentialwaysthedeclarative-to-proceduraltransitionofknowledgemightbeappliedbycleverultralearnersinthefuture.

MemoryMechanism3—Overlearning:PracticeBeyondPerfect

Overlearningisawell-studiedpsychologicalphenomenonthat’sfairlyeasytounderstand:additionalpractice,beyondwhatisrequiredtoperformadequately,canincreasethelengthoftimethatmemoriesarestored.12Thetypicalexperimentalsetupistogivesubjectsatask,suchasassemblingarifleorgoingthroughanemergencychecklist,allowingthemenoughtimetopracticethattheycandoitcorrectlyonce.Thetimefromzerotothispointisconsideredthe“learning”phase.Next,allowthesubjectsdifferentamountsof“overlearning,”orpracticethatcontinuesafterthefirstcorrectapplication.Sincesubjectsarealreadydoingtheskillcorrectly,performancedoesn’timprovepastthispoint.However,theoverlearningcanextendthedurabilityoftheskill.

Inthetypicalsettinginwhichoverlearninghasbeenstudied,thedurationoftheoverlearningeffectstendstobequiteshort;practicingalittlelongerinonesessionproducesanadditionalweekortwoofrecall.Thismayimplythatoverlearningisprimarilyashort-termphenomenon:somethingusefulforskillslikefirstaidoremergencyresponseprotocols,whicharerarelypracticedbutneedtobekeptfreshinbetweenregulartrainingsessions.Isuspect,however,thatoverlearningmighthavelonger-termimplicationsifitiscombinedwithspacingandproceduralizationovermuchlongerprojects.Inmyownpersonalexperiencedrawingportraits,forinstance,thethoughtprocessusedformappingoutthefacialfeaturesIlearnedfromVitruvianStudiowasrepeatedsomanytimesthatit’shardtoforget,eventhoughmymajorpracticetimewasonlyduringonemonth.Similarly,certainreflexesofprogrammingormathematicsIcanstilleasilyrecallfrommyMITChallengedays,evenwithoutpracticeintheinterim,becausetheyhappenedtobepatternsthatwererepeatedfarmorethanwasnecessarytoperformthemadequatelyatthetime(becausetheywerecomponentsofmoreelaborateproblems).

Overlearningdovetailsnicelywiththeprincipleofdirectness.Becausedirectuseofaskillfrequentlyinvolvesoverpracticingcertaincoreabilities,thatkernelisusuallyquiteresistanttoforgetting,evenyearslater.Incontrast,academicallylearnedsubjectstendtodistributepracticemoreevenlytocovertheentirecurriculumtoaminimumlevelofcompetencyineacharea,regardlessofthecentralityofsubtopicstopracticalapplications.ManypeopleI’veknownwhohavelearnedalanguagethatIalsospeakbutwholearneditthroughyearsofformalschoolinghavemuchmoreimpressivevocabulariesorknowledgeofgrammaticalnuancesthanIdo.However,thosesamepeoplemaytripoverfairlybasicphrases,becausetheylearnedeveryfactandskillevenly,ratherthanoverlearningthesmallersubsetofverycommonpatterns.

ThereseemtobetwomainmethodsI’veencounteredforapplyingoverlearning.Thefirstiscorepractice,continuallypracticingandrefiningthecoreelementsofaskill.Thisapproachoftenworkswellpairedwithsomekindofimmersionorworkingonextensive(asopposedtointensive)projects,aftertheinitialultralearningphasehasbeencompleted.Theshiftfromlearningtodoingheremayactuallyinvolveadeeper,subtlerformoflearning,whichshouldn’tbediscountedassimplyapplyingpreviouslylearnedknowledge.

Thesecondstrategyisadvancedpractice,goingonelevelaboveacertainsetofskillssothatcorepartsofthelower-levelskillsareoverlearnedasoneappliestheminamoredifficultdomain.Onestudyofalgebrastudentsdemonstratedthissecondstrategy.13Moststudentswhohadtakenanalgebraclassandwereretestedyearslaterhadforgottenhugeamountsofwhattheyhadlearned.Thiscouldhavebeeneitherbecausetheinformationwastrulylostorsimplybecauseforgottencuesrenderedthemajorityofitinaccessible.Interestingly,thisrateofforgettingwasthesameforbetter-andpoorer-performingstudents;betterstudentsretainedmorethanweakerones,buttherateatwhichtheyhadforgottenwasthesame.Onegroup,however,didnotshowsuchasteepdeclineinforgetting:thosewhohadtakencalculus.Thissuggeststhatmovingupaleveltoamoreadvancedskillenabledtheearlierskilltobeoverlearned,thuspreventingsomeforgetting.

MemoryMechanism4—Mnemonics:APictureRetainsaThousandWords

ThefinaltoolcommontomanyultralearnersIencounteredwasmnemonics.Therearemanymnemonicstrategies,andcoveringthemallisoutsidethescopeofthisbook.Whattheyhaveincommonisthattheytendtobehyperspecific—thatis,theyaredesignedtorememberveryspecificpatternsofinformation.Second,theyusuallyinvolvetranslatingabstractorarbitraryinformationintovividpicturesorspatialmaps.Whenmnemonicswork,theresultscanbealmostdifficulttobelieve.RajveerMeena,theGuinnessWorldRecordholderformemorizingdigitsofthemathematicalconstantpi,knowsthenumberto70,000decimalplaces.14Mastermnemonicists,whocompeteinchampionshipsofmemory,canmemorizetheorderofadeckofcardsinundersixtysecondsandcanrepeatapoemverbatimafteronlyaminuteortwoofstudying.Thesefeatsarequiteimpressive,andevenbetter,theycanbelearnedbyanyonepatientenoughtoapplythem.Howdotheywork?

Onecommon,anduseful,mnemonicisknownasthekeywordmethod.Themethodworksbyfirsttakingaforeign-languagewordandconvertingitintosomethingitsoundslikeinyournativelanguage.IfIweredoingthiswithFrench,forexample,Imighttakethewordchavirer(tocapsize)andconvertitinto“shaveanear,”towhichitiscloseenoughinsoundforthelattertoserveasaneffectivecueforrecallingtheoriginalword.NextIcreateamentalimagethatcombinesthesounds-likeversionoftheforeignwordandanimageofitstranslationinafantasticalandvividsettingthatisbizarreandhardtoforget.Inthiscase,Icouldimagineagiantearshavingalongbeardwhilesittinginaboatthatcapsizes.Then,wheneverIneedtorememberwhat“capsize”isinFrench,Ithinkofcapsizing,recallmyelaboratepicture,whichlinksto“shavinganear”andthus...chavirer.Thisprocesssoundsneedlesslycomplicatedandelaborateatfirst,butitbenefitsfromconvertingadifficultassociation(betweenarbitrarysoundsandanewmeaning)intoafewlinksthataremucheasiertoassociateandremember.Withpractice,eachconversionofthistypemaytakeonlyfifteentotwentyseconds,anditreallydoeshelpwithrememberingforeign-languagewords.Thisparticularkindofmnemonicworksforthispurpose,butthereareothersthatworkforrememberinglists,numbers,maps,orsequencesofstepsinaprocedure.Foragoodintroductiontothistopic,IhighlyrecommendJoshuaFoer’sbookMoonwalkingwithEinstein:TheArtandScienceofRememberingEverything.

Mnemonicsworkwell,andwithpractice,anyonecandothem.Why,then,aretheynotfrontandcenterinthischapter,insteadofattheend?Ibelievethatmnemonics,likeSRS,areincrediblypowerfultools.Andastools,theycanopennewpossibilitiesforpeoplewhoarenotfamiliarwiththem.However,assomeonewhohasspentmuchtimeexploringthemandapplyingthemtoreal-worldlearning,theirapplicationsarequiteabitnarrowerthantheyfirstappear,andinmanyreal-worldsettingstheysimplyaren’tworththehassle.

Ibelievetherearetwodisadvantagestomnemonics.Thefirstisthatthemostimpressivemnemonicssystems(liketheoneformemorizingthousandsofdigitsofthemathematicalconstantpi),alsorequireaconsiderableup-frontinvestment.Afteryou’redone,youcanmemorizedigitseasily,butthisisn’tactuallyaveryusefultask.Mostofoursocietyadaptsaroundthefactthatpeoplegenerallycannotmemorizedigits,sowehavepaperandcomputersdoitforus.Theseconddisadvantageisthatrecallingfrommnemonicsisoftennotasautomaticasdirectlyrememberingsomething.Knowingamnemonicforaforeign-languagewordisbetterthanfailingtorememberitentirely,butit’sstilltooslowtoallowyoutofluentlyformsentencesoutofmnemonicallyrememberedwords.Thusmnemonicscanactasabridgefordifficult-to-rememberinformation,butit’susuallynotthefinalstepincreatingmemoriesthatwillendureforever.

Mnemonics,therefore,areanincrediblypowerfulifsomewhatbrittletool.Ifyouaredoingataskthatrequiresmemorizinghighlydenseinformationinaveryspecificformat,especiallyiftheinformationisgoingtobeusedoverafewweeksormonths,theycanenableyoutodo

thingswithyourmindthatyoumightnothavethoughtpossible.Alternatively,theycanbeusedasanintermediatestrategytosmoothinitialinformationacquisitionwhentheinformationisquitedense.I’vefoundthemusefulforlanguagelearningandterminology,and,pairedwithSRS,theycanformaneffectivebridgefromfeelingasthoughthere’snowayyoucanpossiblyremembereverythingtorememberingitsodeeplythatyoucan’tpossiblyforget.Indeed,inaworldbeforepaper,computers,andotherexternalizedmemories,mnemonicswerethemaingameintown.However,inthemodernworld,whichhasdevelopedexcellentcopingmechanismsforthefactthatmostpeoplecannotrememberthingsasacomputercan,Ifeelthatmnemonicstendtoservemoreascooltricksthanasafoundationyoushouldbaseyourlearningeffortson.Still,thereisadevotedsubsetofultralearnerswhoarefiercelycommittedtoapplyingthesetechniques,somywordshouldn’tbethefinalverdict.

WinningtheWarAgainstForgettingToretainknowledgeisultimatelytocombattheinevitablehumantendencytoforget.Thisprocessoccursinallofus,andthere’snowaytoavoiditcompletely.However,certainstrategies—spacing,proceduralization,overlearning,andmnemonics—cancounteractyourshort-andlong-termratesofforgettingandendupmakingahugedifferenceinyourmemorization.

IopenedthischapterbydiscussingNigelRichards’smysteriousScrabblemastery.Howheisabletorecallsomanywordssoquicklyandseetheminasetofscrambledtileswilllikelyremainanenigma.Whatwedoknowabouthimfitsthepictureofotherultralearnerswhohavedominatedmemory-intensivesubjects:activerecall,spacedrehearsal,andanobsessivecommitmenttointensepractice.WhetheryouorIhavethewilltogoasfarasRichardsdoesisanopenquestion,butwithhardworkandagoodstrategy,itseemslikelytomethatthebattleagainstforgettingneednotbealosingone.

ThoughRichards’sScrabblepracticemaygivehimthebenefitofmemorizingwordshedoesn’tknowthemeaningof,reallifetendstorewardadifferentkindofmemory:onethatintegratesknowledgeintoadeepunderstandingofthings.Inthenextprinciple,we’lllookatgoingfrommemorytointuition.

ChapterXIPrinciple8Intuition

DigDeepBeforeBuildingUp

Donotaskwhetherastatementistrueuntilyouknowwhatitmeans.—ErrettBishop,mathematician

Totheworld,hewasaneccentricprofessorandNobelPrize–winningphysicist;tohisbiographer,hewasagenius;buttothosewhoknewhim,RichardFeynmanwasamagician.HiscolleaguethemathematicianMarkKaconcepositedthattheworldholdstwotypesofgeniuses.Thefirstareordinarygeniuses:“Onceweunderstandwhattheyhavedonewefeelcertainthatwe,too,couldhavedoneit.”Theothertypearemagicians,whosemindsworkinsuchinscrutablewaysthat“Evenafterweunderstandwhattheyhavedone,theprocessbywhichtheyhavedoneitiscompletelydark.”Feynman,byhisreckoning,was“amagicianofthehighestcaliber.”1Feynmancouldtakeproblemsothershadworkedonformonthsandimmediatelyseethe

solution.Inhighschool,hecompetedinmathematicstournaments,wherehewouldoftengetthecorrectanswerwhiletheproblemwasstillbeingstated.Whilehiscompetitorshadjustbeguntocompute,Feynmanalreadyhadtheanswercircledonthepage.Inhiscollegedays,hecompetedinthePutnamMathematicsCompetition,withthewinnerreceivingapaidscholarshiptoHarvard.Thiscompetitionisnotoriouslydifficult,requiringclevertricksratherthanstraightforwardapplicationofpreviouslylearnedprinciples.Timeisalsoafactor,andsomeexaminationsessionshaveamedianscoreofzero,meaningthetypicalcompetitordidn’tgetevenoneright.Feynmanwalkedoutoftheexamearly.Hescoredfirstplace,withhisfraternitybrotherslaterbeingamazedatthedrasticgapbetweenFeynman’sscoreandthenextfouronthelist.DuringhisworkontheManhattanProject,NielsBohr,thenoneofthemostfamousandimportantlivingphysicists,askedtospeakwithFeynmandirectly,torunhisideasbytheyounggradstudentbeforetalkingwiththeotherphysicists.“He’stheonlyguywho’snotafraidofme”wasBohr’sexplanation.“[He]willsaywhenI’vegotacrazyidea.”2NorwasFeynman’smagicrestrictedtophysics.Asachildhewentaroundfixingpeople’s

radios,inpartbecausepayinganadultforrepairsintheDepressionwastoocostlybutalsobecausetheradioownersmarveledathisprocess.Once,whilehewaslostinthoughttryingtofigureoutwhyaradiowasproducinganawfulnoiseasitstartedup,theowneroftheradiogotimpatient.“Whatareyoudoing?Youcometofixtheradio,butyou’reonlywalkingbackandforth!”“I’mthinking!”camethereply,atwhichtheowner,startledattheboldnessforwhichFeynmanwouldlaterbecomefamous,laughed.“Hefixesradiosbythinking!”AsayoungmanduringtheconstructionoftheatomicbombintheManhattanProject,he

occupiedhisfreetimepickingthelocksofhissupervisors’desksandcabinets.Heoncebrokeintoaseniorcolleague’sfilingcabinet,wherethesecretsforbuildinganuclearbombwerekept,asapracticaljoke.Anothertime,hedemonstratedhistechniquetoamilitaryofficial,who,insteadoffixingthesecurityflaw,decidedthepropercoursewastowarneveryonetokeepFeynmanawayfromtheirsafes!Later,uponmeetingalocksmith,hefoundthathisreputationhadgrowntothepointwheretheprofessionalsaid,“God!You’reFeynman—thegreatsafecracker!”Healsocreatedtheimpressionofbeingahumancalculator.OnatriptoBrazil,hewenttoe

totoeagainstanabacussalesman,computingdifficultfiguressuchasthecuberootof1,729.03.NotonlydidFeynmangettherightanswer,12.002,buthegotittomoredecimalplacesthantheabacussalesman,whowasstillfuriouslycalculatingtogetto12when

Feynmandisplayedhisfive-digitresult.Thisabilityimpressedevenotherprofessionalmathematicians,towhomhearguedthathecould,withinoneminute,gettheanswertoanyproblemthatcouldbestatedintensecondstowithin10percentofthecorrectnumber.Themathematiciansthrewquestionsathimsuchas“etothepowerof3.3”or“etothepowerof1.4,”andFeynmanmanagedtospitbackthecorrectansweralmostimmediately.

DemystifyingFeynman’sMagicFeynmanwascertainlyagenius.Manypeople,includinghisbiographerJamesGleick,aresatisfiedtoleaveitatthat.Amagictrick,afterall,ismostdazzlingwhenyoudon’tknowhowitisdone.Perhapsthisiswhymanyaccountsofthemanhavefocusedonhismagicinsteadofhismethod.ThoughFeynmanwasquitesmart,hismagichaditsgaps.Heexcelledinmathandphysics

butwasabysmalinthehumanities.Hiscollegegradesinhistorywereinthebottomfifthofhisclass,inliteratureinthebottomsixth,andhisfineartsgradeswereworsethanthoseof93percentofhisfellowstudents.Atonepoint,heevenresortedtocheatingonatesttopass.Hisintelligence,measuredwhilehewasinschool,scored125.Theaveragecollegegraduatehasascoreof115,whichputsFeynmanonlymodestlyhigher.Perhaps,ashasbeenarguedafterward,Feynman’sgeniusfailedtobecapturedinhisIQscore,oritsimplywasapoorlyadministeredtest.However,forsomeonesocelebratedforamindbeyondcomprehension,thesefactsremindusthatFeynmanwasmortal.WhataboutFeynman’smentalcalculus?Inthiscase,wehaveFeynman’swordshimselffor

howhecouldcomputesomuchfasterthantheabacussalesmanorhismathematiciancolleagues.Thecuberootof1,729.03?Feynmanexplained,“Ihappenedtoknowthatacubicfootcontains1728cubicinches,sotheanswerisatinybitmorethan12.Theexcess,1.03,isonlyonepartinnearly2000,andIhadlearnedincalculusthatforsmallfractions,thecuberoot’sexcessisone-thirdofthenumber’sexcess.SoallIhadtodowasfindthefraction1/1728,andmultiplyby4.”Theconstantetothepowerof1.4?Feynmanrevealed,“becauseofradioactivity(mean-lifeandhalf-life),Iknewthelogof2tothebasee,whichis.69315(soIalsoknewthatetothepowerof.7isnearlyequalto2).”Togotothepowerof1.4,he’djusthavetomultiplythatnumberagainstitself.“[S]heerluck,”heexplained.3Thesecretwashisimpressivememoryforcertainarithmeticresultsandanintuitionwithnumbersthatenabledhimtointerpolate.However,theluckypicksofhisexaminersallowedhimtoleaveanimpressionofamagicalabilitytocalculate.Howaboutthefamouslockpicking?Onceagain,itwasmagic,inthesamesenseasa

magicianperformingwell-practicedtricks.Heobsessedoverfiguringouthowcombinationlocksworked.Onedayherealizedthatbyfiddlingwithalockwhenitwasopen,hecouldfigureoutthelasttwonumbersonthesafe.Hewouldwritethemdownonanoteafterhelefttheperson’sofficeandthencouldsneakbackin,cracktheremainingnumberwithsomepatience,andleaveominousnotesbehind.Evenhismagicalintuitionforphysicshaditsexplanation:“Ihadascheme,whichIstilluse

todaywhensomebodyisexplainingsomethingthatI’mtryingtounderstand:Ikeepmakingupexamples.”Insteadoftryingtofollowanequation,hewouldtrytoimaginethesituationitdescribed.Asmoreinformationwasgiven,he’dworkitthroughonhisexample.Thenwheneverhisinterlocutormadeamistake,hecouldseeit.“Asthey’retellingmetheconditionsofthetheorem,Iconstructsomethingwhichfitsalltheconditions.Youknow,youhaveaset(oneball)—disjoint(twoballs).Thentheballsturncolors,growhairs,orwhatever,inmyheadastheyputmoreconditionson.Finallytheystatethetheorem,whichissomedumbthingabouttheballwhichisn’ttrueformyhairygreenballthing,soIsay,‘False!’”4Magic,perhaps,Feynmandidnotpossess,butanincredibleintuitionfornumbersand

physicshecertainlydid.Thismightdownplaytheideathathismindworkedinafundamentallydifferentwayfromyoursormine,butitdoesn’tnegatetheimpressivenessofhisfeats.Afterall,evenknowingthelogicbehindFeynman’ssleightofhand,I’mcertainIwouldn’thavebeenabletocalculatethenumbershedidsoeffortlesslyorfollowsomecomplextheoryinmymind’seye.Thisexplanationdoesn’tprovidethesatisfying“Aha!”thatitwouldhavehadthemagician’strickbeenrevealedassomethingtrivial.Therefore,weneedtodigdeepertoanunderstandingofhowsomeonesuchasFeynmancoulddevelopthisincredibleintuitioninthefirstplace.

InsidetheMindoftheMagician

Psychologicalresearchershaveinvestigatedtheproblemofhowintuitiveexperts,suchasFeynman,thinkdifferentlyaboutproblemsthannovicesdo.Inafamousstudy,advancedPhDsandundergraduatephysicsstudentsweregivensetsofphysicsproblemsandaskedtosortthemintocategories.5Immediately,astarkdifferencebecameapparent.Whereasbeginnerstendedtolookatsuperficialfeaturesoftheproblem—suchaswhethertheproblemwasaboutpulleysorinclinedplanes—expertsfocusedonthedeeperprinciplesatwork.“Ah,soit’saconservationofenergyproblem,”youcanalmosthearthemsayingastheycategorizedtheproblembywhatprinciplesofphysicstheyrepresented.Thisapproachismoresuccessfulinsolvingproblemsbecauseitgetstothecoreofhowtheproblemswork.Thesurfacefeaturesofaproblemdon’talwaysrelatetothecorrectprocedureneededtosolveit.Thestudentsneededmuchmoretrialanderrortohomeinonthecorrectmethod,whereastheexpertscouldimmediatelystartwiththerightapproach.Iftheprinciples-firstwayofthinkingofproblemsissomuchmoreeffective,whydon’t

studentsstartthereinsteadofattendingtosuperficialcharacteristics?Thesimpleanswermaybethattheycan’t.Onlybydevelopingenoughexperiencewithproblemsolvingcanyoubuildupadeepmentalmodelofhowotherproblemswork.Intuitionsoundsmagical,buttherealitymaybemorebanal—theproductofalargevolumeoforganizedexperiencedealingwiththeproblem.Anotherstudy,thistimecomparingchessmastersandbeginners,offeredanexplanationof

whythismightbeso.6Thememoryforchesspositionsofexpertsandnoviceswastestedbyshowingthemaparticularchesssetupandthenaskingthemtore-createitonanemptyboard.Themasterscouldrecallfarmorethanthebeginners.Thenewplayersneededtoputdownpiecesonebyoneandwereoftenunabletofullyrememberallthedetailsoftheposition.Themasters,incontrast,rememberedtheboardinlarger“chunks”withseveralpiecescorrespondingtoarecognizablepatternputdownatthesametime.Psychologiststheorizethatthedifferencebetweengrandmastersandnovicesisnotthatgrandmasterscancomputemanymoremovesaheadbutthattheyhavebuiltuphugelibrariesofmentalrepresentationsthatcomefromplayingactualgames.Researchershaveestimatedthathavingaround50,000ofthesemental“chunks”storedinlong-termmemoryisnecessarytoreachexpertstatus.7Theserepresentationsallowthemtotakeacomplexchesssetupandreduceittoafewkeypatternsthatcanbeworkedwithintuitively.Beginners,wholackthisability,havetoresorttorepresentingeachpieceasasingleunitandarethereforemuchslower.*Thisfacilityofchessgrandmasters,however,islimitedtothepatternsthatcomefromreal

chessgames.Givebeginnersandexpertsarandomizedchessboard(onethatdoesn’tarisefromnormalplay),andtheexpertsnolongerdisplaythesamemarkedadvantage.Withoutthelibraryofmemorizedpatternsattheirdisposal,theyhavetoresorttothebeginner’smethodofrememberingtheboardpiecebypiece.ThisresearchgivesusaglimpseintohowthemindofagreatintuitionistsuchasFeynman

operated.He,too,focusedonprinciplesfirst,buildingoffexamplesthatcutstraighttotheheartofwhattheproblemrepresentedratherthanfocusingonsuperficialfeatures.Hisabilitytodothiswasalsobuiltoffanimpressivelibraryofstoredphysicsandmathpatterns.Hismentalcalculationfeatsseemimpressivetousbutweretrivialtohim,becausehehappenedtoknowsomanymathematicalpatterns.Likechessgrandmasters,whengivenrealphysicsproblemsheexcelledbecausehehadbuiltahugelibraryofpatternsfromrealexperienceswithphysics.However,hisintuition,too,wouldfailhimwhenthesubjectofhisstudywasn’tbuiltonthoseassumptions.Feynman’smathematicianfriendswouldtesthimoncounterintuitivetheoremsfrommathematics.Hisintuitiontherewouldfailwhenpropertiesoftheprocedure(suchasthatanobjectcanbecutintoinfinitelysmallpieces)defiedthenormalphysicallimitationsthataidedhisintuitionelsewhere.Feynman’smagicwashisincredibleintuition,comingfromyearsofplayingwiththe

patternsofmathandphysics.Couldemulatinghisapproachtolearningenablesomeoneelsetocapturesomeofthatmagic?Let’slookatsomeofFeynman’shallmarkapproachestolearningandsolvingproblemsandtrytorevealsomeofthemagician’ssecrets.

HowtoBuildYourIntuitionSimplyspendingalotoftimestudyingsomethingisn’tenoughtocreateadeepintuition.Feynman’sownexperiencedemonstratesthis.Onnumerousoccasions,hewouldencounterstudentswhomemorizedsolutionstoaparticularproblembutfailedtoseehowtheyappliedoutsidethetextbookdomain.Inonestory,hetrickedsomeofhisclassmatesintobelievingthataFrenchcurve(adevicefordrawingcurvedlines)wasspecialbecause,nomatterhowyouholdit,thebottomistangenttoahorizontalline.This,however,istrueofanysmooth

shape,anditisanelementaryfactofcalculusthathisfellowclassmatesshouldhaverealized.Feynmansawthisasanexampleofaparticularly“brittle”wayoflearningthings,sincestudentsdidn’treallythinkaboutrelatingwhattheyhadlearnedtoproblemsoutsidethetextbook.How,then,cansomeoneavoidasimilarfate—spendingalotoftimelearningsomething

withoutreallydevelopingtheflexibleintuitionforitthatmadeFeynmanfamous?There’snopreciserecipefordoingso,andahealthydoseofexperienceandsmartscertainlyhelps.However,Feynman’sownaccountofhislearningprocessofferssomeusefulguidelinesforhowhedidthingsdifferently.

Rule1:Don’tGiveUponHardProblemsEasily

Feynmanwasobsessedwithsolvingproblems.Startinginhischildhooddaysoftinkeringwithradios,hewouldworkstubbornlyonaproblemuntilityielded.Sometimes,whentheowneroftheradiowouldgetimpatient,herecalled,“If[he]hadsaid,‘Nevermind,it’stoomuchwork,’I’dhaveblownmytop,becauseIwanttobeatthisdamnthing,aslongasI’vegonethisfar.”8Thistendencycarriedoverintomathematicsandphysics.He’doftenescheweasiermethods,suchastheLagrangiantechnique,forcinghimselftopainstakinglycalculatealltheforcesbyhand,simplybecausewiththelattermethodhecametounderstanditbetter.Feynmanwasamasteratpushingfartheronproblemsthanothersexpectedofhim,andthisitselfmighthavebeenthesourceofmanyofhisunorthodoxideas.Onewayyoucanintroducethisintoyourowneffortsistogiveyourselfa“struggletimer”as

youworkonproblems.Whenyoufeellikegivingupandthatyoucan’tpossiblyfigureoutthesolutiontoadifficultproblem,trysettingatimerforanothertenminutestopushyourselfabitfurther.Thefirstadvantageofthisstruggleperiodisthatveryoftenyoucansolvetheproblemyouarefacedwithifyousimplyapplyenoughthinkingtoit.Thesecondadvantageisthatevenifyoufail,you’llbemuchmorelikelytorememberthewaytoarriveatthesolutionwhenyouencounterit.Asmentionedonthechapteronretrieval,difficultyinretrievingthecorrectinformation—evenwhenthedifficultyiscausedbytheinformationnotbeingthere—canprimeyoutorememberinformationbetterlater.

Rule2:ProveThingstoUnderstandThem

FeynmantoldastoryofhisfirstencounterwiththeworkbythephysicistsT.D.LeeandC.N.Yang.9“Ican’tunderstandthesethingsthatLeeandYangaresaying.It’sallsocomplicated,”hedeclared.Hissister,lightlyteasinghim,remarkedthattheproblemwasn’tthathecouldn’tunderstanditbutthathehadn’tinventedit.Afterward,Feynmandecidedtoreadthroughthepapersmeticulously,findingthattheyweren’tactuallysodifficultbutthathehadsimplybeenafraidtogothroughthem.ThoughthisstoryillustratesoneofFeynman’squirks,itisalsorevealingbecauseit

illustratesamajorpointinhismethod.Feynmandidn’tmasterthingsbyfollowingalongwithotherpeople’sresults.Instead,itwasbytheprocessofmentallytryingtore-createthoseresultsthathebecamesogoodatphysics.Thiscouldbeadisadvantageattimes,sinceitcausedhimtorepeatworkandreinventprocessesthatalreadyexistedinotherforms.However,hisdrivetounderstandthingsbyvirtueofworkingthroughtheresultshimselfalsoassistedinbuildinghiscapacityfordeepintuition.Feynmanwasnotaloneinthisapproach.AlbertEinstein,asachild,builthisintuitive

powersbytryingtoprovepropositionsinmathandphysics.OneofEinstein’searliestmathematicalforayswastryingtoprovethePythagoreanTheoremonthebasisofsimilartriangles.10Whatthisapproachindicatesisthatbothmenhadatendencytodigmuchdeeperbeforetheyconsideredsomethingtobe“understood.”Feynman’sscoffingatnotunderstandingLeeandYangwasn’tbecausetherewasnounderstanding;indeed,hewasfamiliarwithmuchofthebackgroundworkontheproblem.Instead,itwasprobablybecausehisnotionofunderstandingwasmuchdeeperandmorebasedondemonstratingresultshimself,ratherthanmerelynoddingalongwhilereading.Thechallengeofthinkingyouunderstandsomethingyoudon’tisunfortunatelyacommon

one.ResearcherRebeccaLawsoncallsthisthe“illusionofexplanatorydepth.”11Atissuehereisthenotionthatwejudgeourownlearningcompetency,notdirectlybutthroughvarioussignals.Assessingwhetherornotweknowafactualmatter,suchaswhatisthecapitalofFrance,isquiteeasy—eithertheword“Paris”comesupinyourmind,oritdoesn’t.Askingwhetheryouunderstandaconceptisalotharderbecauseyoumayunderstanditalittle,butnotenoughforthepurposesathand.

Here’saperfectthoughtexperimenttohelpyouunderstandtheproblem.Getoutapieceofpaper,andtry,briefly,tosketchhowabicyclelooks.Itdoesn’tneedtobeaworkofart;justtrytoplacetheseat,handles,tires,pedals,andbikechainintherightplace.Canyoudoit?Don’tcheatbyjusttryingtovisualizethebicycle.Actuallyseeifyoucandrawit.Ifyoudon’t

haveapencilorpaperhandy,youcansimulateitbysayingwhichthingsconnecttowhat.Haveyoutriedit?Interestingly,RebeccaLawson’sstudyaskedparticipantstodoexactlythis.Asthe

illustrationsclearlyshow,mostparticipantshadnoideahowthemachineswereassembled,eventhoughtheyusedthemallthetimeandbelievedtheyunderstoodthemquitewell.Theillusionofunderstandingisveryoftenthebarriertodeeperknowledge,becauseunlessthatcompetencyisactuallytested,it’seasytomisleadyourselfintothinkingyouunderstandmorethanyoudo.Feynman’sandEinstein’sapproachtounderstandingpropositionsbydemonstratingthempreventsthisprobleminawaythat’shardtodootherwise.12Wereyouoneoftheluckyoneswhomanagedtoputthechainsoncorrectly?Trythe

exerciseagain,exceptthistimewithacanopener.Canyouexplainhowitworks?Howmanygearsarethere?Howdoesitcutthelidopen?Thisoneismuchharder,yetmostofuswouldsayweunderstandcanopeners!

Rule3:AlwaysStartwithaConcreteExample

Humanbeingsdon’tlearnthingsverywellintheabstract.Astheresearchontransferdemonstrates,mostpeoplelearnabstract,generalrulesonlyafterbeingexposedtomanyconcreteexamples.It’snotpossibletosimplypresentageneralprincipleandexpectthatyoucanapplyittoconcretesituations.Asifpresagingthisobservation,Feynmanhimselfwouldsupplyconcreteexamplesevenwhentheywerenotgiven.Workingthroughanexplicitexampleinhismind’seye,hecouldfollowalongandseewhatthemathwastryingtodemonstrate.Thisprocessoffollowingalongwithone’sownexampleforcesadeeperlevelofprocessing

thematerialasitisbeingpresented.Afindingfromtheliteratureonmemory,knownasthelevels-of-processingeffect,suggeststhatitisn’tsimplyhowmuchtimeyouspendpayingattentiontoinformationthatdetermineswhatyouretainbut,crucially,howyouthinkaboutthatinformationwhileyoupayattentiontoit.Inonestudyofthiseffect,participantswereaskedtoreviewalistofwords;halfofthemweretolditwouldbeforatest(andthustheyweremotivatedtolearnit),whiletheothersweresimplytoldtoreviewthelist.13Withineach

group,participantswereagainsplitbywhatorientingtechniquetheyusedtoreviewthelist.Halfwereaskedtonoticewhetherornotthewordscontainedthelettere,arelativelyshallowlevelofprocessing,whiletheotherswereaskedifthewordwaspleasantornot,adeeperprocessingofthemeaningoftheword,notmerelyitsspelling.Theresultwasthatmotivationplayednodifference;tellingstudentstostudyforatestdidn’timpacthowmuchtheyretained.However,theorientingtechniquedidmakealargedifference.Thosewhoprocessedthewordsdeeplyrememberedalmosttwiceasmuchasthosewhosimplyscannedtheirspelling.14Feynman’shabitofdevelopingaconcreteinstanceofaproblemcanbeseenasanexample

ofthisdeeperformofprocessing,whichnotonlyenhanceslaterretentionbutalsofostersanintuitiveunderstanding.Thistechniquealsoenablessomefeedback,becausewhenit’snotpossibletoimagineanappropriateexample,that’sevidencethatyoudon’tunderstandsomethingwellenoughandwouldbenefitfromgoingbackafewstepsandlearningthematerialbetterbeforecontinuing.Usingfeedback-richprocessestotestwhetherornotheknewsomethingwasahallmarkofFeynman’slearningstyle.

Rule4:Don’tFoolYourself

“Don’tfoolyourself”wasoneofFeynman’smostpopularaphorisms,towhichheadded,“andyou’retheeasiestpersontofool.”Hewasdeeplyskepticalofhisownunderstanding.Hepresagedthecurrentreplicationcrisisinpsychology,attackingwhatheperceivedasmanysocialscientistsfoolingthemselvesintobelievingtheyhaddiscoveredsomethingtheyhadnot.Isuspectthatpartofthisinsightarosefromthefactthathehadcultivatedsuchrigorousstandardsforwhathecountedasknowing.TheDunning-Krugereffectoccurswhensomeonewithinadequateunderstandingofa

subjectnonethelessbelievesheorshepossessesmoreknowledgeaboutthesubjectthanthepeoplewhoactuallydo.15Thiscanoccurbecausewhenyoulackknowledgeaboutasubject,youalsotendtolacktheabilitytoassessyourownabilities.Itistruethatthemoreyoulearnaboutasubject,themorequestionsarise.Thereversealsoseemstobetrue,inthatthefewerquestionsyouask,themorelikelyyouaretoknowlessaboutthesubject.Onewaytoavoidthisproblemoffoolingyourselfissimplytoasklotsofquestions.Feynman

tookthisapproachhimself:“SomepeoplethinkinthebeginningthatI’mkindofslowandIdon’tunderstandtheproblem,becauseIaskalotofthese‘dumb’questions:‘Isacathodeplusorminus?Isanan-ionthisway,orthatway?’”*16Howmanyofuslacktheconfidencetoask“dumb”questions?Feynmanknewhewassmartandhadnoproblemaskingthem.Theironyisthatbyaskingquestionswithseeminglyobviousanswers,healsonoticedthenot-so-obviousimplicationsofthethingshestudied.Theoppositetendency,toavoidaskingquestionsinthevainattempttoappear

knowledgeable,hasconsiderablecosts.WhilelecturinginBrazil,Feynman’sstudentswouldoftencomplainwhenheaskedsimplequestionsthattheyknewtheanswerstoalready,insteadofjustlecturing.Whywastevaluableclassroomtimeonsuchexercises?Theanswer,Feynmaneventuallyrealized,wasthattheydidn’tknowtheanswersbutdidn’twanttoadmititinfrontofeveryoneelseintheclass,wronglyassumingthattheyweretheonlyoneswhodidn’tknowit.Explainingthingsclearlyandasking“dumb”questionscankeepyoufromfoolingyourselfintothinkingyouknowsomethingyoudon’t.

TheFeynmanTechniqueWhenIfirstreadaboutFeynman,IwasinspiredtotrytoformulatemanyofthesedifferentobservationsintoaconcretemethodIcouldapplytomyownstudies.WhatresultedwassomethingInamedtheFeynmanTechniqueandappliedextensivelyduringmyMITChallenge.Thepurposeofusingthistechniqueistohelpdevelopintuitionabouttheideasyouarelearning.Itcanbeusedwhenyoudon’tunderstandanideaatallorsimplywhenyouunderstandsomethingalittlebutreallywanttoturnitintoadeepintuition.Themethodisquitesimple:

1. Writedowntheconceptorproblemyouwanttounderstandatthetopofapieceofpaper.2. Inthespacebelow,explaintheideaasifyouhadtoteachittosomeoneelse.

a. Ifit’saconcept,askyourselfhowyouwouldconveytheideatosomeonewhohasneverheardofitbefore.

b. Ifit’saproblem,explainhowtosolveitand—crucially—whythatsolutionprocedure

makessensetoyou.

3. Whenyougetstuck,meaningyourunderstandingfailstoprovideaclearanswer,gobacktoyourbook,notes,teacher,orreferencematerialtofindtheanswer.

Thecruxofthismethodisthatittriestodispeltheillusionofexplanatorydepth.Sincemanyofourunderstandingsareneverarticulated,it’seasytothinkyouunderstandsomethingyoudon’t.TheFeynmanTechniquebypassesthisproblembyforcingyoutoarticulatetheideayouwanttounderstandindetail.Justasdrawingabicyclequicklyconfirmswhetheryouhaveabasicgraspofhowitisputtogether,usingthistechniquewillquicklyrevealhowmuchyoureallyunderstandofyoursubject.Nowanygapsinyourunderstandingwillbecomeobviousasyoustruggletoexplainkeypartsoftheidea.Thetechniqueitselfhassomenuancesandcanbeappliedinafewdifferentwaysthatmight

behelpful,dependingonyourspecificintuitivedeficit.

Application1:ForThingsYouDon’tUnderstandatAll

Thefirstwaytousethisapproachiswhenyoudon’tunderstandsomethingatall.Inthiscase,theeasiestwayistodoitwiththebookinhandandgobackandforthbetweenyourexplanationandtheoneinthebook.Thislacksthebenefitsofretrievalpractice,butitcanoftenbeessentialwhentheexplanationyou’vebeengivenbafflesyou.Feynmanhimselfdidsomethingsimilarwhenpresentedwithwhathesawtobephilosophicalgobbledygook:

Ihadthisuneasyfeelingof“I’mnotadequate,”untilfinallyIsaidtomyself,“I’mgoingtostop,andreadonesentenceslowly,soIcanfigureoutwhatthehellitmeans.”

SoIstopped—atrandom—andreadthenextsentenceverycarefully.Ican’trememberitprecisely,butitwasveryclosetothis:“Theindividualmemberofthesocialcommunityoftenreceiveshisinformationviavisual,symbolicchannels.”Iwentbackandforthoverit,andtranslated.Youknowwhatitmeans?“Peopleread.”17

AlthoughFeynman’smethodwasaimedmoreatillustratingthedeliberatelyconfusingnatureoftheproseratherthantryingtounderstandanuancedmeaning,thesamemethodcanhelpwheneveryou’relearninganythingthatgoesoveryourhead.IusedthistechniquewhentakingaclassonmachinevisionduringtheMITChallenge.I

didn’tunderstandphotogrammetry,atechniqueofdeterminingthe3Dshapeofanobjectbasedonaseriesof2Dpicturestakenunderdifferentlightingconditions.Itinvolvedsometrickyconcepts,soIwasn’tquitesurehowitworked.Withmytextbookatmyside,Iwroteafewpagesofnotes,tryingtosketchoutthebroadstrokesoftheideasoIcouldgetthegeneralgistofit.18

Application2:ForProblemsYouCan’tSeemtoSolve

Asecondwaytoapplythisisforsolvingadifficultproblemormasteringatechnique.Inthisinstance,it’sveryimportanttogothroughtheproblemstepbystepalongsidetheexplanationyougenerate,ratherthansimplysummarizingit.Summarizingmayendupskippingoverthecoredifficultiesoftheproblem.Goingdeepermaytaketime,butitcanhelpyougetastronggraspoveranewmethodinonego,ratherthanneedingnumerousrepetitionstomemorizethesteps.IappliedthistoaclassincomputergraphicsforatechniqueIwasstrugglingwithcalled

gridacceleration.Thisisamethodofspeedinguptheperformanceofray-tracedrenderingsystemsbyavoidinganalyzingobjectsthat“obviously”won’tbeonthepartofthescreenyou’redrawing.Togetabetterhandleonthis,Iwalkedthroughtheproblemwiththetechnique,drawingalittlesnowmanthatIimaginedrendering,withlinesshootingoutofaneyeballrepresentingthecamera.19

Application3:ForExpandingYourIntuition

Afinalwaytoapplythismethodistoideasthataresoimportantthatitwouldreallyhelpifyouhadagreatintuitionaboutthem.Inthisapplicationofthemethod,insteadoffocusingonexplainingeverydetailorgoingalongwiththesourcematerial,youshouldtrytofocusongeneratingillustrativeexamples,analogies,orvisualizationsthatwouldmaketheideacomprehensibletosomeonewhohaslearnedfarlessthanyouhave.Imaginethatinsteadoftryingtoteachtheidea,youarebeingpaidtowriteamagazinearticleexplainingtheidea.Whatvisualintuitionswouldyouusetopindowntheabstractions?Whichexampleswould

fleshoutageneralprinciple?Howcouldyoumakesomethingconfusingfeelobvious?Iappliedthistounderstandingtheconceptofvoltageinanearlyclassonelectromagnetism

duringtheMITChallenge.ThoughIwascomfortableusingtheconceptinproblems,Ididn’tfeelthatIhadagoodintuitionofwhatitwas.It’sobviouslynotenergy,electrons,orflowsofthings.Still,itwashardtogetamentalimageofanabstractconceptonawire.Goingthroughthistechniqueandcomparingtheequationstotheonesforgravity,it’sclearthatvoltageistotheelectricalforceasheightistothegravitationalforce.NowIcouldformavisualimage.Thewireswereliketroughsofwateratdifferentheights.Batterieswerelikepumps,movingthewaterup.Resistorswerelikehosesdroppingdown,ofvariouswidthstoimpedetheflowofwaterdrainingdown.Althoughthispictureoftroughsandhoseswasn’tnecessaryforsolvingtheequations,itstuckwithmeandhelpedmereasonmywayoutofnewsituationsmoreeasilythanifvoltagehadjustbeenanabstractquantity.

DemystifyingIntuitionWhenmanypeoplelookatageniuslikeRichardFeynman,they’reinclinedtofocusonhisseeminglyeffortlessintuitiveleaps.Inhisplayfulstyleandrebelliousimpulses,hemayseemtodefythestereotypethatlearningrequireshardwork.However,aswegobeneaththesurface,itbecomesclearthathesharedmuchincommonwiththeotherultralearnersI’vestudied.Heworkedhardonunderstandingthings,andheputincredibleamountsofhissparetimeintomasteringthemethodsthatmadehisintuitionwork.Inhisearlydaysincollege,heandafriendwentbackandforthovertheearlybooksonquantummechanics,racingaheadoftheirclassmatestounderstandit.Heevenmadeameticuloustimetabletoallocatehourstohismanyintellectualpursuits.Eveninhistrivialobsessions,hedisplayedastreakforaggressivemethods;whilelearninglockpicking,forexample,hetrainedhimselftogothroughallthepossiblecombinations,practicingthemrepeatedly:“IgotitdowntoanabsoluterhythmsoIcouldtrythe400possiblebacknumbersinlessthanhalfanhour.ThatmeantIcouldopenasafeinamaximumofeighthours—withanaveragetimeoffourhours.”20Whenpeoplehearaboutgeniuses,especiallytheiconoclasticonessuchasFeynman,there’s

atendencytofocusontheirgiftsandnottheirefforts.IhavenodoubtthatFeynmanpossessedgifts.Butperhapshisgreatestonewashisabilitytomergetenaciouspracticeandplay.Heapproachedpickinglockswiththesameenthusiasmforsolvingpuzzlesthathedidforunravelingthesecretsofquantumelectrodynamics.It’sthisspiritofplayfulexplorationthatIwanttoturntointhefinalprincipleofultralearning:experimentation.

ChapterXIIPrinciple9

ExperimentationExploreOutsideYourComfortZone

Results?Why,Ihavegottenlotsofresults!Iknowseveralthousandthingsthatwon’twork.—ThomasEdison

Ifyouweretoreadhisstorywithoutseeinghisart,VincentvanGoghwouldbethelastpersonyouwouldexpecttobecomeoneofthemostfamouspaintersofalltime.Hestartedatalateage,twenty-six.Artisafieldofprecocity,andfamousmasterstypicallydisplaytheirgiftsearly.PabloPicasso’scubiststyle,forexample,cameoutofhisalreadybeingabletopaintrealisticallyasachild,allowinghimtoboldlydeclarethatithadtakenhim“fouryearstopaintasRafael,butalifetimetopaintlikeachild.”LeonardodaVinciwasapprenticedasapainterinhisteens.Onestoryhashim,asayouth,paintingamonsteronapeasant’sshieldonlytohaveitresoldtothedukeofMilan.SalvadorDalíhadhisfirstexhibitbeforehisfourteenthbirthday,alreadyshowcasingthetalentthatwouldmakehimfamous.VanGogh,incontrast,wasdelayedanddidnotpossessanyobvioussignsofability.Itwasonlyafterfailingasanartdealerandministerthathepickedupthebrush.Anartsellerandfamilyfriend,H.G.Tersteeg,believedhisartisticaspirationswereputontomaskhislaziness.“Youstartedtoolate,”hedeclared.“OfonethingIamsure,youarenoartist....Thispaintingofyourswillbelikealltheotherthingsyoustarted,itwillcometonothing.”1Worsethanthefactthathestartedlate,however,wasthatvanGoghsimplywasn’tvery

goodatdrawing.Hisdraftingwascrudeandchildlike.Whenhefinallyconvincedmodelstositforportraits—nosmalltaskinlightoftheDutchman’sfamouslydifficultpersonality—ittookhimmanyattemptstogetanythingresemblingalikeness.WhileinabriefstintataParisianatelier,heevenstudiednexttofutureleadersofthePost-Impressionistmovement,suchasHenrideToulouse-Lautrec.However,unliketheeffortlessqualitywithwhichToulouse-Lautreccapturedthelikenessofascenewithafewflicksofhiswrist,vanGoghstruggled.“Weconsideredhisworktoounskillful,”oneclassmaterecalled.“Hisdrawingshadnothingremarkableaboutthem.”2Intheend,hisinabilitytofitinwithhisclassmates,lackoftalent,andoff-puttingmannershadhimleavingthestudioafterlessthanthreemonths.Hislatestartandlackofobvioustalentwerecompoundedbyhistemperament.Nearly

everyonewhoenteredhislifewouldeventuallyrejecthim,ashismanicenthusiasmandfraternalsolidaritywouldinevitablysourintobitterfightswithnearlyeverypersonhemet.Neartheendofhislife,hewasroutinelyplacedinmentalasylums,varyinglydiagnosedwithdisordersfrom“acutemaniawithgeneralizeddelirium”to“akindofepilepsy.”Hisoutbursts,or“attacks,”ashereferredtothem,alienatedhimfrompeoplewhocouldpotentiallyserveashispeers,mentors,andteachers.Asaresult,despitehavingattemptedformalschooling,vanGoghwaslargelyself-taught,capturingonlybriefmomentsofmoretraditionaleducationinthemomentsduringwhichhecouldholdontofriendshipsbeforepushingpeopleaway.ItwasvanGogh’smysteriousanduntimelydeaththatcutshorttheartisticcareerthatwas

solatetobegin.Atthirty-seven,hediedofabulletwoundtothestomach.Althoughhisdeathwassuspectedtobeasuicide,hisbiographersStevenNaifehandGregoryWhiteSmithconsideraccidentorfoulplaymorelikely;hemaypossiblyevenhavebeenshotbyoneofthevillageyouthswhoplayedpranksonhimandcalledhimthefouroux,or“crazedredhead.”Inspiteofallthis,vanGoghhasbecomeoneofthemostfamouspaintersofalltime.The

StarryNight,Irises,andVasewithFifteenSunflowershavebecomeicons.Onfourseparateoccasions,avanGoghpiecehasbecomethemostexpensivepaintingeversold,includinghis

PortraitofDr.Gachet,whichwassoldformorethan$82million.3VanGogh’ssignatureswirlsofcolor,thickimpastoapplication,andstrongoutlineshavemademanypeopleconsiderhispaintingssomeofthegreatestofalltime.Howcanweexplainthesediscrepancies?Howdoessomeonewhostartslate,withno

obvioustalentandmanyhandicaps,nonethelessbecomeoneoftheworld’sgreatestartists,withoneofthemostrecognizableanddistinctivestyles?TounderstandvanGogh,Iwanttoturntotheninthandfinalprincipleofultralearning:experimentation.

HowvanGoghLearnedtoPaintPutyourselfinvanGogh’sshoesforamoment.You’vefailedmiserablyasanartdealer,despiteyourfamilyconnections.You’vefailedasapreacher.Nowyou’reembarkingonanewprofession—painting—eventhoughyouhavedifficultiesindrawingthingsaccurately.Whatwouldyoudo?VanGogh’sresponsetothischallengewasapatternthatwouldrepeatthroughouthislife.First,hewouldidentifyalearningresource,method,orstyleandpursueitwithincrediblevigor,creatingdozens,ifnothundreds,ofworksinthatdirection.Afterthisburstofintensity,awareofhisstill-existingdeficiencies,hewouldapplyhimselftoanewresource,method,orstyleandstartagain.Althoughthere’snoevidencevanGoghthoughtoftheconnection,Iseeaparallelbetweenthispatternandtheoneusedbysuccessfulscientists:hypothesis,experiment,results,repeat.Perhapsinadvertently,vanGogh’saggressive,experimentalstridesintopaintingallowedhimtomatureintonotmerelyaproficientpainterbutanunforgettablyuniqueone.VanGogh’sexperimentationbeganwhenhewasfirsttryingtobecomeanartist.Thenormal

routetoanartisticcareerinthosedayswastoattendanartschoolorapprenticeinastudio.VanGogh,duetothefactthatothersdidnotseehimaspossessingmuchtalentandhisoddtemperament,didnothavemuchluckwiththosetraditionalavenues.Thereforeheturnedtoself-education,pursuinghome-studycoursesthatpromisedtoteachhimthebasicsofdrawing.Inparticular,hemadeheavyuseofCharlesBargue’sExercicesaufusain(CharcoalExercises)andCoursdedessin(DrawingCourse),aswellasArmandCassagne’sGuidedel’alphabetdudessin(GuidetotheABCsofDrawing).Theywerethickbookswithgraduatedexercisesonwhichaspiringartistscouldworkstepbysteptoimprovetheirdrawingskill.Accordingtohisbiographers,vanGogh“devouredthesebigbooks...pagebypage,overandover.”VanGoghhimselfreportedtohisbrother,Theo,“Ihavenowfinishedallsixtysheets,”adding“Iworkedalmostawholefortnight,fromearlymorninguntilnight.”4CopyingwasanotherstrategyvanGoghemployedearlyonthathewouldcontinuelateintohisartisticcareer.Jean-FrançoisMillet’sTheSowerwasoneofhisfavoritepicturestocopy,whichhedidagainandagain.Healsoappliedhimselftosketchingfromlifeearly,inparticularmodelsforportraits,whichhestruggledwithduetohisdifficultieswithdraftingaccurately.VanGoghstudiedfromotherartists,friends,andmentors.AnthonvanRappardconvinced

himtotryoutreedpenandinkandadoptthematureartist’sstyleofshortandfaststrokes.Anotherartist,AntonMauve,persuadedhimtotryavarietyofdifferentmedia:charcoalandchalk,watercolor,andContécrayon.Oftenthoseattemptswerenotsuccessful.DuringtheirstaytogetheratthehousewherevanGoghwouldlatercutoffhisear,PaulGauguinpushedtheDutchmantopaintfrommemory,mutehiscolors,andadoptnewmaterialsfordifferenteffects.Thosetacticsdidn’tworkforvanGogh,whoseweaknessesindraftingwereexacerbatedbynothavingthescenedirectlyinfrontofhim,andthedifferentmaterialswentagainstthestylethatwouldlatermakehimfamous.Experiments,however,needn’talwaysbesuccessfultohavevalue,andvanGoghhadmanyopportunitiesfortryingnewtechniques.VanGoghexperimentednotjustwithmaterialsandmethodsbutalsowiththephilosophies

thatunderpinnedhisart.Althoughheismostfamousforstrong,vibrantcolors,thatwasn’thisinitialintention.Originally,heleanedtowardtheprofundityofmuted,grayertones,aswitnessedinanearlyworkThePotatoEaters.“Scarcelyanycolorisnotgray,”heargued.“Innatureonereallyseesnothingelsebutthosetonesorshades.”5Hewasfullyconvincedofthatandbasedhisworkonitaccordingly.However,hewouldlaterswitchtotheexactopposite:bright,complementarycolors,oftenimposedonasceneratherthanbeingbroughtoutfromnature.Hisstanceoncontemporaryartisticmovementsflittedabout;atfirsthepreferredtraditionalpaintingtothenewImpressioniststyle,andlaterheshiftedtotheavant-garde,optingforboldformsratherthanverisimilitude.TherearetwoimportantthingstonoteaboutvanGogh’sexperimentsinart.Thefirstisthe

varietyofmethods,ideas,andresourcesheapplied.Sincehestruggledwithmanyaspectsofpainting,Ibelievethatvariationwasimportanttohiseventuallyfindingastylethatwouldworkforhim—onethatwouldtakeadvantageofhisstrengthsanddiminishthesignificanceof

hisweaknesses.Althoughvirtuosotalentsmightbeabletolatchontothefirststyleofinstructiontheyarepresentedwithandfollowittocompletion,othersrequireagreatdealofexperimentationbeforetherightmethodsticks.Thesecondimportantthingtonoteishisintensity.LikealltheultralearnersI’vediscussedsofar,vanGoghwastenaciousinhiseffortstobecomeanartist.Despitereceivingmuchnegativefeedbackanddiscouragement,hepursuedhisartrelentlessly,sometimesproducingasmuchasanewpaintingeveryday.Thesetwofactors,variationandaggressiveexploration,enabledhimtopushthroughhisearlyobstaclesandproducesomeofthemosticonicandbrilliantworkseverpainted.

ExperimentationIstheKeytoMasteryWhenstartingtolearnanewskill,oftenit’ssufficientsimplytofollowtheexampleofsomeonewhoisfurtheralongthanyou.Indiscussingtheprinciplesofultralearning,metalearningcomesfirst.Understandinghowasubjectbreaksdownintodifferentelementsandseeinghowothershavelearneditpreviously,thusprovidinganadvantageousstartingpoint.However,asyourskilldevelops,it’softennolongerenoughtosimplyfollowtheexamplesofothers;youneedtoexperimentandfindyourownpath.Partofthereasonforthisisthattheearlypartoflearningaskilltendstobethebest

troddenandsupported,aseveryonebeginsatthesameplace.Asyourskillsdevelop,however,notonlyaretherefewerpeoplewhocanteachyouandfewerstudentsyoucouldhaveaspeers(thusloweringthetotalmarketforbooks,classes,andinstructors),butyoualsostarttodivergefromthoseyou’relearningfrom.Whereastwocompletenoviceshavequitesimilarknowledgeandskills,twoexpertsmighthavequitedifferentsetsofskillsthatthey’vealreadyacquired,thusmakingimprovingthoseskillsanincreasinglypersonalizedandidiosyncraticadventure.Asecondreasonforthevalueofexperimentationasyouapproachmasteryisthatabilities

aremorelikelytostagnateafteryou’vemasteredthebasics.Learningintheearlyphasesofaskillisanactofaccumulation.Youacquirenewfacts,knowledge,andskillstohandleproblemsyoudidn’tknowhowtosolvebefore.Gettingbetter,however,increasinglybecomesanactofunlearning;notonlymustyoulearntosolveproblemsyoucouldn’tbefore,youmustunlearnstaleandineffectiveapproachesforsolvingthoseproblems.Thedifferencebetweenanoviceprogrammerandamasterisn’tusuallythatthenovicecannotsolvecertainproblems.Rather,it’sthatthemasterknowsthebestwaytosolveaproblem,whichwillbethemostefficientandcleanandcausethefewestheadacheslateron.Asmasterybecomesaprocessofunlearningoveraccumulation,experimentationbecomessynonymouswithlearningasyouforceyourselftogooutsideyourcomfortzoneandtrynewthings.Afinalreasonfortheincreasingimportanceofexperimentationasyouapproachmasteryis

thatmanyskillsrewardnotonlyproficiencybutoriginality.Agreatmathematicianisonewhocansolveproblemsotherscannot,notmerelyapersonwhocansolvepreviouslysolvedproblemseasily.Successfulbusinessleadersarethosewhocanspotopportunitiesotherscannot,notmerelythosewhocancopythestyleandstrategyofthosebeforethem.Inart,itwasnotonlyvanGogh’sskillbuthisoriginalitythatmadehimoneofthemostcelebratedpainterstohaveeverlived.Ascreativitybecomesvaluable,experimentationbecomesessential.

ThreeTypesofExperimentationInexperimentationyoucanseedifferentlevelsplayout,bothinvanGogh’spathasanartistandasamodelforyourownexplorations:

1.ExperimentingwithLearningResources

Thefirstplacetoexperimentiswiththemethods,materials,andresourcesyouusetolearn.VanGoghdidthisextensivelyatthebeginningofhisartisticcareer,tryingoutdifferentartisticmedia,materials,andlearningtechniques:followinghome-studycourses,watchingfellowartists,sketchingfromlifeandinthestudio,andmore.Thiskindofexperimentationisusefulinhelpingyoudiscovertheguidesandresourcesthatworkbestforyou.It’simportant,however,thatyourimpulsetoexperimentbematchedwithadrivetodothenecessarywork.AlthoughvanGoghtriedmanydifferentapproacheswhenhefirststartedteachinghimselftodrawandpaint,healsoproducedanenormousquantityofworkbasedoneachofthose

methods.Agoodstrategytotakeistopickaresource(maybeabook,class,ormethodoflearning)

andapplyitrigorouslyforapredeterminedperiodoftime.Onceyouapplyyourselfaggressivelytothatnewmethod,youcanstepbackandevaluatehowwellitisworkingandwhetheryoufeelitmakessensetocontinuewiththatapproachortryanother.

2.ExperimentingwithTechnique

Inthebeginning,experimentationtendstofocusonmaterials.However,inmostdomainsoflearning,theoptionsforwhattolearnnextexpandfasterandfaster,sothequestionbecomesnot“HowcanIlearnthis?”but“WhatshouldIlearnnext?”Languagesareaprimeexample.Thesamebasicsetofvocabularyandphrasesdominatesmostbeginnerresources.Asyouimprove,however,theamountofthingsyoucouldpossiblylearnnextbecomeslargerandlarger.Shouldyoulearntoreadliterature?Conversefluentlyonaprofessionaltopic?Readcomicbooks?Havebusinessdiscussions?Thespecializedvocabulary,phrases,andculturalknowledgeineachfieldmultiply,soitbecomesnecessarytochoosewhattomaster.Onceagain,experimentationplaysapivotalrole.Picksomesubtopicwithintheskillyou’re

tryingtocultivate,spendsometimelearningitaggressively,andthenevaluateyourprogress.Shouldyoucontinueinthatdirectionorpickanother?There’sno“right”answerhere,butthereareanswersthatwillbemoreusefultothespecificskillyou’retryingtomaster.

3.ExperimentingwithStyle

Afteryou’vematuredinyourlearningabit,thedifficultyoftenswitchesfromwhichresourcestolearnfromorwhichtechniquesyou’dliketomastertothestyleyou’dliketocultivate.Althoughtherearesomeskillsthathaveoneandonlyone“correct”wayofdoingthings,thisisnottrueofmost.Writing,design,leadership,music,art,andresearchallinvolvedevelopingcertainstyles,whichhavedifferenttrade-offs.Onceyoumasterthebasics,thereisnolongerone“right”waytodoeverythingbutmanydifferentpossibilities,allofwhichhavedifferentstrengthsandweaknesses.Thisaffordsanotheropportunityforexperimentation.VanGoghtriedoutmanydifferentstylesforproducingart,varyingfromthoseoftraditionalpainterssuchasMillet,toJapanesewoodblockprints,andstudiedthetechniquesusedbyhisartistfriendssuchasGauguinandRappard.Thereisnoonecorrectanswer,although,likevanGogh,youmayfindthatcertainstylesworkbetterthanotherswithyouruniquecombinationofstrengthsandweaknesses.Thekeytoexperimentingwithdifferentstylesistobeawareofallthedifferentstylesthat

exist.OnceagainvanGoghprovidesagoodmodel,ashespentanenormousamountoftimestudyinganddiscussingtheworksofotherartists.Thatgavehimalargelibraryofpossiblestylesandideashecouldadapttohisownwork.Similarly,youmightwanttoidentifymastersinyourownlineofstudyanddissectwhatmakestheirstylessuccessfultoseewhatyoucanemulateorintegrateintoyourownapproach.

Ineachlevelofexperimentation,thechoicesbroadenandthepossibleoptionstoexploregoupexponentially.There’satension,therefore,betweenspendingtimetryingoutdifferentresources,techniques,andstyles,andconcentratingyoureffortsonasingleapproachlongenoughtobecomeproficientatit.Thistensionoftenresolvesitselfasyoucyclethroughexploringanewavenueinlearningandthenbucklingdowntolearnitdeeplybeforemovingontosomethingelse.Whateverelsehisfailings,itwasthispatternoftryingoutanideaandworkingonitaggressivelythatvanGoghappliedbrilliantly.

TheMindsetofExperimentationThereareparallelsbetweenthemindsetrequiredtoexperimentandwhattheStanfordpsychologistCarolDweckreferstoasgrowthmindset.6Inherresearch,shedistinguishesbetweentwodifferentwaysoflookingatone’sownlearningandpotential.Inafixedmindset,learnersbelievethattheirtraitsarefixedorinnateandthusthere’snopointintryingtoimprovethem.Inagrowthmindset,incontrast,learnersseetheirowncapacityforlearningassomethingthatcanbeactivelyimproved.Insomeways,thesetwotypesofmindsetsbecomeself-fulfillingprophecies.Thosewhothinktheycanimproveandgrow,do;thosewhothinktheyarefixedandimmutableremainstuck.Theparallelwiththemindsetrequiredforexperimentationisclear.Experimentingisbased

onthebeliefthatimprovementsarepossibleinhowyouapproachyourwork.Ifyouthinkyour

learningstylesarefixedorthatyouhavecertainimmutablestrengthsandweaknessesthatwillkeepyoufromtryingoutdifferentwaystoapproachyourskills,youwon’tbeabletoexperimentatall.Iseetheexperimentalmindsetasanextensionofthegrowthmindset:whereasthegrowth

mindsetencouragesyoutoseeopportunitiesandpotentialforimprovement,experimentationenactsaplantoreachthoseimprovements.Theexperimentalmindsetdoesn’tjustassumethatgrowthispossiblebutcreatesanactivestrategyforexploringallthepossiblewaystoreachit.Togetintotherightmentalspaceforexperimenting,youneednotonlytoseeyourabilitiesassomethingyoucanimprovebutunderstandthatthereisahugenumberofpotentialavenuestodothis.Exploration,notdogmatism,isthekeytorealizingthatpotential.

HowtoExperimentExperimentingsoundssimplebutcanbequitetrickytoimplementinpractice.Thereasonisthataflurryofrandomactivitydoesn’tusuallytranslateintomastery.Inordertowork,experimentingrequiresunderstandingwhatlearningproblemsyou’refacingandcomingupwithpossiblewaystoresolvethem.Hereareafewtacticsthatcanhelpyouintegrateexperimentationintoyourultralearningprojects.

Tactic1:Copy,ThenCreate

Thisisthefirststrategyforexperimenting,whichwecanseeinvanGogh’swork.ThoughvanGoghisbestknownforhisoriginalpieces,healsospentalotoftimecopyingdrawingsandpaintingshelikedbyotherartists.Copyingsimplifiestheproblemofexperimentationsomewhatbecauseitgivesyouastartingpointformakingdecisions.Ifyou’relearningtopaint,asvanGoghdid,thepossibilitiesofwhatkindsofartyoucancreateandtechniquesyoucanapplyaresovastthatitcanbedifficultorimpossibletodecideamongthem.However,ifyoustartbyemulatinganotherartist,youcanusethatfootholdtoventurefurtherinyourowncreativedirections.Thisstrategyhasanotheradvantagebeyondsimplifyingthechoicesavailabletoyou.In

attemptingtoemulateorcopyanexampleyouappreciate,youmustdeconstructittounderstandwhyitworks.Thiscanoftenhighlightthingsthattheotherpersondoesexceptionallywellthatweren’tobviousfromthebeginning.Itmayalsodispelillusionsyoumayhavehadaboutanaspectoftheworkyouthoughtwasimportantbutuponemulatingtheotherperson’sworkyourealizewasnot.7

Tactic2:CompareMethodsSide-by-Side

Thescientificmethodworksbycarefullycontrollingconditionssothatthedifferencebetweentwosituationsislimitedtothevariablebeingstudied.Youcanapplythissameprocesstoyourexperimentsinlearningbytryingtwodifferentapproachesandvaryingonlyasingleconditiontoseewhattheimpactis.Byapplyingtwodifferentapproachessidebyside,youcanoftenquicklygetinformationnotonlyaboutwhatworksbestbutaboutwhichmethodsarebettersuitedtoyourpersonalstyle.IappliedthistolearningFrenchvocabulary.Iwasn’tsurehoweffectivemnemonicswould

beso,foramonth,Iwouldfindalistoffiftynewwordseveryday,puttogetherfrommyregularreadingorrandomencounterswiththelanguage,andforhalfIwouldsimplylookthemoverwiththeirtranslationsIgotfromthedictionary.Withtheotherhalf,Imadeanefforttouseavisualmnemonictolinkthetwomeanings.ThenIcomparedhowmanyofthewordsIrememberedfromeachlistonalatertest,withwordspickedrandomlyfromeachside.Theresultissomethingyouwouldprobablyexpectafterreadingthechaptersonretrievalandretention:IrememberedthewordsIusedmnemonicsforatalmosttwicetherateofthoseIdidn’t.Thatshowedthatevenifcreatingthemnemonicstookabitmoretime,theywereworthit.Therearetwoadvantagestodoingsplittests.Thefirstisthatasinscientificexperiments,

youwillgetmuchbetterinformationaboutwhichmethodworksbestifyoulimitthevariationtoonlythefactoryouwanttotest.Thesecondisthatbysolvingaproblemmultiplewaysorapplyingmultiplesolutionstylestoit,youwillincreaseyourbreadthofexpertise.Forcingyourselftotrydifferentapproachesencouragesexperimentationoutsideyourcomfortzone.

Tactic3:IntroduceNewConstraints

Thechallengeoflearninginthebeginningisthatyoudon’tknowwhattodo.Thechallengeoflearningintheendisthatyouthinkyoualreadyknowwhattodo.It’sthislatterdifficultythatcausesustorerunoldroutinesandoldwaysofsolvingproblemsthatareencouragedthroughhabit,notalwaysbecausetheoldwayisactuallybest.Apowerfultechniqueforpushingoutofthosegroovesofroutineisbyintroducingnewconstraintsthatmaketheoldmethodsimpossibletouse.It’spracticallyanaxiomofdesignthatthebestinnovationscomefromworkingwithin

constraints.Giveadesignerunlimitedfreedom,andthesolutionisusuallyamess.Ontheotherhand,creatingspecificconstraintsinhowyoucanproceedencouragesyoutoexploreoptionsthatarelessfamiliartoyouandsharpensyourunderlyingskills.Howcanyouaddlimitationstoforceyourselftodevelopnewcapacities?

Tactic4:FindYourSuperpowerintheHybridofUnrelatedSkills

Thetraditionalpathtomasteryistotakeawell-definedskillandpracticeitrelentlesslyuntilyouhavebecomeinsanelygoodatit.Thisisthepathtakenbymanyathletes,whotrainfordecadestoperfecttheirshot,jump,kick,orthrow.However,formanyareasofcreativeorprofessionalskills,another,moreaccessible,pathistocombinetwoskillsthatdon’tnecessarilyoverlaptobringaboutadistinctadvantagethatthosewhospecializeinonlyoneofthoseskillsdonothave.Forinstance,youmightbeanengineerwhobecomesreallygoodatpublicspeaking.Youmaynotbethebestpossibleengineerorthebestpossiblepresenter,butcombiningthosetwoskillscouldmakeyouthebestpersontopresentonengineeringtopicsforyourcompanyatconferences,thusgivingyouaccesstonewprofessionalopportunities.ScottAdams,thecreatorofDilbert,likenedhisownsuccesstofollowingthisstrategybycombininghisbackgroundasanengineerwithanMBAandacartoonist.8Thislevelofexperimentationoftenplaysoutovermultipleultralearningprojects.AfterI

completedmyMITChallenge,IcouldapplytheprogrammingknowledgeIhadobtainedtowritescriptstoautomaticallygenerateflashcardsforlearningChinese.Suchsynergiesbecomepossibleonceyoustartexploringhowoneskillyou’vealreadyacquiredcanimpactanother.

Tactic5:ExploretheExtremes

VanGogh’sartpushedwelloutsidenormalconventionsalongmanydimensions.HisthickapplicationofpaintwasfarawayfromthethinlayersofglazesusedbyRenaissancemasters.Hisquickapplicationwasfarmorerapidthanthecarefulbrushstrokesofotherpainters.Hiscolorswerebold,oftengarish,insteadofsubtle.IfyouweretodrawachartthatmappedoutvanGogh’sstylecomparedwiththoseofotherpainters,youwouldprobablyseethathelayalongtheextremeinmanydimensions.Aninterestingresultfrommathematicsisthatasyougettohigherandhigherdimensions,

mostofthevolumeofahigher-dimensionalsphereliesnearitssurface.Forinstance,intwodimensions(acircle),justunder20percentofitsmassliesintheoutershelldescribedbyatenthoftheradius.Inthreedimensions(asphere),thatnumberrisestoalmost30percent.Intendimensions,almostthree-quartersofthemassisinthatoutermostlayer.Youcanimaginelearningacomplexsubjectasakintotryingtofindanoptimalpointinaregionofhigher-dimensionalspace—exceptthatinsteadoflength,width,andheight,thosedimensionsmightbethequalitativedimensionsofwork,suchasvanGogh’scomplementarityofcolors,applicationofpaint,orsomeotheraspectofskillthatcanbeappliedinsomevaryingdegreeofintensity.Whatthismeansisthatthemorecomplicatedadomainofskillis(i.e.,themoredimensionsitcontains),themorespacewillbetakenupbyapplicationsofthatskillthatareextremeacrossatleastoneofthosedimensions.Thissuggeststhatformanyskills,thebestoptionisgoingtobeextremeinsomeway,sincesomanymoreofthepossibilitiesarethemselvesextreme.Stickingtothemiddleandplayingitsafeisn’tthecorrectapproachbecausethatallowsyoutoexploreonlyasmallsubsetofthetotalpossibilitiesforyourwork.Pushingouttoanextremeinsomeaspectoftheskillyou’recultivating,evenifyou

eventuallydecidetopullitbacktosomethingmoremoderate,isoftenagoodexplorationstrategy.Thisallowsyoutosearchthespaceofpossibilitiesmoreeffectively,whilealsogivingyouabroaderrangeofexperience.

ExperimentationandUncertainty

Learningisaprocessofexperimentingintwoways.First,theactoflearningitselfisakindoftrialanderror.Practicingdirectly,gettingfeedback,andtryingtosummonuptherightanswerstoproblemsareallwaysofadjustingtheknowledgeandskillsyouhaveinyourheadtotherealworld.Second,theactofexperimentingalsoliesintheprocessoftryingoutyourlearningmethods.Tryoutdifferentapproaches,andusetheonesthatworkbestforyou.TheprinciplesI’vetriedtoarticulateinthisbookshouldprovidegoodstartingpoints.Buttheyareguidelines,notironrules;startingpoints,notdestinations.Onlybyexperimentingwillyoubeabletofindtherighttrade-offsbetweendifferentprinciples—forinstance,whendirectnessismoreimportantandwhenyoushouldfocusondrillsorwhetherretentionorintuitionisthemainobstacletolearning.Experimentingwillalsohelpyoudecideamongsmalldifferencesinapproachthatnolistofprinciplescouldpossiblycoverexhaustively.Havingamindsetofexperimentationwillalsoencourageyoutoexplorebeyondwhatyou

feelmostcomfortabledoing.Manypeoplesticktothesameroutines,thesamenarrowsetofmethods,theyapplytolearningeverything.Asaresult,therearealotofthingstheystruggletolearnbecausetheydon’tknowthebestwaytodoso.Copyingexemplars,runningtests,andpushingtoextremesareallwaystopushoutsideyouringrainedhabitsandtryoutsomethingdifferent.Thatprocesswillteachyounotjustabstractlearningprinciplesbutconcretetacticsthatwillaccommodateyourpersonality,interests,strengths,andweaknesses.Areyoubetterofflearningalanguagethroughpracticingspeakingorengaginginlotsofinputthroughmoviesandbooks?Areyoubetterofflearningprogrammingbybuildingyourowngameorworkingonopen-sourceprojects?Thesequestionsdon’thaveasinglecorrectanswer,andpeoplehaveachievedsuccessusingawidevarietyofdifferentmethods.Myownexperiencewithlearninghasbeenoneofconstantexperimentation.Inuniversity,I

focusedalotonmakingassociationsandconnections.DuringtheMITChallenge,Iswitchedtomakingpracticethefoundation.Inmyfirstexperiencelearningalanguage,Iwassloppy,speakingEnglishmostofthetime.Inthesecondround,Iexperimentedwithgoingtoanotherextreme,toseeifIcouldavoidthatstickingpoint.Whiledoingprojects,I’vehadtoadjustmymethodsfrequently.Eventhoughitwasonlythirtydayslong,myportrait-drawingchallengeinvolvedalotoftrialanderrorfromstartingbydoingsketchesand,whenmyprogressusingthatapproachslowed,tryingtodosketchesevenfastertogetmorefeedback.Whenthat,too,hadreacheditslimits,Ispentsometimelearningadifferenttechniquealtogethertoachievegreateraccuracy.Embeddedinmysuccessesaremanyfailures—timeswhereIthoughtIcouldgetsomething

toworkanditendedupfailingmiserably.EarlyoninlearningChinese,IthoughtIcouldusesomekindofmnemonicsystemtorememberthewords,withcolorsfortonesandmemorizedsymbolsforthesyllables.Thatwasbecausemynormalsounds-likemethodforvisualmnemonicswasn’tworkingwiththewords,whichallsoundedsodifferentfromEnglish.Theresultwasatotalfailure,anditdidn’tworkatall!Othertimes,myexperimentswithnewmethodsworkedoutgreat.MostofthetechniquesI’vesharedinthisbookthusfarstartedasideasIwasn’tsurewouldpanout.Experimentationistheprinciplethattiesalltheotherstogether.Notonlydoesitmakeyou

trynewthingsandthinkhardabouthowtosolvespecificlearningchallenges,italsoencouragesyoutoberuthlessindiscardingmethodsthatdon’twork.Carefulexperimentationnotonlybringsoutyourbestpotential,italsoeliminatesbadhabitsandsuperstitionsbyputtingthemtothetestofreal-worldresults.

ChapterXIIIYourFirstUltralearningProject

Thebeginningisalwaystoday.—MaryShelley

Bynowyou’reprobablyeagertostartyourownultralearningproject.Whatthingscouldyoulearnthatyouhaveputoffduetofearsofinadequacy,frustration,orlackoftime?Whatoldskillscouldyoutaketonewheights?Thebiggestobstacletoultralearningissimplythatmostpeopledon’tcareenoughabouttheirownself-educationtogetstarted.Asyou’vereadthisfar,Idoubtthatistrueofyou.Learning,inwhateverformsittakes,issomethingthat’simportanttoyou.Thequestioniswhetherthatsparkofinterestwilligniteintoaflameorbesmotheredprematurely.Ultralearningprojectsaren’teasy.Theyrequireplanning,time,andeffort.Yettherewards

areworththeeffort.Beingabletolearnhardthingsquicklyandeffectivelyisapowerfulskill.Onesuccessfulprojecttendstoleadtoothers.It’susuallythefirstprojectthatrequiresthemostthoughtandcare.Asolid,well-researched,well-executedplancangiveyoutheconfidencetofaceharderchallengesinthefuture.Abungledattemptisnotadisaster,butitmaymakeyoureluctanttopursuefutureprojectsofasimilarnature.Inthischapter,I’dliketotellyoueverythingI’velearnedabouthowtogetitright.

Step1:DoYourResearchThefirststepinanyprojectistodothemetalearningresearchrequiredtogiveyouagoodstartingpoint.Planningaheadwillavoidalotofproblemsandpreventyoufromhavingtomakedrasticchangestoyourlearningplanbeforeyou’veevenstartedmakingprogress.Researchisabitlikepackingasuitcaseforalongvoyage.Youmaynotbringtherightitems,oryoumayforgetsomethingandneedtobuyitontheroad.However,thinkingaheadandpackingyourbagscorrectlywillpreventalotoffumblinglater.Yourultralearning“packing”checklistshouldinclude,ataminimum:

1. WHATTOPICYOU’REGOINGTOLEARNANDITSAPPROXIMATESCOPE.Obviously,nolearningprojectcanbeginunlessyoufigureoutwhatyouwanttolearn.Insomecases,thisisobvious.Inothers,youmayneedtodofurtherresearchtoidentifywhichskillorknowledgewouldbemostvaluable.Ifyourgoalistolearnsomethinginstrumentally(tostartabusiness,getapromotion,doresearchforanarticle),learningwhatyouneedtolearnisimportantandwillsuggesthowwideanddeepyouneedtogo.Isuggeststartingwithratheranarrowscope,whichcanexpandasyouproceed.“LearningenoughMandarinChinesetoholdafifteen-minuteconversationonsimpletopics”isalotmoreconstrainedthan“LearnChinese,”whichmayincludereading,writing,studyinghistory,andmore.

2. THEPRIMARYRESOURCESYOU’REGOINGTOUSE.Thisincludesbooks,videos,classes,tutorials,guides,andevenpeoplewhowillserveasmentors,coaches,andpeers.Thisiswhereyoudecidewhatyourstartingpointwillbe.Examples:“I’mgoingtoreadandcompletetheexercisesinabookonPythonprogrammingforbeginners”or“I’mgoingtolearnSpanishthroughonlinetutoringviaitalki.com”or“I’mgoingtopracticedrawingbymakingsketches.”Insomesubjects,staticmaterialswilldeterminehowyouproceed.Inothers,theywillbesupportstobackupyourpractice.Inanycase,theyshouldbe

identified,purchased,borrowed,orenrolledinbeforeyoubegin.3. ABENCHMARKFORHOWOTHERSHAVESUCCESSFULLYLEARNEDTHISSKILLOR

SUBJECT.Almostanypopularskillhasonlineforumswherethosewhohavelearnedtheskillpreviouslycansharetheirapproaches.Youshouldidentifythethingsotherpeoplewhohavelearnedtheskillhavedonetolearnit.Thisdoesn’tmeanyouneedtofollowexactlyintheirfootsteps,butitwillpreventyoufromcompletelymissingsomethingimportant.TheExpertInterviewMethodinchapter4providesagoodmethodforfollowinguponthis.

4. DIRECTPRACTICEACTIVITIES.Everyskillandsubjectyou’relearningwillbeusedsomewhereeventually,evenifit’sassimpleasusingittolearnsomethingelse.Thinkingabouthowyoumightusetheskillcanenableyoutostartfindingopportunitiestopracticeitasearlyaspossible.Ifdirectpracticeisimpossible,youshouldnonethelessidentifyopportunitiesforpracticethatmimicthementalrequirementsofusingtheskill.

5. BACKUPMATERIALSANDDRILLS.Inadditiontotheprincipalmaterialsandmethodsyou’llbeusing,it’sagoodideatolookatpossibledrillsandbackupmaterialsyoumaywanttouse.Backupmaterialsareoftengoodifyourecognizethatacertaintoolorsetofmaterialsmightbeusefulbutyoudon’twanttobeoverwhelmedinthebeginning.

Step2:ScheduleYourTimeYourultralearningprojectdoesn’tneedtobeanintensive,full-timeendeavortosucceed.However,itwillrequiresometimeinvestment,andit’sbettertodecideonhowmuchtimeyouarewillingtodevotetolearninginadvancethansimplyhopethatyou’llfindthetimelater.Therearetwogoodreasonsforplanningyourscheduleaheadoftime.Thefirstisthatthiswayyousubconsciouslyprioritizeyourprojectbysettingitdownonyourcalendaraheadofotherthings.ThesecondisthatlearningisoftenfrustratinganditisalmostalwayseasiertoclickovertoFacebook,Twitter,orNetflix.Ifyoudon’tsetasidetimetolearn,itwillbealothardertosummonupthemotivationtodoso.Thefirstdecisionyoushouldmakeishowmuchtimeyou’regoingtocommit.Thisisoften

dictatedbyyourschedule.Youmayhaveagapinemploymentthatallowsintensivelearning,butonlyforamonth.Alternatively,youmayhaveafullschedulethatpermitsyoutodevoteonlyafewhoursperweektolearningsomethingnew.Whatevertimeyoucancommit,decideonitinadvance.Theseconddecisionyouneedtomakeiswhenyouaregoingtolearn.Duringafewhourson

Sunday?Bywakingupanhourearlierandputtinginthetimebeforework?Intheevening?Duringlunchbreaks?Onceagain,thebestthingistodowhatevermakesiteasiestbasedonyourschedule.Irecommendsettingaconsistentschedulethatisthesameeveryweek,ratherthantryingtofitinlearningwhenyoucan.Consistencybreedsgoodhabits,reducingtheeffortrequiredtostudy.Ifyouhaveabsolutelynochoice,anadhocscheduleisbetterthannone,butitwillrequiremoredisciplinetosustain.Ifyoudohavesomeflexibilityinyourschedule,youmaywanttooptimizeit.Shorter,spaced

timechunksarebetterformemorythancrammedchunksare.However,sometypesoftasks,suchaswritingandprogramming,havealongwarm-uptimethatmaybenefitfromlongeruninterruptedtimechunks.Thebestwaytofindoutwhatisbestforyouistopractice;ifyoufindittakesalongtimetowarmup,optforlongerspacesinyourschedule.Ifyoufindyoucangettoworkwithinafewminutesofstarting,shorterchunksoftimespreadoutwillbehelpfulforlong-termretention.Thethirddecisionyouneedtomakeisthelengthoftimeforyourproject.Igenerallyprefer

shortercommitmentstolongeronesbecausetheyareeasiertostickwith.Anintensiveprojectthatlastsamonthhasfewerpotentialinterruptionsfromlifeorfromyourmotivationchangingandwaning.Ifyouhaveabiggoalyouwanttoaccomplishthatcan’tbedoneinashorttimeframe,Isuggestbreakingitupintomultiplesmalleronesofafewmonthseach.Finally,takeallthisinformationandputitintoyourcalendar.Schedulingallthehoursof

workontheprojectinadvancehasimportantlogisticalandpsychologicalbenefits.Logistically,thiswillhelpyouspotpotentialconflictsinyourscheduleduetovacations,work,orfamilyevents.Psychologically,itwillhelpyourememberandactonyourinitialplanbetterthanifitwerewrittenonapieceofpapertuckedintoadeskdrawer.What’smore,theactofschedulingdemonstratesyourseriousnessaboutdoingtheproject.Icanclearlyrememberwritingdownmyhypotheticalstudyingschedulebeforestartingthe

MITChallenge.Ithadmeupandstudyingby7a.m.andworkinguntil6p.m.,withonlyashortbreakforlunch.Althoughmyactualschedule,inpractice,rarelyreachedthatideal

(eveninmymostintensiveearlydays,Ialmostnevergotinelevenhoursstraight),themereactofwritingdowntheschedulehelpedpreparemepsychologicallyfortheprojectahead.Ifyou’reunwillingtoputtimeintoyourcalendar,you’realmostcertainlyunwillingtoputintimetostudy.Ifyou’rewafflingatthisstage,that’sagoodsignyourheartisn’treallyintherightplacetogetstarted.Asabonusstep,forthosewhoareembarkingonlongerprojectsofsixmonthsormore,I

stronglyrecommenddoingapilotweekofyourschedule.Thisissimple:testyourscheduleforoneweekbeforeyoucommittoit.Thiswillgiveyoufirsthandknowledgeofhowdifficultitwillbeandpreventsoverconfidence.Ifyoualreadyfeelburnedoutafterthefirstweek,youmayneedtomakeadjustments.There’snoshameingoingbackandretoolingyourplantomakeitfityourlifebetter.Makingthiskindofadjustmentisalotbetterthangivingupmidwaybecauseyourplanwasdoomedfromthestart.

Step3:ExecuteYourPlanWhateverplanyoustartedwith,nowisthetimetodoit.Noplanisperfect,andyoumayrealizethatwhatyou’redoingforlearningdepartsfromtheideal,asestablishedbytheultralearningprinciples.Youmaynoticethatyourplanreliestoomuchonpassivereadingratherthanretrievalpractice.Youmayseethatthewayyou’repracticingisawindingdetourawayfromwhereyouwillactuallywanttouseit.Youmayfeelasthoughyou’reforgettingthingsormemorizingthemwithoutreallyunderstandingthem.That’sokay.Insomecases,youwon’tbeabletohavetheperfectlearningapproachbecausetheresourcestodosodon’texist.However,becomingsensitivetohowthewayyou’relearningisn’talignedwiththeprinciplesisagoodwaytofeeloutchangesyoucanmaketoimproveit.Herearesomequestionstoaskyourselftodeterminewhetheryou’reslippingfromthe

ideal:

1. METALEARNING.HaveIdoneresearchintowhatarethetypicalwaysoflearningthissubjectorskill?HaveIinterviewedsuccessfullearnerstoseewhatresourcesandadvicetheycanrecommend?HaveIspentabout10percentofthetotaltimeonpreparingmyproject?

2. FOCUS.AmIfocusedwhenIspendtimelearning,oramImultitaskinganddistracted?AmIskippinglearningsessionsorprocrastinating?WhenIstartasession,howlongdoesittakebeforeI’minagoodflow?HowlongcanIsustainthatfocusbeforemymindstartstowander?Howsharpismyattention?Shoulditbemoreconcentratedforintensityormorediffuseforcreativity?

3. DIRECTNESS.AmIlearningtheskillinthewayI’lleventuallybeusingit?Ifnot,whatmentalprocessesaremissingfrommypracticethatexistintherealenvironment?HowcanIpracticetransferringtheknowledgeIlearnfrommybook/class/videotoreallife?

4. DRILL.AmIspendingtimefocusingontheweakestpointsofmyperformance?Whatistherate-limitingstepthatisholdingmeback?Doesitfeelasthoughmylearningisslowingdownandthatthere’stoomanycomponentsoftheskilltomaster?Ifso,howcanIsplitapartacomplexskilltoworkonsmaller,moremanageablecomponentsofit?

5. RETRIEVAL.AmIspendingmostofmytimereadingandreviewing,oramIsolvingproblemsandrecallingthingsfrommemorywithoutlookingatmynotes?DoIhavesomewayoftestingmyself,ordoIjustassumeI’llremember?CanIsuccessfullyexplainwhatIlearnedyesterday,lastweek,ayearago?HowdoIknowifIcan?

6. FEEDBACK.AmIgettinghonestfeedbackaboutmyperformanceearlyon,oramItryingtododgethepunchesandavoidcriticism?DoIknowwhatI’mlearningwellandwhatI’mnot?AmIusingfeedbackcorrectly,oramIoverreactingtonoisydata?

7. RETENTION.DoIhaveaplaninplacetorememberwhatI’mlearninglongterm?AmIspacingmyexposuretoinformationsoitwillsticklonger?AmIturningfactualknowledgeintoproceduresthatI’llretain?AmIoverlearningthemostcriticalaspectsoftheskill?

8. INTUITION.DoIdeeplyunderstandthethingsI’mlearning,oramIjustmemorizing?CouldIteachtheideasandproceduresI’mstudyingtosomeoneelse?IsitcleartomewhywhatI’mlearningistrue,ordoesitallseemarbitraryandunrelated?

9. EXPERIMENTATION.AmIgettingstuckwithmycurrentresourcesandtechniques?DoIneedtobranchoutandtrynewapproachestoreachmygoal?HowcanIgobeyondmasteringthebasicsandcreateauniquestyletosolveproblemscreativelyanddothings

othershaven’texploredbefore?

Togethertheseprinciplesserveasdirections,notdestinations.Ineachcase,lookathowyou’recurrentlyprogressingthroughyourmaterials,andseewhatyoucoulddodifferently.Doyouneedtoswitchresources?Doyouneedtosticktothesameresourcesbutspendmoretimeonadifferentkindofpractice?Shouldyouseekoutnewenvironmentsforfeedback,directness,orimmersion?Theseareallsubtleadjustmentsyoucanmakealongtheway.

Step4:ReviewYourResultsAfteryourprojectisfinished(orifyouendupputtingitonpauseforsomereason),youshouldspendalittletimeanalyzingit.Whatwentright?Whatwentwrong?Whatshouldyoudonexttimetoavoidmakingthosesamemistakes?Notallofyourprojectswillbesuccessful.I’vehadultralearningprojectsthatIfeltgood

about.I’vehadothersthatdidn’tworkoutaswellasIhadhoped.Althoughthetendencyistoblamewillpowerandmotivation,veryoftentheproblemswithprojectscanbetracedbacktotheirconception.IworkedononeprojectdevotedtoimprovingmyKorean,aftermytrip,byinvestingfivehoursperweek.Itwasn’tassuccessfulasIhadhopedbecauseIdidn’tinvestenoughtimeinfocusingonimmersive,directpracticefromtheget-go.Instead,mystudymethoddependedalotontextbookexercises,whichwereboringanddidn’ttransfertoowelltotherealworld.IfIhadthoughtalittlemoreaboutit,Iwouldhavespentaweekortwoaheadoftimetryingtofindplacestopractice,insteadoftryingtopivotmidway,whenIwasalreadylosingsomemotivation.Thisstruggleillustratesthatmasteringtheprinciplesisalifelongprocess.Evenaftermanyexperienceslearninglanguages,andknowingwhatworkswell,IslippedintoalesseffectiveapproachbecauseIdidn’tplanmyprojectadequately.Inothercasesaprojectmightnotworkoutasyouhadhoped,butthatlessonwillstillbevaluable.Istartedwithaprojecttolearncognitivesciencemoredeeply,goingfromabooklist.Eventually,however,alotofthatprojectmorphedintoadesiretodoresearchforthisbook,whichputmeintocontactwithalotofscience,nowcombinedwithanoutletforamoredirectwaytoapplyit.Evenyoursuccessfulprojectsareworthanalyzing.Theycanoftentellyoumorethanyour

failuresbecausethereasonsasuccessfulprojectsucceededaretheveryelementsyouwanttoretainandreplicateforthefuture.Withultralearning,aswithallself-education,thegoalisn’tmerelytolearnoneskillorsubjectbuttohoneandenhanceyouroveralllearningprocess.Eachsuccessfulprojectcanberefinedandimprovedforthenextone.

Step5:ChoosetoMaintainorMasterWhatYou’veLearnedAfteryou’velearnedyourskillandanalyzedyourefforts,youhaveachoicetomake.Whatdoyouwanttodowiththeskill?Withnoplaninplace,mostknowledgeeventuallydecays.Thiscanbealleviatedsomewhatbyfollowingtheprinciplesofultralearning.However,allknowledgedecayswithoutanyformofintervention,sothebesttimetomakeachoiceabouthowyou’regoingtohandlethatisrightafteryoulearnsomething.

Option1:Maintenance

Thefirstoptionistoinvestenoughpracticetosustaintheskillbutwithoutanyconcretegoalofgettingittoanewlevel.Thiscanoftenbeaccomplishedbysettingupahabitofregularpractice,evenifitisaminimalone.Asmentionedinthechapteronretention,oneoftheworriesIhadaftertheyearwithoutEnglishprojectwasthatlearninglanguagessointensivelyoverashortperiodoftimemightleadnotjusttorapidlearningbuttorapidforgetting.Asaresult,Imadeanefforttocontinuepracticeafterthetripfinished,spendingthirtyminutesaweekoneachlanguageinthefirstyearandthirtyminutesamonthoneachlanguageintheyearafterthat.Anotheroptionistotrytointegratetheskillintoyourlife.ThisishowImaintainmy

programmingskills,whereIwritePythonscriptstohandleworktasksthatwouldotherwisebecumbersomeorannoying.Thiskindofpracticeismoresporadic,butitensuresthatIwillkeepitupenoughtomakeitusable.ThiskindoflightweightusageisfarfromthedeepmathandalgorithmsIlearnedfrommyMITcoursework,butitisenoughtokeepafootinthedoorifIwanttoembarkonabiggerprojectatalatertime.Forgetting,aswasdiscoveredbyHermannEbbinghausmorethanahundredyearsago,falls

offwithanexponentiallydecayingcurve.Thatmeansthatmemoriesthatareretainedforlongerarelessandlesslikelytobeforgottenwhenyoufollowupatalaterdate.Thispatternsuggeststhatmaintenancepractice,too,canfalloffonadecayingrate,sothatthebulkoftheknowledgeyou’veacquiredwillbepreserved.Thismeansyoumightwanttostartwithahabitofmoreseriouspracticebutreducethetimespentonitayearortwoafteryourprojectisfinishedtostillgetmostofthebenefit,asIdidwiththelanguagesIstudied.

Option2:Relearning

Forgettingisn’tideal,butformanyskillsthecostsofrelearningtheskilllateraresmallerthanthecostsofkeepingitcontinuouslysharp.Thereareacouplereasonsforthis.First,youmayhavelearnedmorethanyouactuallyneed,soifsomeofthatknowledgeselectivelydecaysduetodisuse,itisautomaticallygoingtobethelessimportantknowledgethatyouacquired.IstudiedalotofMITsubjectsthatIdon’tthinkI’lleveruseagain,althoughunderstandingthegistofthemmightcomeinhandylater.Therefore,keepingmyabilitytoprovetheoremsofmodallogic,forexample,uptodatehasonlymarginalvalue.KnowingwhatmodallogicisandwhereImightapplyitincaseIwanttolearnsomethingthatrequiresitisprobablyenough.Relearningisgenerallyeasierthanfirst-timelearning.Althoughperformanceontestsdrops

offdramatically,theknowledgeislikelyinaccessibleratherthancompletelyforgotten.Thismeansthatdoingarefreshercourseorpracticeseriescanbeenoughtoreactivatemostofitinafractionofthetimeittooktolearnitinitially.Thismaybetheoptimalstrategyforsubjectsthatyouneedtouseinfrequentlyandforwhichsituationsforusingthemwon’tpopupwithoutwarning.Often,recognizingthatacertaindomainofknowledgeishelpfulforaparticularproblemtypeismoreimportantthanthedetailsofsolvingtheproblem,sincethelattercanberelearnedbutforgettingtheformerwillcutyouofffromsolvingthoseproblems.

Option3:Mastery

Thethirdoption,ofcourse,istodivedeeperintotheskillyouhavelearned.Thiscanbedonethroughcontinuedpracticeatalighterpaceorbyfollowingupwithanotherultralearningproject.AcommonpatternI’venoticedinmyownlearningisthataninitialprojectcoversawiderterritoryandsomebasicsandexposesnewavenuesforlearningthatwerepreviouslyobscured.Youmightidentifyasubtopicorbranchofskillwithinthedomainyouwerelearningbeforethatyouwanttofollowup.Otherwise,youmaydecidetotransferaskilllearnedinoneplacetoanewdomain.OneofmygoalsafterreturningfrommytriptoChinawastolearntoreadChinesebetter,whichhadbeenonlyanincidentalgoalwhileIwastravelingthere.Masteryisalongroadthatextendsfarbeyondasingleproject.Sometimesthebarriersyou

overcomeinyourinitialeffortareenoughtoclearthewayforaslowprocessofaccumulationtoreacheventualmastery.Inmanydomains,gettingstartedisquitefrustrating,soit’sdifficulttopracticewithoutacertainamountofeffort.Afterthatthresholdisreached,however,theprocessswitchestobeingoneofaccumulatinghugeswathsofknowledgeandthereforecanproceedatamorepatientpace.Ontheotherhand,someprojectswillgetstuck,andyouwillneedtospendtimeunlearningandpushthroughyourfrustrationsagaintogetahead.Thosekindsofprojectsbenefitmorefromthepreciseandaggressivemethodsofultralearningtoreacheventualmastery.

AlternativestoUltralearning:Low-IntensityHabitsandFormalInstruction

Atthestartofthisbook,Ipointedoutthatultralearningisastrategy.Beingastrategyimpliesthatitisgoodforsolvingcertainproblems.Giventhatthepracticeissomewhatuncommon,Iwantedtospendthebookfocusedonthisstrategy,ratherthantrytogiveadiffusedescriptionofallpossiblewaysyoucanlearneffectively.However,nowthatI’vedonethat,Ithinkit’sworthwhiletotouchontwootherstrategiesthatcanworkwithultralearning,indifferentcontexts.NoneoftheultralearnersIencounteredapproacheslearningthesamewayforeverykindof

learningtheydo.BennyLewis,forexample,doesdointensivelearningprojectsforlanguages,buthehaslearnedmostofhislanguagesoverrepeatvisitstothecountriestheyarespokenin,diggingdeeperintolanguageshepreviouslyestablishedinintensebursts.RogerCraigdidlearnaggressivelytowinatJeopardy!,buthealsoengagedinmoreleisurelyacquisitionoftriviawhenhisappearanceonthegameshowwasn’timminent.Beinganultralearnerdoesn’t

implythateverythingonelearnshastobedoneinthemostaggressiveanddramaticfashionpossible.Iwanttobrieflyconsiderthetwomainalternativestrategiestoultralearningtoseehowtheyfitintoabiggerpictureoflifelonglearning.

AlternativeStrategy1:Low-IntensityHabits

Low-intensityhabitsworkwellwhenengaginginlearningisspontaneous,yourfrustrationlevelislow,andlearningisautomaticallyrewarding.Inthesecases,whenthebarrierstolearningarefairlylow,allyouneedtodoisshowup.Nofancyproject,principles,oreffortisrequired.Onceyoureachaconversationallevelinalanguage,forinstance,it’softenfairlyeasytotravelandliveinacountrywhereitisspoken,accumulatingmoreandmorevocabularyandknowledgeoveralongerperiodoftime.Similarly,onceyoubecomegoodenoughatprogrammingtouseitforyourjob,thejobitselfwillpushyoutolearnnewthingsataregularpace.Ifyou’vemasteredthebasicsofasubjectsothatyoucanreaddenserbooksaboutit,readingbooksonthetopicismostlyamatterofputtingintime,notdevelopingingeniouslearningstrategies.Ofcourse,there’saspectrumofhabits,fromzero-effort,spontaneousengagementtothe

high-effort,rapidskillacquisitionofultralearning.Mosthabitsaresomewhereinbetween,necessitatingabitofeffortbutperhapsnotthefull-scaleintensityofanultralearningproject.YoumayhavelearnedenoughExceltocreateyourownspreadsheetmacros,butyoudon’talwaysfindopportunitiesortimetouseit,soyouneedtopushyourselfalittletopractice.Youmayhavelearnedpublicspeakingwell,butitstilltakessomegutstogoonstage.Thedecisionofwhethertherightstepforwardistosetuplong-termhabitsortocreateaconcentratedultralearningprojectisoftennotcrystalclearandmaydependmoreonyourpersonalityandlifeconstraintsthanahard-and-fastrule.Habitstendtoworkbestwhentheactoflearningismostlyaprocessofaccumulation,

addingnewskillsandknowledge.Ultralearningandmoredeliberateeffortsarebettersuitedtowhenimprovementinafieldrequiresunlearningineffectivebehaviorsorskills.Increasingyourvocabularyinaforeignlanguageisoftenaslowprocessofaccumulation;youarelearningwordsyoudidn’tknowbefore.Improvingyourpronunciation,ontheotherhand,isanactofunlearning.You’retrainingyourselftousedifferentmuscularmovementsthataren’tnaturaltoyou.Ultralearningalsotendstobebetterforareasinwhichlearninghasgreaterfrustrationbarriersandpsychologicalobstaclesthatmakeanyformofpracticetoogreatanefforttobeaneasilyestablishedhabit.Throughoutthisbook,we’veexploredthetrade-offthatoccursbetweendoingwhat’s

effectiveforlearningandwhat’seasyandenjoyable.Sometimeswhat’sthemostfunisn’tveryeffective,andwhat’seffectiveisn’teasy.Thistrade-offmaypushyoutooptforeasier,moreenjoyableformsoflearningthatsacrificesomeeffectiveness.However,inmyownexperience,I’venoticedthatenjoymenttendstocomefrombeinggoodatthings.Onceyoufeelcompetentinaskill,itstartstogetalotmorefun.Therefore,althoughatensionbetweenthetwocanexistintheshortterm,Ithinkpursuingaggressiveultralearningprojectsisoftenthesurerwaytoenjoylearningmore,asyou’remorelikelytoreachalevelwherelearningautomaticallybecomesfun.

AlternativeStrategy2:Formal,StructuredEducation

Inthebeginningofthisbook,Iexplainedthatultralearningisself-directed,althoughnotnecessarilysolitary.Beingself-directedisaboutwhoismakingdecisions,notaboutwhetherotherpeopleareinvolved.Therefore,thereisnocontradictioninpursuingultralearningwithinaschooloruniversity.Thatmightbethebestwaytolearntheskillsyouwanttoacquire.Justtreatitlikeanyotherresource.Thatdistinctionnotwithstanding,Ithinkit’sworthtalkingaboutotherreasonsyoumight

wanttopursueformaleducationratherthanultralearning.Themostobviousistoacquirecredentials.Ifthosearenecessaryorrecommendedforyourchosenlineofwork,youmightneedtobesatisfiedwithmakingsacrificesforyourlearninginordertoacquirethem.Themessageofthisbookisn’tthatyoushoulddropoutofschooltolearnonyourownbutthatyoushouldtakecontroloveryourownlearning,whereverthatmaybe.Anotherreasontopursueformaleducationisthatitcreatesalearningenvironmentthatmaybebeneficial.Althoughmanyaspectsofschoolarewoefullyindirectandineffective,othersfaremuchbetter.Designandartschoolsoftenfunctionlikeapprenticeships.Someprogramsallowforteamprojectsthataredifficulttostartonyourown.Finally,thepostgraduatelevelsofacademiacreatecommunitieswhereimmersionispossible,sothatyouacquirenotonlytheideasthatarewrittendowninbooksandpapersbutthosethatarecommunicatedindirectlybetween

expertsintheirfields.Ultralearningisn’tarejectionofthoseopportunities,andIwouldbedisappointedifIweretobemisreadasarguingthattheydon’texistorarebetterreplacedwithasolitarylearningeffort.Thecorrectmindsettocultivateisn’tarejectionofanythingslowerorstandardizedbutarecognitionthatthepossibilitiesforlearninganythingareconsiderablybroaderthantheymightfirstappear.

LifelongLearningThegoalofultralearningistoexpandtheopportunitiesavailabletoyou,notnarrowthem.Itistocreatenewavenuesforlearningandtopushyourselftopursuethemaggressivelyratherthantimidlywaitingbythesidelines.Thisisnotgoingtobeamethodsuitableforeveryone,butforthosewhofeelinspiredtouseit,Ihopeitprovidesastart.

ChapterXIVAnUnconventionalEducation

Givemeadozenhealthy infants,well-formed,andmyownspecifiedworld tobring themup inand I’ll guarantee to take any oneat randomand trainhim tobecomeany typeof specialist Imightselect—doctor,lawyer,artist,merchant-chiefand,yes,evenbeggar-manandthief.

—PsychologistJohnWatson

JuditPolgáriswidelyconsideredtobethebestfemalechessplayerofalltime.Atageseven,shewonherfirstgameagainstachessmasterwhileblindfolded.Attwelve,shewasrankedfifty-fifthofallchessplayersintheworldbytheFédérationInternationaledesÉchecs(FIDE)(WorldChessFederation).Byfifteen,shehadbecometheyoungest-evergrandmaster,beatingtheillustriousBobbyFischer’spreviousrecordbyonemonth.Atherpeak,PolgárwasrankedeighthintheworldandcompetedintheWorldChessChampionship,theonlywomanevertohavedoneso.Chessisagamedominatedbyadultmen.Thusayounggirlcompetingwasboundtoarouse

boththecuriosityandtheprejudiceofhercompetitors.GrandmasterEdmarMednis,facingoffagainsttheyoungPolgár,notedthathewasverycarefultoplayhisbestagainsttheyoungprodigy,notingthat“Grandmastersdon’tliketoloseto10-year-oldgirls,becausethenwemakethefrontpageofallthepapers.”1SomeofhercompetitorscelebratedtheobviousgeniusofPolgár’splay.GrandmasterNigelShortsaidPolgármightbeoneofthe“threeorfourgreatchessprodigiesinhistory.”2MikhailTal,aformerworldchampion,suggestedwhenPolgárwasstilltwelvethatshemighteventuallybeacontenderforworldchampion.GarryKasparovwaslessconvinced.Theformerworldchampionhasbeenconsideredby

manytobethebestchessplayerofalltime.HeismostfamousforhismatchesagainstIBM’sDeepBluechesscomputer,winningagainstthemachinein1996andlosingin1997,markingthetransitiontomachinedominanceinagamethathadhistoricallybeenconsideredoneofthehighestexpressionsofhumancreativityandintelligence.KasparovwaslessthanenthusiasticabouttheyoungPolgár’schances.“Shehasfantasticchesstalent,butsheis,afterall,awoman.Itallcomesdowntotheimperfectionsofthefemininepsyche.Nowomancansustainaprolongedbattle.”3Thatcasualprejudiceeruptedintoafull-blowncontroversyduringtheirfirstmatch.Polgár,

thenonlyseventeen,satacrossfromthechesslegendandformerworldchampion,playinginatournamentinLinares,Spain.Althoughchessisoftenviewedasbeingcoldlyrational,asbothplayerscalculatemoveswithprecisiontoreachtheirfinaloutcome,thepsychologicaleffectofsittingoppositethedominantRussiancan’tbeunderstated.Giventhatincredibletension,itwasalmostunbelievablewhenKasparov,onmovethirty-four,placedhisknightand,afterbrieflyliftinghisfingersfromthepiece,changedhismindandmovedittoabettersquare.Polgárwasstunned.Accordingtochessrules,onceaplayerstopstouchingapiece,themoveisdone;nochangesareallowed.Halfindisbelief,sheglancedatthereferee,expectinghimtoindicatethatKasparovhadcheated.Yettherefereedidn’tchallengethegrandmaster.Reelingfromthemove,Polgárlostthegame.Askedwhyshehadn’tchallengedtheillegalmoveherself,Polgárexplained,“Iwasplaying

theWorldChampionanddidn’twanttocauseunpleasantnessduringmyfirstinvitationtosuchanimportantevent.IwasalsoafraidthatifmycomplaintwasoverruledIwouldbepenalizedontheclockwhenwewereintimepressure.”4Still,afterthegamehadconcluded,shewasincensed.SheconfrontedKasparovlaterinthehotelbar,demanding“Howcouldyoudothistome?”5“Shepubliclyaccusedmeofcheating,”Kasparovsaidwhendefendinghimselfagainsttheaccusation.“Ithinkagirlofherageshouldbetaughtsomegoodmanners.”6Itwouldbeyearsbeforethetwospokeagain,butwhereasKasparovwasalreadywell

establishedinthechessworld,Polgárwasjustgettingstarted.Polgárissingular,notonlyforherprowessinthemale-dominatedgamebutalsoforhowshe

learnedtoplay.Unlikeotherfamousplayers,suchasBobbyFischer,whospontaneouslydevelopedanobsessionforthegame,Polgár’schessgeniuswasnoaccident.Instead,itstartedwithoneman’smissiontoraisegeniuschildren.

TheMakingofaGeniusYearsbeforeJuditfaceddownthelegendarygrandmaster,beforehermeteoricriseinchessorevenherfirstgame,herfather,LászlóPolgár,hadmadeadecision:hewasgoingtoraiseagenius.Whilestudyingintelligenceincollege,hehadbeguncontemplatinghisprojectbeforehavingchildrenorevenawife.“Ageniusisnotbornbuteducatedandtrained,”hemaintained.7Studyingthebiographiesofhundredsofgreatintellectuals,hewasconvincedthatgeniuscouldbemanufactured.“[W]henIlookedatthestoriesofgeniuses,”helaterremarked,“Ifoundthesamething....Theyallstartedatayoungageandstudiedintensively.”8Butfirst,hehadtofindapartnerforhispedagogicalexperiment.HefounditinKlára,a

Ukrainianforeign-languageteacher.Farfromyournormalloveletters,hefirstcorrespondedtoherbyexplaininghisideatoraisegeniuschildren.Afteragreeingtohisproposal,thetwometandweremarriedintheSovietUnionbeforemovingbacktohisnativeHungary.Togetherthecouplehadthreechildren,Zsuzsa,Zsófia,andJudit.AlthoughJuditendedupbecomingthemostintenselycompetitiveandfamous,allthreebecameworld-classchessplayers,withZsuzsaalsobecomingagrandmasterandZsófiareachingthestatusofinternationalmaster.Livingmodestlyinacrampedapartment,Lászlóandhiswifedecidedtodevotethemselves

full-timetotheirprojectofraisinggeniuschildren.Theirstrategywastobeginthegirls’educationsearly,atagethree,andmoveontospecializationinonedomainnolaterthansix.Theywouldstartbyintroducingthegirlstothatsubjectslowly,inshortbursts,andturnitintoplaysothattheywouldactivelywanttopracticeratherthanfeelcoercedintodoingso.Thatstrategy,however,didn’tspecifyatopic.LászlóandKláraconsideredmanydifferentpossiblestudytopicsfortheirdaughters,fromforeignlanguagestomathematics.Eventuallytheysettledonchess,becauseitwasobjectiveandprogressinitwaseasytomeasure.Nodoubtthepreeminenceofchessintellectuallyinthesocialistcountriesinthoseyearsaddedweighttotheirdecisiontofocusonthegame.Despitetheemphasisonchess,Lászlódidnotbelievethatsuchspecializationneededto

comeatthesacrificeofthebroadereducationofhisgirls.Allthreelearnedforeignlanguages(Zsuzsa,theeldest,learnedeight),aswellasmathematics,tabletennis,swimming,andothersubjects.Thedecisiontofocusonchesswithallthreegirlswasmadeforapracticalreason:giventheintensedevotionbothparentswouldneedtohave,inbothresourcesandtime,spreadingtheireffortoverthreedifferentdisciplineswouldhavebeenmorethantheirbudgetorschedulecouldbear.Zsuzsawasfirsttostart.Shebeganplayingatagefour.Sixmonthslater,shewasgoingwith

herfathertothesmoke-filledchessclubsofBudapest,playingagainstelderlymen—andwinning.BythetimeitwasJudit’sturn,shewasalreadymotivatedtobeginhertraining.ZsuzsaandZsófiaplayedchessinasmallroomLászlóhaddevotedtothegame,andshedidn’twanttobeleftout.Soonthethreegirlswereateam,travelingaroundtocompeteagainstmucholder,usually

maleplayers.Theirsharedmissioncreatedcamaraderieratherthanjealousyinplayingagamethatveryoftenpushedbackagainsttheirunusualstatus.TheHungarianChessFederation’spolicywasforwomentocompeteinwomen-onlychessevents.However,Lászlówasstronglyagainsttheidea.“Womenareabletoachieveresultssimilar,infieldsofintellectualactivities,tothatofmen,”hefelt.“Chessisaformofintellectualactivity,sothisappliestochess.Accordingly,werejectanykindofdiscriminationinthisrespect.”9DiscriminationhadalreadypreventedZsuzsafromobtainingthegrandmastertitleatfifteen.Astheyoungest,bythetimeJuditapproachedsomeofthesebarriers,hereldersistershadalreadybrokenthemdownabit,allowinghertoforgocompetinginthewomen-onlytournaments.Althoughtheireducationwasthesameandallthreereachedimpressiveheightsinchess,

thegirls’prowesswasnotidentical.Zsófiawastheweakestofthethree;althoughreachingtheimpressivegradeofinternationalmaster,shelaterdecidedtoretirefromchesstofocusonartandherfamily.Zsuzsahadspecializedalittlelessinchessfromanearlyage,learningeightlanguages,whichherfatheradmitsmighthavedistractedherfromreachinghermaximumchesspotential.Juditstartedmoreslowly,accordingtoZsuzsa,butshehadthe

strongestworkethic,being“obsessed”withchesstoadegreeunusualevenforherfamily.

RematchwithKasparovEightyearsafterhercontroversialdefeatbyKasparov,Judithadanotheropportunitytofacedownthelegendarygrandmaster.Inthe2002RussiaVersustheRestoftheWorldmatchinMoscow,JuditfacedoffagainstKasparovinagameofrapidchess,withonlytwenty-fiveminutesallocatedtoeachplayer.JuditplayedtheRuyLopez,orSpanishgame,namedafterthesixteenth-centurySpanishbishopandchessstrategist.Thisusesoneofthemostcommonopeningsinchess,movingtheknightandbishopouttogoodsquaresonthesecondandthirdmoves.KasparovcounteredwiththeBerlinDefense,movingasecondknighttotheboardwhileignoringthepotentialdangercreatedbyhisopponent’sbishop;thiswasknowntobeasolidcounter,oftenleadingtodraws.Kasparovwasn’ttakinganychances.Afteraflurryofexchangedpieces,bothpositionswerequiteclose.Judit,aswhite,hadcastledherkingintosafety.Kasparov,asblack,inlosingtheopportunityforthesamesafetyhadretainedboththelight-squareanddark-squarebishoppair,apowerfulcombinationthatcanoftenbedecisiveinwinningagame.Juditcalmlypushedforward,corneringoneofKasparov’sbishopsandneutralizinghisadvantage.Slowlybutsurely,hermovescontinuedtoimproveherpositionwhileKasparov’slookedincreasinglyquestionable.Eventually,thesmallpositionaladvantagesJudithadaccumulatedoverthemidgamewerethreateningtowin.Twopawnsdownandfacingloomingthreatsofcheckmate,Kasparovresigned.Followinghisdefeat,KasparovrevisedhisearlierassessmentofJudit’sabilityandindeed

theideaofwomencompetingagainstmenatthehighestlevelsofthegame.“ThePolgársshowedthattherearenoinherentlimitationstotheiraptitude—anideathatmanymaleplayersrefusedtoacceptuntiltheyhadunceremoniouslybeencrushedbyatwelve-year-oldwithaponytail.”10

TheAftermathofanExperimentLászlóPolgár’sconvictionthathecouldturnanyhealthychildintoageniusisthekindofassertionthatwouldmakehimseemlikeacrackpotifhehadn’tactuallybeensuccessful.Nonetheless,acarefulreaderwillnotethat,asfarasexperimentsgo,László’shasplentyofholesthatkeepitfrombecomingamodelofscientificpurity.Therewasnocontrolgroup,forstarters.AllthreeofthePolgársistersreceivedthesameeducation.TherewasnofourthsisterwhowenttoschoolthenormalwayandmissedLászló’sspecialtraining.Therewasnorandomization.Lászlódidn’tadoptarandomchildtoraiseinhisunusualsystembuttaughthisown.Thisalsomeansthattheinfluenceofgeneticscan’tbeignored.Thesuccessofallthreechildrenmaybeowingtohereditary,ratherthanacquired,talents.Therewasalsonoblinding.AllthePolgársknewtheywerepartofsomethingspecial,auniquemissionthatsetthemapartfromotherfamilies.Therefore,intheongoingdebatebetweennatureandnurture,thesuccessofthePolgársistersmightbesuggestiveoftherolethatunorthodoxeducationcanplay,butitisfarfromdefinitive.Despiteitsfailingsasapurelyscientificexperiment,thePolgárs’workiscertainlyawindow

intowhatmightbepossible.Allthreegirlsachievedenormousresultsinchess.Althoughwecannotknowforcertain,itseemslikelythattheycouldhavesucceededinanynumberofotherdomainsaswell.Similarly,althoughLászló’smethodswerestrange,itdoesnotseemasthoughthegirlssuffered,eitherintheirbroadereducationorintheiremotionalwell-being.Theywereself-confidentandhappyandgrewuptobesuccessful,emotionallystableadultswithlovingfamiliesoftheirown.Whenaskedwhetherhisstrangepedagogicalmethodshadrobbedhisgirlsofanormalchildhood,Lászlóarguedtheopposite,thatitisanormal,mediocreeducationthatoftenleadstounhappiness.InterviewerEndreFarkas,whoworkedwithPolgáronhisbookRaiseaGenius!,asked,“Havetheybeeneducatedtoonarrowly,deprivedofacarefreechildhood?IwasabletoobservethePolgárs....Onecanclearlyseethattheyarehappy.”11

EducatingUltralearners?Priortodoingtheresearchforthisbook,alloftheultralearnersIhadmetwereambitiousself-starters.Iwasconvincedthatultralearningwassomethingthatheldgreatpotentialforthe

individual.However,owingtotheintensityandcommitmentrequiredbythelearnersthemselves,Iwasskepticalthatultralearningwouldhaveanydirectimplicationsfortheeducationalsystematlarge.Childrenalreadystruggleagainstonerousstudyingconditions,anditseemedtomethatincreasingtheintensityofstudywouldonlyincreasetheirstressandanxiety.Psychologistsrecognizealargedifferencebetweengoalsthatpeoplepursueintrinsically,

basedontheirowninterests,decisions,andtargets,andgoalsthattheypursueextrinsically,pushedbyoverbearingparents,punishingcurricula,ordemandingemployers.Thelattertype,becausethemotivationforconformingtothemcomesprimarilyfromoutsidesocialpressures,arethecauseofmuchmisery.Talesofdepression,anxiety,andevensuicidearedistressinglycommoninenvironmentswherethepressuretoperformonstandardizedtestsisratcheteduptoanuncomfortabledegree.Ultralearning,becauseitisaself-drivenquest,notanexternallyimposedobligation,doesn’tneedtobethisway.However,becauseofitsverynature,itwasuncleartomewhetheritwassomethingthatcouldbetaught.ThePolgársistersareanunusualcase,then,becausealthoughtheyweretrainedfroma

veryearlyageandworkedincrediblyhard,theydon’tseemtohavebeenharmedpsychologicallybythepressure.Incontrasttothestereotypical“tiger”parent,theirparentsencouragedtheirunusualspecializationthroughplayandpositivefeedback,notauthorityandpunishment.ThePolgársistersallcontinuedtoplaychesswellintoadulthoodatthecompetitivelevel.Theobsessionintochess,therefore,wasclearlysomethingfostered,ratherthanimposed.Atthesametime,theirparticipationintheexperimentwasn’texactlyvoluntary.Lászlóhaddreameduphisgoalofraisinggeniusesbeforeknowingwhetherhischildrenwouldconsenttotheprogram,soitwasnotacaseofeachdaughterdiscoveringforherselfthatshewantedtodevoteherselftoanintenseregimenofchesspractice.ThatfeatureofthePolgárexperimentinterestedmethemost,becauseitseemedasifLászlóandKlárahadfoundaloopholeinthenormalexpectationthatpushingotherstostudyintenselynecessarilyleadstomisery.

HowtoRaiseanUltralearnerLászlóPolgárwroteabookentitledRaiseaGenius!,documentinghisunorthodoxapproachtoeducation.*Inthebook,heoutlinedhisstrategyforturninganynormal,healthychildintoagenius,providedtheparentsarewillingtogototheextremesheandhiswifededicatedtothetask.Thefirststepistostartearly.Thechild’seducationshouldbeginnolaterthanthree,and

specializationshouldbeginnolaterthansix.Althoughtheexactextenttowhichlearningbecomesharderasweageisunclear,thereisevidencefromfieldssuchasmusicandlanguagesthatchildren’sbrainsaremoreplasticandflexiblewhenyounger.Lászlótookthisideatotheextreme,encouragingtrainingfarearlierthanistypicalforearly-childhoodeducation.Thesecondstepistospecialize.AlthoughthePolgársistersdidlearnlanguages,

mathematics,sports,andothersubjects,theirfocuswasalwaysonchess.Lászlónotedthat“startingfrom4–5theyplayedchess5or6hoursaday.”12Thatspecializationseemstohavehadtworolesinhisstrategyforraisinggeniuses.Thefirstisthatittookadvantageofanyhypotheticalflexibilitythatyoungerchildrenpossesstolearnnewsubjectseasily.Thesecondisthatbyspecializinginonesubject,thechildrencouldreachproficiencyatamuchyoungerage.Winningagainstolderandmoreexperiencedopponentsinchessbuilttheirconfidenceandcompetitivespirit,sothattheyactivelywantedtopracticemoretoimprovethemselves.Hadthegirlsspreadtheirintellectualappetitestoobroadly,theymightnothavedevelopedtheself-confidencethatleadstointensepractice.Thethirdstepwastomakepracticeintoplay.Chess,beingagame,isnaturallysuitedto

play.However,Lászlówasinsistentonintroducingallsubjectstothegirlsasformsofplay.Whenthegirlswouldbecomedistractedorgetupandwanderaroundwhileplayingagame,theyweren’tpunishedbutencouragedtolettheirmindswanderastheysoughtasolution.Keepingthegamefunandlight,especiallywhenthechildrenwereyoung,wasakeystepping-stonetodevelopingthedriveandself-confidencethatwouldsupportmoreseriouseffortslater.However,itisimportanttokeepinmindasLászlóinsistedthat“playisnottheoppositeofwork”and“achilddoesnotneedplayseparatefromwork,butmeaningfulaction,”adding“learningpresentsthemwithmoreenjoymentthanasterilegame.”13PlayandworkcombinedinthePolgárs’approachtolearning,withnorigidboundarybetweenthem.Fourth,Lászlówascarefultocreatepositivereinforcementtomakechessapleasant,rather

thanfrustrating,experience.“Failure,suffering,andfearfulnessdecreaseachievement.

Followinganumberofsuccessivefailures,evenadamaginginhibitorycomplexcanbecreated,”heexplained.14Startingwiththebehaviorists,psychologistshaveknownindetailthathavingapositiveexperience,suchaswinningagame,cancreateadesiretorepeatthebehaviorsthatledtotheexperience.Negativeexperiences,fromlosing,becomingconfused,orexperiencingfrustrationagainstastrongeropponenttofacinganopponentwhoistooeasyandrobstheplayerofthesatisfactionofpullingoffanimpressivevictory,reduceenthusiasm.Lászlócarefullyestablishedthecyclesofpositivefeedbackearlyon.Inthebeginning,whenhewasstillastrongerplayerthanthegirls,hewouldadjusthisplaysothattheywouldbechallengedbutstillwinenoughofthetimetofindthegameenjoyable.“Weshouldmakesurenottoalwayswinagainstthechild;weshouldletthemwinsometimessothattheyfeeltheyarealsocapableofthinking,”hewrote,adding“Atthestartitismostimportanttoawakeinterest....Weshouldgetthechildtolovewhattheydo—tosuchadegreethattheydoitalmostobsessively.”15Finally,Lászlówasentirelyagainstcoercinglearning.Self-discipline,motivation,and

commitment,hefelt,mustcomefromthegirlsthemselves.Heexplained,“Onethingiscertain:onecanneverachieveseriouspedagogicalresults,especiallyatahighlevel,throughcoercion.”16Healsofeltthat“oneofthemostimportanteducationaltasksistoteachself-education.”17Thisfinalstepofhisprocesswasparticularlyimportantforhisdaughters,astheyquicklyoutpacedtheirfather’sability.Hadtheynotbeenencouragedtodeveloptheirownabilitiestoteachthemselvesandadjusttheirlearning,theymighthavebecomedecentchessplayersbutcertainlynotgrandmasters.Inadditiontothesebasicprinciples,LászlóandKláradevotedthemselvesintenselyto

providingeveryopportunityfortheadvancementoftheirdaughters,cultivatingadatabaseofmorethantwohundredthousandmatches,buyingeverychesstextbooktheycouldfind,andrecruitingchesstutorsfortheirdaughters.Thegirlslackednoopportunitytostudyandimproveatthegame.ThePolgárhouse,withdiagramsofchesspositionshangingonthewalls,becameatempledevotedtothepracticeoftheancientgame.ForLászlóandKlára,raisingtheirchildrenwasmorethanafull-timejobastheyfosteredthegirls’talentsbybothassemblingresourcesandschoolingthemathome.

UltralearningPrinciplesinActionInadditiontoPolgár’sprinciplesofraisinggeniuschildren,IfounditinterestingthatalloftheprinciplesofultralearningI’vediscussedthisfarwerepresentintheirapproachtolearning.

1.Metalearning

Polgárdevotedhimselffull-timetounderstandinghowpeoplelearnchessandunderwhatconditionshisdaughterswouldthrive.Hecreatedahugelibraryofchesspositions,strategies,andlistsofgames,which,inthedaysbeforewidespreadinternet,wasnosmallfeat.Healsoarticulatedaplanforcoachingthegirlsinthegamewhentheywerestillveryyoung,startingbyteachingthemfirsttonamethesquaresontheboardandlatertoknowhowthepiecesmoved.Thatslowprogressionallowedthegirlstopickupthegameevenbeforetheirothercognitiveabilitieshaddeveloped.

2.Focus

Lászlóconsidered“theabilitytohandlemonotony,thecapabilitytosustaininterestandpersistentattention”askeytraitsheaimedtoinstillinhisdaughters.Thegirlstwicetookpartintwenty-four-hourchessmarathonswhentheywerefifteen,nine,andeightyearsold,respectively,needingtocompleteonehundredmatchesinthetimeperiod.Chessisagamenotmerelyofflickersofbrilliancebutofenduranceandstamina.TrainingfocuswasalargepartofLászló’ssystemforhisdaughters,asheencouragedthemtofocustheirmindsontheproblemandnotgetdistracted.

3.Directness

Lászlótookhisdaughterstogameswithmenwhentheywereasyoungasfour,showingthemhowthegamewastobeplayedagainstopponentswhowouldreallyofferachallenge.Thegirlsplayedmany,manygamesofchess,whichformedthebackboneoftheirabilities.Thatallowedthemtolearnnotonlyhowtoplaythegamewellbutalsotodealwithvariablessuch

astimepressureandthepsychologicalinsecuritiesofplayingagainstolder,moreintimidatingopponents.Byusingchesstimersevenforcasualgames,thegirlspracticedinanenvironmentthatmorecloselymatchedtheonetheywouldfaceintournaments.

4.Drill

Lászlóvariedtheapproachestostudyingthegame,startinghisdaughtersoffwithmemorizingfirstthenamesofthesquares,thenthemovementsofkeypieces.Chesspuzzles,hangingfromthewallsofthehouse,becamethegirls’homework,astheyhadtosolvethedifferenttacticalpositionsandcomeupwithcreativesolutions.Blitzandblindfoldedgamesallowedthegirlstogetbetteratthinkingmorequicklyandmentallysimulatingthegame.

5.Retrieval

Forretrieval,Lászlóexplained,“Weshouldnottellthemeverything;weshouldtrytogetthechildtosaysomething!”Usingwhathedescribedasthe“Socraticmethod”forchess,posingquestionshisgirlsmustanswerinsteadoftellingthemtorememberapresolvedsolution,hewasusingtherightmethodtoencouragetheexpansionoftheirmemoryandunderstanding.Blindfoldedgames,onceagain,formedapowerfulcomponentofthegirls’strategy.Bypracticingwithoutlookingattheboard,itforcedthemtocultivatetheabilitytofollowpositionsintheirhead,whichwasusefulnotonlyforretainingkeychesspatternslongtermbutalsoforhoningtheabilitytosimulatemovesontheboardthatanopponentmightplay.

6.Feedback

Lászlóencouragedconsiderableplaywithrealopponentsbutwascarefultoselect“suitablepartners,whohaveagenerallysimilarplayingability.”Interestingly,thefeedbackherewascarefullycontrolled,notonlytoprovidethegirlswithenoughchallenge(thePolgárs’insistenceonplayinginmen’stournamentsinordertofacesuchachallengewasanexampleofthis)butalsotoavoidtoogreatachallengewhentheirabilitieswerestillnascent.Cultivatingpositivefeedbackwasimportantearlyon,andLászlówaseverreadytoadjusttheflowofthegametomakesureitwasatalevelthatwouldstimulatefurtherplay.

7.Retention

Lászlófocusedonhavingthegirlsrecallchesspatternsfrommemoryandincreasedthespeedofgamestomakeelementsoftheirplaymoreautomaticandlesssusceptibletoforgetting.Memorizingchesspatternsisalargepartofplayingthegamesuccessfully,andthiswasaidedbothbyspacedpracticeandthroughspecializeddrillssuchasblitzandblindfoldedgames.

8.Intuition

MirroringtheFeynmanTechnique,Lászlóencouragedhisgirlstowritearticlesaboutchess,explaining,“Ifonewritesanarticle,oneconsidersamattermoredeeplythanwithoutagoal,thinkingaloneorspeakingwithsomeoneaboutit.”Thegirlswerealsoencouragedtocomeupwithcreativesolutionstoproblems.Play,notmerelyinthesenseofchessbeingagamebutalsointhesenseofanunconstructed,goallessactivity,waspartoftheteachingstrategy.Comingupwithinterestingsolutionsandchallengingthegirlstothinkoftricksandnewinsightsallowedthemtoexploreoutsidewhatcouldbeofferedbymemorizingpastresults.

9.Experimentation

AsthePolgársisterseclipsedtheirfatherinchessability,theirimpetustocontinuemasteringthegameincreasinglyhadtocomefromwithinthemselves.Eachofthegirlshadtocultivateherownuniquestyleandapproach.Juditchosetofocusontricksandtactics,writingthat“openingpreparationwasnotatallimportantatthattime.Thismaybeareasonwhy,eventoday,mystrongestarearemainsthemiddlegame.”18Thegirls’varyingchoicesshowthatchess,likeanycreativeskill,involvesnotmerelyamasteryofpatternsbutalsochoicesaboutwhatskillsandstylestocultivatewithinavastrangeofpossibilities.

Finally,thePolgársembodiedtheideaofultralearningatitsbroadest,withLászlóarguing,“Inmyopinion,weshoulddisseminatetheideaofintensivelearningineveryfield.”Thesuccess

ofthePolgársfollowsthesamepatternasthatofmostoftheultralearnersIhavemet:aggressive,enthusiasticself-educationfollowingthekeyprinciplesoflearning.

FosteringUltralearningintheHome,School,andWorkplaceHowcanyoufosterultralearningasaparentoreducatororinanorganization?Isitpossibletohelpothersself-confidentlytackledifficultlearningprojectsoftheirowndesign?Canyouteachstudentsnotjustthematerialtheyneedtostudybuthowtolearnontheirown,sotheywillbeself-sufficientoutsidetheclassroom?Canyouleadtheindividualsinyourorganizationtolearnmoreaggressively,fillinggapsintheircompetencyandachievingtheirfullpotential?Theseareallintriguingquestionstowhichwedon’tyethavedefinitiveanswers.Inreadingthescientificliteratureonlearningandfollowingupwiththeultralearners’

stories,Iwasstrucknotonlybyhowmuchisknownaboutlearningalreadybutbyhowmanyopenquestionsexistforwhichresearchersandautodidactsarestillhazardinghypotheses.Thecomplicationsexpandexponentiallyonceyouintroducethesocialenvironmentaswell.Nowit’snolongeraquestionsimplyofindividualcognitionbutoftheemotions,culture,andrelationshipsthatstarttoinfluencelearningincomplexandunexpectedways.Fromthisperspective,therefore,I’dliketocautiouslysuggestsomestartingpointsforfosteringanenvironmentthatwillsupportultralearning,athome,intheschool,orintheworkplace.Thesesuggestionsaren’trules,buttheycanbeseenasstartingpointsforenablingotherstocapturetheultralearningspirit.

Suggestion1:CreateanInspiringGoal

Betteryet,allowpeopletodesigntheirownlearninggoalsthatinspirethem.Inspirationisanessentialstartingpointintheprocessofultralearning.Theremustbesomethingverycompellingforapersontosummonuptheenergyandself-disciplineneededtolearn.Sometimesthatisthepromiseofanewskillbringingcareeropportunities.Codingbootcamps,whichhavesprungupinthewakeofhigh-payingprogrammingjobs,pushstudentsthroughatabrutalpace,sometimesapproachingeightyhoursaweek.Thegoal,however,iscompellingenoughtojustifythisinvestment:completearigorousprogramoverthecourseofafewweeks,andyoucanriseuptheladderofhigh-salariedtechjobsinSiliconValleyandelsewhere.Theprocessisintense,butthemotiveiscompelling.Inothercases,themotivationforultralearningcomesfromanintrinsicinterestthat

becomesamplified.MyownMITChallengestartedwithfeelingIhadmissedoutbynotstudyingcomputerscienceinschool.Normally,thatwouldn’thaveledtoanylarge,structuredefforttolearnalotofcomputerscience.Itwasonlywhentheideaofdoinganentiredegreeinashortenedperiodoftime,alongwiththeresearchthatmademethinkitmightbepossible,thatmyinitialinterestbecomeapassionatecommitment.RogerCraig,withhisJeopardy!exploits,wasalwaysinterestedintriviacompetitions.Itwasonlywhenherecognizedthattheremightbeachancetoappearonthefamoustelevisionshowthathisinterestbecameanobsession.EricBaronetookhisloveofachildhoodvideogameandexpandeditintoanefforttocreateabetterversion.Seekingoutpeople’snaturalinterestsforultralearningmeansencouragingthesparksthatalreadyexist,ratherthanmerelyimposingonthemthetopicsyoufeelwouldbemostbeneficial.Oncepeopleseethestructureofanultralearningproject,theycanstartthinkingforthemselveswhatwouldbemostinteresting,exciting,andusefulforthemtoworkon.TristandeMontebellostartedwiththeideaofultralearningandonlylaterchosetocraftapublicspeakingprojectaroundit.

Suggestion2:BeCarefulwithCompetition

ThePolgárs’exampleclearlyindicatesthatearlyself-confidencecancreateanenthusiasmthatleadstocontinuedinvestment.Youdon’tneedtofeelasthoughyou’regoodatsomethingtoinvestenergyintolearning.Afterall,becominggoodatsomethingiswhatlearningis.However,youneedtofeelthatyoucouldbegoodatit.Peopletendtomaketheirperceptionsofinadequacyintoimmutabledestinies:“I’mnogoodatmath,”“Ican’tdrawanythingbutstickfigures,”“Idon’thavethelanguagegene.”Althoughtherelikelydoexistrealdifferencesininnateability,sothatthesepronouncementsaren’tcompletelyfalse,theytendtoignoreanimportantfactor:motivation.Whenyouseeyourselfaslackingthepotentialtobegoodatsomethingorbelievethatyou’llalwaysbebehindeveryoneelsenomatterhowhardyouwork,itrobsyouofthemotivationtoworkhard.Thus,althoughtherearedifferencesinability

amongallofus,theycanoftenbeexacerbatedbytheaffectivedimensiontheycreateinhowwefeelaboutlearning.Feelasthoughyou’relousyatdoingsomething,andyou’rerobbedofthemotivationtochange.Thereferencegroupyoucompareyourselftocanhaveapowerfulinfluence.Ifindit

interestingthatmany,butnotall,ultralearnersaimedatprojectsthatweresounusualthattheymadeithardtocomparethemtoanormalreferencegroup.DeMontebello’spublicspeakingcompetitioncertainlypittedhimselfagainstexcellentpublicspeakers.Thatmighthavecreatedafeelingofinferiority,exceptthatdeMontebellocouldalwaysexplaintohimselfanyperceiveddeficitsascomingfromtryingsuchanambitiousprojectwithsolittlepriorexperience.Haditbeenthecasethatinsteadofanindividualultralearningproject,hehadbeenpittedagainstadozenothercompetitorswithexactlythesamepriorexperience,hemightinsteadhaverationalizedanyperceivedinadequacyashissimplynotbeinggoodenough.Thissuggeststhatthecompetitivenessoftheprojectcutsbothways:Whenyouhaveanaturaltalentandthusperformmuchbetterthantheeasilyidentifiablereferencegroup,you’llhavemoremotivationtopracticeandlearnwithintensity.However,ifyoucomeupshort,itmayrobyouofthemotivationtopractice.ThePolgársusedcompetitiontotheiradvantage.Becausethegirls’trainingstartedunusuallyyoung,theywerealwaysseenasprecociousandthecompetitiveenvironmentenhancedtheirmotivation.Hadtheystartedlateorbeenputintoaschoolwheretheyweren’tguaranteedtobestarperformers,theirmotivationmighthavebeensapped.Tome,suchmotivationaleffects,comingfromimplicitcomparisontoareferencegroup,

suggestadoptingatwofoldapproach.Ifapersoninwhomyouwanttoencourageanultralearningspirithasanaturalaptitude,competitionisprobablygood.Seeinghim-orherselfdowellindirectcomparisonwithothersmayencourageacommitmenttofurtherimprovement.Forapersonwhoeitherisofmoderateabilityorisbehindotherpeople,suchaslearningaskillinadomaininwhichheorshehasnoexperience,orwhoisstartingtolearnanewskilllaterinlife,youshouldmakeanefforttomaketheprojectunique.Thiswillencouragethepersontoframehisorherprogressbycomparingtohisorherpastself,notduetocompetitionwithothers.Sometimesaprojectcanstartoutbeingunique,thusshelteredfromtheharshlightofunfavorablecomparison,andmovetoamorecompetitiveenvironmentonceconfidencehasbeenestablished.Forexample,youmightstartlearningprogrammingbycreatingagamethatishardtocomparetoothersbutentercodingcompetitionsasyoubegintofeelmorecompetent.

Suggestion3:MakeLearningaPriority

Outsideschool,learningisusuallyseenasaby-productofdoingajob,notthecoregoal.Thoughorganizationsoftengivelipservicetoongoingtrainingandeducation,it’susuallyintheformofworkshopsorseminarsthatonesitsthroughpassivelybeforegettingbacktotherealjobathand.Ultralearning,byencouragingdirect,intensivepractice,providestheopportunityforakindoffusionproject—onethataccomplishesrealobjectivesbutisalsodesignedtoteachsomethingnew.Thenormalprotocolforassigningaprojectistofindthebestpersonforthejobandgive

themthetask.Alearning-drivenapproachwouldsuggestinsteadthatpeoplewhoarenotyetcapableofdoingthetaskmightbeassignedtotheproject.Anultralearning-drivenworkenvironmentmightconsistofemployees’spendingamajorityoftheirtimeonprojectsthatarewithinorneartheircompetencylevelsbutdevotingaspecificfractionoftheirtimetoworkingonprojectsthatarealeapabovetheircurrentabilities.Althoughthisispurelyhypothetical,Iimaginetwobenefitsofthisapproach.First,itwillcreateacultureoflearningwithinanorganizationwherepeoplearealwayswillingtotrytosolveproblemstheydon’tyetknowhowtosolve,insteadofexpectingsomeoneelsetoknowtheansweralready.Second,itwillhelprevealtalentbygivingpeoplechallengestheycanriseto.Ifmentorshipopportunitiesanddifficultprojectsareassignedonlyonawhimbymanagers,theywilllikelymissalotofpeoplewhomayhavetheabilitytosucceedindifficultpositionsbutarenevergiventheopportunitytodoso.Atthehighestlevels,anultralearning-drivenculturealsoallowslearningtogointoareas

whereperhapsnobodyelsehasaparticularskill.Althoughgoingbetweenestablishedlevelsofskillisimportant,itiswhenonelearnstodosomethingthatnobodyelsecandothatlearningbecomestrulyvaluable.

Conclusion

Inmanyways,writingthisbookhasbeenanultralearningproject.Althoughawriterresearchingforabookishardlyunique,notallultralearningprojectsneedtobeoneofakindtomattertothepersondoingthem.Sittinginmydenathomearestacksofbindersfilledwiththousandsofpagesofprintedjournalarticles.Mybookshelfnowhasdozensofobscure,out-of-printmonographsonthinslicesofthequestionofhowpeoplelearn.Recordingsofcallswithvariousresearchershelpedmerealizehowmuchnuancethereistoevensimplequestionssuchas“Isfeedbackhelpful?”and“Whydopeopleforget?”I’vepouredovernumerousbiographiesoffamousintellectuals,entrepreneurs,andscientiststotrytoarriveatanunderstandingofhowtheyapproachedlearning.Inmanyways,theprocessofwritingthisbookwasareflectionofitssubject—anultralearningprojecttowriteabookaboutultralearning.AlthoughIhadastronginterestinthesubjectoflearningandhadbrowsedtextbooks,articles,andbiographiesbeforeIbeganresearchintothisbook,itwasonlyafterIstartedthisstructuredprojectthatIreallybegantodigdeep.Beyondresearch,thisbookwasachallengeformeasawriter.Mywritingexperiencecomes

fromblogging,notauthoringbooks.Strikingtherighttoneinabookishard,andit’squitedifferentfromthecasualdailymissivesinablog.IknewfromthestartthatIwantedtosharethestoriesofothersandtheirexploits,notjustrecountmyownexperiences.Thatwasinitiallyquitechallenging.Mostbiographiesandpublishedstoriesdon’tfocusonlearningmethods.Evenwhenlearningisthecentralthemeofthestory,mostbiographersaresatisfiedtobeinaweoftalent,ratherthandigintothespecificdetailsofhowapersondidaparticularthing.Myresearcheffortsfrequentlyinvolvedscouringafive-hundred-pagebiographyfortheseveralparagraphsinwhichconcretedetailsaboutlearningmethodswerementionedinpassing.Althoughthiscreatedchallenges,italsoforcedmetodevelopnewskillsasawriter.Ihadtoimprovemyresearchandwritingskillsinwaysthatmorethanadecadeofpenningblogarticlesneverhad.Eventhestyleofthebookcreatedaskill-challengingprojectformyself.I’llleaveittoyou,thereader,tojudgewhetherIwassuccessful.Themetaprojectofultralearningtowriteabookaboutultralearningalsoillustratessome

importantideas.Forone,althoughI’vemadeenormousimprovementsinmywritingabilityandknowledgeofcognitivescienceandstoriesoffamouslearningexploits,thereisstillfarmoretolearn.Diggingintothescience,forinstance,onecanquicklydevelopasenseofvertigostandingatopthemountainofpapers,theories,ideas,andexperiments,alllooselyconnectedtothetopicoflearning.Similarly,foreverybiographyIread,therewerehundredsIcouldnot.ForeveryultralearningstoryIencountered,therewerelikelydozensmoremysearchesdidn’treveal.Itisaprofounderrortoclaimthatlearningisaboutreplacingignorancewithunderstanding.Knowledgeexpands,butsodoesignorance,aswithagreaterunderstandingofasubjectalsocomesagreaterappreciationforallthequestionsthatremainunanswered.Inthefaceofthis,onemustsimultaneouslyhaveconfidenceanddeephumility.Withoutthe

beliefthatprogressinone’sownknowledgeandskillispossible,onecannotundertaketheprojectrequiredtogenerateit.Thiskindofconfidencemaybemistakenforarrogancebyoutsiders,asitcanseemthatanefforttolearnsomethingquicklyandintenselyissomehowanassertionthatthesubjectistrivialorthat,havinglearnedsomething,onehaslearnedeverything.Instead,thisconfidencemustbepairedwithdeephumility.IneveryprojectI’veundertaken,includingthisone,mythoughtsuponconcludingitwerenottothinkIhadfinishedbuttosuddenlybecomeawareofhowmuchfurtherIcouldhavegone.BeforeIstartedmyMITChallenge,Iimaginedthatcoveringanundergraduatedegree’sworthofcomputerscienceconceptswouldbeplenty.AfterIhadfinished,IcouldseehoweachtopicIhadlearnedcouldbemultipliedintoadoctorate’sworthofresearchoralifetimespentcodingtofullyunderstandit.MyexperienceinlearninglanguagestoalevelwhereIcouldholdconversationsmademerealizehowmanymorewords,expressions,nuancesofculture,anddifficultcommunicationsituationswerelefttoexplore.Finishingaproject,therefore,isn’tusuallyaccompaniedbyasenseoffinishinglearningbutbythecreationofafeelingofpossibilityasone’seyesareopenedtoallthethingslefttolearn.It’sthisaspectoflearningthatIfindmostinteresting.Manypursuitsinlifehaveakindof

saturationpoint,afterwhichthelongingformoreofathingeventuallydiminishesasyougetmoreofit.Ahungrypersoncaneatonlysomuchfood.Alonelypersoncanhaveonlysomuchcompanionship.Curiositydoesn’tworkthisway.Themoreonelearns,thegreaterthecravingtolearnmore.Thebetteronegets,themoreonerecognizeshowmuchbetteronecouldbecome.Ifyoufinishreadingthisbookandhavebeenencouragedtotryyourownproject,thiswouldbemygreatesthope—notthatyou’dbesuccessfulatyourprojectbutthatyourendingwouldbeabeginning.Thatbyopeningasmallcrackinallthepossiblyknowablethingsthereareintheworld,youmightpeerthroughandfindthereisfar,farmorethanyouhadeverimagined.

Acknowledgments

Thisbookcouldnothavehappenedwithoutthehelp,advice,andworkprovidedbymanydifferentpeople.First,IwouldliketothankCalvinNewport.Haditnotbeenforhisearlyencouragement,Imightneverhavepursuedwritingabookaboutthistopic.IwouldalsoliketothankBennyLewis,whoseearlyinspirationandendlessadviceovertheyearshashadsuchastronginfluenceonmythoughtsonlearningandwriting.LaurieAbkemeier,myagent,wasinstrumentalintakingmyroughideasinaproposalandpushingmetodevelopsomethingworthyofprint.IthankStephanieHitchcockforeditingthebookandprovidingmewithexcellentfeedbackandsuggestions.I’malsothankfultomyfriendsandfamilywhoreadoverearlydraftsoftheproposalandmanuscript,helpingtheideatakeshape.Inparticular,IwouldliketothankZoricaTomovska,VatsalJaiswal,TristandeMontebello,JamesClear,JoshKaufmann,KalidAzad,andBarbaraOakleyfortheirearlyfeedback.IwouldliketothankthewonderfulpeopleImetandinterviewedwhilepreparingforthe

book.IamgratefultoRogerCraig,EricBarone,VishalMaini,DianaJaunzeikare,ColbyDurant,andVatsalJaiswal,whowerekindenoughtotaketimetohelpmefillinthedetailsoftheirincrediblestories.Iwanttothankmanyoftheresearcherswhowalkedmethroughtheirfindingsandhelpedmeunderstandthescienceoflearningbetter.Inparticular,IwanttothankK.AndersEricssonforhispatienceashehelpedmeclarifymanyimportantpoints.Inaddition,IthankRobertPool,JeffreyKarpicke,AngeloDeNisi,AvrahamKluger,JacquelineThomas,andMichaelHerzogforhelpingmeunderstandthenuancesofthesciencediscussedinthisbook.Iwanttothankallthepeoplewhoparticipatedinmyexperimentswithcoachingultralearning:TristandeMontebello,JeffRussell,DianaFehsenfeld,KateSchutt,LissaSherron,JoshuaSandeman,KeerthiVemulapalli,BrittanyHsu,ShankarSatish,AshimaPanjwani,AshfaqAlsam,DeeptiKannapan,andAnkitaJ.Finally,Iwanttothankmyparents,DouglasandMarianYoung,bothteachers,whotaught

methatlearningisitsownreward.

AppendixFurtherNotesonMyUltralearningProjects

TheMITChallengeGOAL:LearnthematerialtaughtinMIT’sundergraduatecurriculumforcomputerscience,usingtheirfreelyprovidedmaterialsandusedtextbooksMETHOD:Aimtopassallofthefinalexams(scoreover50percent,unlessotherinformationwasprovided)andcompletetheprogrammingprojectsTIMEFRAME:October2011toSeptember2012

NotesandDiscussion

It’simportanttonotethatwhatIendedupcompletingwasnotafacsimileofanMITdegree.AlthoughIstrove,wheneverpossible,tobenchmarktheoverallcurriculumcoveredandtheintensityofevaluation,therewerenecessarydeparturesfromhowanactualMITstudentwouldhaveprogressedthroughthesamematerial.Attheleveloftheentirecurriculumtherewerechanges.MIT’sOpenCourseWaredidn’t

offeroptionsforhumanitiesthatIcouldgrademyselfatthetime,soIswappedthoseforclassesineconomics.Lab-heavyclassesforwhichIdidn’thaveaccesstotheequipmentweresubstitutedforpencil-and-papertheoryclassesIcoulddo.MITstudentswereexpectedtocarryoutathesisproject.Ididn’tdothatduringmytwelve-monthstudyperiod,butforfunIdidcreateacomputerprogramthatwouldallowsomeonetoplayScrabbleagainstacomputeropponentshortlyaftermyprojecthadofficiallyconcluded.Inevaluatingtheprogrammingprojects,Isimplycountedthemasasuccessiftheyworkedandperformedthedesiredfunctionsorwereabletocompletetheaccompaniedtestingsuites.Forfinalexams,mydefaultbenchmarkwastoachieveatleast50percent.Istucktothe

officialgradingrubricwheneverpossible.Whenthereweregaps(suchashowtodeductpointsforarithmeticoralgebraicerrorsonmultistepproblems),Iusedmyjudgment.Thelatterstageintroducedsomepotentialbias,soIdecidedtogobackseveralyearsaftercompletingthechallengeandreevaluateallmyexamsusingthestrictestpossiblegradingscheme(anymistakeonamultipartquestionwouldmaketheentirequestionworthzeropoints;anyincorrectresultappliedtofurtherquestionswouldmakethosequestionsalsoworthzeropoints).Theoutcomewasthatsixofthethirty-threeclassesIhadrecordedasa“pass”wouldhavebeencountedasa“fail”underthisstricterschema.Idon’tbelievethisevaluationisthecorrectone,soIstandbymyoriginalevaluationofhavingpassedthoseexams,butitisworthpointingouttoshowhowmuchimpactmysubjectivedecisionshad.Afewclasseshadnofinalexams,sointhosecasesevaluationdefaultedtoassignmentsormidtermexams.Completingassignmentswasnotarequirementtocompleteaclass,howeverIdidendupdoingmanyofthemaspartofthelearningprocess.Formoreinformationonthechallenge,suchascourselists,materialsusedandscansofmy

exams,youcanvisitthechallengehomepage:www.scotthyoung.com/blog/mit-challenge/.

TheYearWithoutEnglishGOAL:LearnSpanish,Portuguese,MandarinChinese,andKoreanMETHOD:AvoidspeakingEnglishfortheentireyear,whiletravelingtoSpain,Brazil,China,andSouthKorea(roughlythreemonthseach).IdidthisprojectalongwithVatsalJaiswal(whoisalsomentionedinchaptersix).TIMEFRAME:September2013toAugust2014

NotesandDiscussion

Quantifyingthelevelofproficiencyreachedineachlanguageisatrickytask.There’sadualrisk,bothofexaggeration—implyingaperfectleveloffluencywhenthatisprobablyaprocessrequiringdecadesofimmersion—andofdownplaying.OnepersonItalkedtoafterthetripaskedifIcould“giveataxidriverdirections”eventhoughthistaskonlyrequiresafewhoursofpractice,notmonths.Sowiththosedifficultiesinmind,I’lltrytoestimatethelevelthatwereached:

SPANISH:HereIbelievebothmyfriendandIreachedaroughlyB2levelafterthreemonths,meetingBennyLewis’sstandardforfluency(althoughcertainlynoteveryone’sstandard).Atthatlevel,wehadlittledifficultysocializingforhoursonanytopicinSpanish,althoughcertainlyouraccent,grammarandmoreformalspeakingabilitieswerenotatthelevelofanativespeaker.PORTUGUESE:WewereweakerinPortuguesethaninSpanish,althoughnotsubstantiallyso.Thetwolanguagesshareacommonbase,sotherewasmuchlesstolearnthantherehadbeenwithSpanish.Wecouldmakefriendsandsocializing,butnotquiteaseffortlessly.MANDARINCHINESE:Thismarkedthefirstbigdivergenceinourabilities.IhadreallywantedtolearnChineseandhadspentsometimeonflashcardspriortoourtriptofamiliarizemyself.Myfriendwaslessinterestedandstruggledmore.Intheend,IwroteandpassedtheHSK4exam(thefourthinasix-levelseriesofexamsmeasuringChineseproficiency)andIwouldsaymyMandarinwasdecent,althoughmorelimitedonadvancedtopics,wherethevocabularyiscompletelydifferentfromEnglish.Myfriendreachedalower-intermediatelevel,beingabletospeakcomfortablyandusetonesbutwithlessvocabulary.KOREAN:Inthislanguagewebothreachedalower-intermediatelevel,abletohaveconversationsandgetbyindailylife,butonamorerestrictedrangeoftopics.PartofthiswasthedifficultyoftheKoreanlanguage,butabiggerpartwassimplythatasitwasthefourthnewlanguageinarow,weweregettingburnedout.

Althoughweaimedtodomostofourlearningafterarrivingineachcountry,wediddosomepriorpreparationforeach.ThiswasmostlylisteningtoPimsleuraudiotapesanddoingsomeflashcards.Ingenerallywespentaroundtwenty-fivetofiftyhoursperlanguage,althoughIspentmoreonChinese(approximatelyonehundredhours)priortoarriving.Thoseinterestedcanseemoreaboutourproject(includingvideosweputtogethershowing

ourprogressineachcountry),whatweusedtolearnaswellasunscriptedinterviewtoshowroughlythelevelwereachedineachlanguageontheprojecthomepage:www.scotthyoung.com/blog/the-year-without-english/.

PortraitDrawingChallengeGOAL:ToimprovemyabilitytodrawfacesrealisticallyMETHOD:Rapidfeedback,techniquesfromvariousbooksandcoursesTIMEFRAME:July2016

NotesandDiscussion

Thiswasashorterproject,takingonemonthandtotalingonehundredhoursofpractice.Inadditiontothestrategyofdrawingquicksketchesandcomparingthembyoverlayingthemonsemi-transparentreferencephotos,IalsogreatlybenefittedfromthebookDrawingontheRightSideoftheBrain,andfromVitruvianStudio’sPortraitDrawingclass.I’veuploadedeverydrawing,sketch,andself-portraitIdid,alongwithamoredetailed

discussionofwhatIusedtolearnontheprojecthomepage:www.scotthyoung.com/blog/myprojects/portrait-challenge/.

FurtherChallengesAtthetimeofwritingthisbook,theabovethreechallengesaremymainpublicultralearning

projects.However,I’malwayslearningnewthings,soasIdomorepublicchallenges,I’llpostthemhere:www.scotthyoung.com/blog/my-projects/.

Notes

ChapterI:CanYouGetanMITEducationWithoutGoingtoMIT?1.TheGoethe-Institut,whichadministers:“FurtherInformation,”Goethe-Institut,

https://www.goethe.de/en/spr/kup/prf/prf/gc2/inf.html.2.“Myfirstthoughtwasn’t‘Wow’”:ThanhHuynh,RogerCraig—KnowledgeTracking,filmedAugust

2011,YouTubevideo,14:20,postedNovember2011,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmld3pcKYYA&t=1s.

3.“Everybodythatwantstosucceedatagame”:“HowOneManPlayed‘Moneyball’with‘Jeopardy!,’”NationalPublicRadio,https://www.npr.org/2011/11/20/142569472/how-one-man-played-moneyball-with-jeopardy.

4.Spaced-repetitionsoftwareis:GaryWolf,“WanttoRememberEverythingYou’llEverLearn?SurrendertoThisAlgorithm,”Wired,April20,2008,https://www.wired.com/2008/04/ff-wozniak/?currentPage=all.

5.“Youcansimulatethegame”:Huynh,RogerCraig—KnowledgeTracking.6.“incrediblyendearingandbeautiful”:PatrickHancock,“Review:StardewValley,”Destructoid,March

7,2016,https://www.destructoid.com/review-stardew-valley-345495.phtml.7.“Thisisthetypeofperson”:“CollegeTooExpensive?ThisGuyJustFinishedaFourYearComputer

SciencePrograminONEYearUsingFreeMITMaterial”(video),Reddit,https://www.reddit.com/r/videos/comments/10tk9j/college_too_expensive_this_guy_just_finished_a/.

8.Donewithoutthebenefit:StevePavlina,“GraduatingCollegein3Semesters,”December4,2005,https://www.stevepavlina.com/blog/2005/12/graduating-college-in-3-semesters/.

9.DianaJaunzeikareembarkedon:DianaJaunzeikare,“PersonalPhD.”https://diana.is/personal-phd.10.“70–80+hourseachweek”:Tamu,“IndependentChineseStudy:Review,”Chinese-forums.com,

https://www.chinese-forums.com/forums/topic/43939-independent-chinese-study-review/.11.TrentFowler,startinginearly2016:TrentFowler,TheSTEMpunkProject(Self-published,2017).

ChapterII:WhyUltralearningMatters1.“Averageisover”:TylerCowen,AverageIsOver:PoweringAmericaBeyondtheAgeoftheGreat

Stagnation(NewYork:Penguin,2013).2.TheMITeconomistDavidAutor:DavidH.Autor,LawrenceF.Katz,andMelissaS.Kearney,“The

PolarizationoftheU.S.LaborMarket,”AmericanEconomicReview96,no.2(May2006):189–94.3.Tuitionhasincreasedfarfaster:DanielleDouglas-Gabriel,“CollegeCostsRisingFasterthanFinancial

Aid,ReportSays,”WashingtonPost,October26,2016,https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2016/10/26/college-costs-rising-faster-than-financial-aid-report-says/?utm_term=.72c95b4c86cb.

4.“aleadingEnglish-languagenovelist”:GarethCook,“TheSingularMindofTerryTao,”NewYorkTimes,July24,2015,https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/26/magazine/the-singular-mind-of-terry-tao.html.

ChapterIV:Principle1—Metalearning:FirstDrawaMap1.“Kutipaokadjalou”:LinguisticSocietyofAmerica,“‘MonolingualFieldworkDemonstration’—Daniel

Everett,”filmedJuly2013,YouTubevideo,1:16:27,postedSeptember2013,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sYpWp7g7XWU.

2.Whatmakesthisfeatparticularlyimpressive:ToavoidruiningthedemonstrationbyusingEnglish,alanguagetheotherspeakermighthavebeenfamiliarwith,EverettchosetophraseallhisinitialqueriesinthePirahãlanguage,spokenonlybyaremotepeopleintheAmazonjungleofBrazil.

3.Overthelastthirtyyears:Theunusualnessofthislanguagehasledtosomewhatofacontroversyinlinguistics,withDanEverett’sclaimsaboutPirahã’sgrammaratcenterstageinanattackonlinguisticorthodoxy.

4.Toseewhymetalearningisso:JacquelineThomas,“TheRolePlayedbyMetalinguisticAwarenessinSecondandThirdLanguageLearning,”JournalofMultilingualandMulticulturalDevelopment9,no.3(1988):235–46,https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01434632.1988.9994334.

5.Determineiflearning:Don’ttakethistomeanthatIthinkgradschoolisuseless.Theimportantthingtodecideiswhetheritwillreallymattertoyou,dependingonthejobyouwant,thesubjectofyourstudy,andtheinstitution.Mypointisn’tthatgradschoolisawasteoftimebutratherthatwhenmakingadecisioninvolvingsomuchtimeandcost,you’dbetterdotheresearchfirst!

6.Forexample,onecommonrecommendation:VictorMair,“HowtoLearnChineseandJapanese,”LanguageLog,February17,2014,http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=10554.

7.Theliteratureonself-directedlearning:GeorgeE.SpearandDonaldW.Mocker,“TheOrganizingCircumstance:EnvironmentalDeterminantsinSelf-DirectedLearning,”AdultEducationQuarterly35,no.1(March1,1984):1–10,https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0001848184035001001?journalCode=aeqb.

8.Thatledmetodo:“PortraitDrawing—TheCompleteOnlineCourse,”VitruvianStudio,https://vitruvianstudio.com/course/portrait-drawing/.

ChapterV:Principle2—Focus:SharpenYourKnife1.Somervilleexplained,“shewouldhavebeencontented”:MarySomerville,PersonalRecollections,

fromEarlyLifetoOldAge,ofMarySomerville:WithSelectionsfromHerCorrespondence(London:RobertsBrothers,1874),23.

2.Hence,skilledperformers:K.AndersEricsson,TheRoadtoExcellence:TheAcquisitionofExpertPerformanceintheArtsandSciences,Sports,andGames(NewYork:PsychologyPress,2014),25.

3.Similarly,thephenomenon:JohnDunlosky,KatherineA.Rawson,ElizabethJ.Marsh,etal.,“ImprovingStudents’LearningwithEffectiveLearningTechniques,”PsychologicalScienceinthePublicInterest14,no.1(January8,2013):4–58,https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.11771529100612453266.

4.“learntoletitarise”:SusanL.SmalleyandDianaWinston,FullyPresent:TheScience,Art,andPracticeofMindfulness(Philadelphia:DaCapoLifelongBooks,2010),59.

5.Higharousalcreates:A.E.Bursill,“TheRestrictionofPeripheralVisionDuringExposuretoHotandHumidConditions,”QuarterlyJournalofExperimentalPsychology10,no.3(August1,1958):113–29.

6.Toomucharousal,however:Thisinverse-UshapeofarousalversusperformanceisknowninpsychologyastheYerkes-Dodsonlaw.

7.Morecomplextasks:DanielKahneman,AttentionandEffort(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall),1973.

8.Whendoingaparticularlycreativetask:KalinaChristoff,ZacharyC.Irving,KieranC.R.Fox,etal.,“Mind-WanderingasSpontaneousThought:ADynamicFramework,”NatureReviewsNeuroscience17,no.11(2016):718–31,https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn.2016.113.

9.Inoneexperiment,sleep-deprived:RobertT.Wilkinson,“InteractionofNoisewithKnowledgeofResultsandSleepDeprivation,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology66,no.4(November1963):332–37,https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964–03490–001.

ChapterVI:Principle3—Directness:GoStraightAhead1.Jaiswalleavestheoffices:Thisis,infact,thesameVatsalJaiswalwhojoinedmeonmyyearlong

languagelearningprojectinchapter1.Theseeventstookplaceafewyearspriortothat.2.“Despitetheimportance”:RobertHaskell,TransferofLearning(Cambridge,MA:AcademicPress,

2000),xiii.3.Inanotherstudy,collegegraduateswereasked:JamesF.Voss,JeffreyBlais,MaryL.Means,TerryR.

Greene,andEllenAhwesh,“InformalReasoningandSubjectMatterKnowledgeintheSolvingofEconomicsProblemsbyNaiveandNoviceIndividuals,”CognitionandInstruction3,no.3(1986):269–302.

4.“inalmostalltheempiricalworktodate”:MicheleneT.H.ChiandMiriamBassok,“LearningfromExamplesviaSelf-explanations,”Knowing,Learning,andInstruction:EssaysinHonorofRobertGlaser(1989):251–82.

5.“studentswhoreceivehonorsgrades”:HowardGardner,TheUnschooledMind:HowChildrenThinkandHowSchoolsShouldTeach,BasicBooks(AZ),2011.

6.“Researcherswhorigorouslyevaluatetraining”:JohnH.Zenger,“GreatIdeasRevisited.ThePainfulTurnaboutinTraining.ARetrospective,”TrainingandDevelopment50,no.1(1996):48–51.

7.“Transferisparadoxical”:WilbertJ.McKeachie,“CognitiveSkillsandTheirTransfer:Discussion,”InternationalJournalofEducationalResearch11,no.6(1987):707–12.

8.Bettergraphicsandsounds:RobertW.Proctor,andAddieDutta,SkillAcquisitionandHumanPerformance(ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications,1995).

ChapterVII:Principle4—Drill:AttackYourWeakestPoint1.However,itwasinthelatterhalf:BenjaminFranklin,TheAutobiographyofBenjaminFranklin(New

Haven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2003).2.world-changingconsequences:WalterIsaacson,BenjaminFranklin:AnAmericanLife(NewYork:

SimonandSchuster,2003).3.“writtenequallywell”:Ibid.

ChapterVIII:Principle5—Retrieval:TesttoLearn1.What’smore,heclaimed:RobertKanigel,TheManWhoKnewInfinity:ALifeoftheGenius

Ramanujan(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2016).2.Thisisessentiallythequestion:JeffreyD.Karpicke,andJanellR.Blunt,“RetrievalPracticeProduces

MoreLearningthanElaborativeStudyingwithConceptMapping,”Science331,no.6018(February11,2011):772–75,http://science.sciencemag.org/content/331/6818/772.

3.Minutesafterstudyingsomething:HenryL.RoedigerIIIandJeffreyD.Karpicke,“ThePowerofTestingMemory:BasicResearchandImplicationsforEducationalPractice,”PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience1,no.3(September1,2006):181–210,https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745–6916.2006.00012.x?journalCode=ppsa.

4.Inevitably,studentswhowereperforming:JeffreyD.Karpicke,“MetacognitiveControlandStrategySelection:DecidingtoPracticeRetrievalDuringLearning,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology:General138,no.4(2009):469–86,http://memory.psych.purdue.edu/downloads/2009_Karpicke_JEPGeneral.pdf.

5.Oneanswercomes:RobertA.Bjork,“MemoryandMetamemoryConsiderationsintheTrainingofHumanBeings,”inMetacognition:KnowingAboutKnowing,ed.J.MetcalfeandA.Shimamura(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1994):185–205.

6.Delayingthefirsttest:JeffreyD.KarpickeandHenryL.RoedigerIII,“ExpandingRetrievalPracticePromotesShort-TermRetention,butEquallySpacedRetrievalEnhancesLong-TermRetention,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology:Learning,Memory,andCognition33,no.4(July2007):704–19,http://memory.psych.purdue.edu/downloads/2007_Karpicke_Roediger_JEPLMC.pdf.

7.However,ifyoudelaythetest:HerbertF.Spitzer,“StudiesinRetention,”JournalofEducationalPsychology30,no.9(December1939):641–56,https://www.gwern.net/docs/spacedrepetition/1939-spitzer.pdf.

8.Aninterestingobservation:ChunliangYang,“EnhancingLearningandRetrieval:TheForwardTestingEffect,”PhDdiss.,UniversityCollegeLondon,2018.

ChapterIX:Principle6—Feedback:Don’tDodgethePunches1.“It’snotgoingtobe”:KelefaSanneh,“ChrisRock,theDukeofDoubt,”NewYorker,November10,

2014,https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/10/duke-doubt.2.Manymedicalpractitionersgetworse:AndersEricssonandRobertPool,Peak:SecretsfromtheNew

ScienceofExpertise,(NewYork:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2016).3.Inalargemeta-analysis,AvrahamKluger:AvrahamN.Kluger,andAngeloDeNisi,“TheEffectsof

FeedbackInterventionsonPerformance:AHistoricalReview,aMeta-analysis,andaPreliminaryFeedbackInterventionTheory,”PsychologicalBulletin119,no.2(1996):254–84,https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996–02773–003.

4.Inonestudy,feedback:MichaelH.HerzogandManfredFahle,“TheRoleofFeedbackinLearningaVernierDiscriminationTask,”VisionResearch37,no.15(August1997):2133–41,https://ac.els-cdn.com/S0042698997000436/1-s2.0-S0042698997000436-main.pdf?_tid=9e63a472–9df4–43fa-a165–7ff3daa4ddd2&acdnat=1551035784_e6ebf10b08703a5479c3abbf649b5320.

5.“Thebestfeedbackisinformative”:MariaAraceliRuiz-PrimoandSusanM.Brookhart,UsingFeedbacktoImproveLearning(NewYork:Routledge,2017),128.

6.JamesA.KulikandChen-LinC.Kulikreviewtheliterature:JamesA.KulikandChen-LinC.Kulik,“TimingofFeedbackandVerbalLearning,”ReviewofEducationalResearch58,no.1(1988):79–97.

7.Expertiseresearcher:K.AndersEricsson,RalfT.Krampe,andClemensTesch-Römer,“TheRoleofDeliberatePracticeintheAcquisitionofExpertPerformance,”PsychologicalReview100,no.3(1993):363–406,https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993–40718–001.

8.Inthosestudies,however:WendyJaehnigandMatthewL.Miller,“FeedbackTypesinProgrammedInstruction:ASystematicReview,”PsychologicalRecord57,no.2(2007):219–32.

ChapterX:Principle7—Retention:Don’tFillaLeakyBucket1.French,withitsgenderednouns:CorazonMiller,“HowKiwiNigelRichardsWonFrenchScrabble

Championship,”NewZealandHerald,July22,2015,https://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c_id=6&objectid=11485116.

2.“Nigel,sinceyou’renogoodatwords”:ZebaSultan,“NigelRichards—AnEnigma,”Thepaladinspeaks...http://vivaciouspaladin.blogspot.com/2013/05/nigel-richardsan-enigma.html.

3.“WhenIseeyou,Icannevertell”:StefanFatsis,“NigelRichardsArticle,”ScrabbleStudyLog,http://scrabblestudylog.blogspot.com/2009/08/nigel-richards-article-by-stefan-fatsis.html.

4.Hepolitelydeclined:TimHume,“AWaywithWords,”SundayStar-Times,June6,2010,http://www.stuff.co.nz/sunday-star-times/features/3778594/A-way-with-words.

5.“Thecyclinghelps”:Fatsis,“NigelRichardsArticle.”6.“It’shardwork”:DanielStembridge,“MeetingNigelRichards,”MindsportsAcademy,

https://www.mindsportsacademy.com/Content/Details/2133?title=meeting-nigel-richards.7.“I’mnotsurethereisasecret”:OgilvyBroadcast,“WorldScrabbleChampionships2011,”filmed

October2011,YouTubevideo,1:51,postedOctober2011,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EZE_olsi-pM&t=1m46s.

8.“Physicianswithmoreexperience”:NiteeshK.Choudhry,RobertH.Fletcher,andStephenB.Soumerai,“SystematicReview:TheRelationshipBetweenClinicalExperienceandQualityofHealthCare,”AnnalsofInternalMedicine142,no.4(2005):260–73,https://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/718215/systematic-review-relationship-between-clinical-experience-quality-health-care.

9.Thisseemsespeciallylikely:JoyceW.LacyandCraigE.L.Stark,“TheNeuroscienceofMemory:ImplicationsfortheCourtroom.”NatureReviewsNeuroscience14,no.9(September2013):649–58,https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4183265/.

10.Theauthorsofapopularstudyguide:PeterWeiandAlexChamessian,LearningMedicine:AnEvidence-BasedGuide(Self-published,2015).

11.proceduralskills,suchas:JongW.Kim,FrankE.Ritter,andRichardJ.Koubek,“AnIntegratedTheoryforImprovedSkillAcquisitionandRetentionintheThreeStagesofLearning,”TheoreticalIssuesinErgonomicsScience14,no.1(2013):22–37.

12.Overlearningisawell-studied:JamesE.Driskell,RuthP.Willis,andCarolynCopper,“EffectofOverlearningonRetention,”JournalofAppliedPsychology77,no.5(1992):615–22,https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993–04376–001.

13.Onestudyofalgebrastudents:HarryP.BahrickandLyndaK.Hall,“LifetimeMaintenanceofHighSchoolMathematicsContent,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology:General120,no.1(1991):20–33,http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1020.7785&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

14.RajveerMeena,theGuinnessWorldRecord:“MostPiPlacesMemorised,”GuinessWorldRecords,http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/most-pi-places-memorised.

ChapterXI:Principle8—Intuition:DigDeepBeforeBuildingUp1.“amagicianofthehighestcaliber”:JamesGleick,Genius:TheLifeandScienceofRichardFeynman

(NewYork:Vintage,1993),10.2.“He’stheonlyguy”:RichardP.FeynmanandRalphLeighton,“SurelyYou’reJoking,Mr.Feynman!”:

AdventuresofaCuriousCharacter(NewYork:RandomHouse,1992),133.3.“Ihappenedtoknow”:Ibid.,p.193.4.“Ihadascheme”:Ibid.,p.85.5.Inafamousstudy,advancedPhDs:MicheleneT.H.Chi,PaulJ.Feltovich,andRobertGlaser,

“CategorizationandRepresentationofPhysicsProblemsbyExpertsandNovices,”CognitiveScience5,no.2(April1981):121–52,https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2.

6.Anotherstudy,thistime:WilliamG.ChaseandHerbertA.Simon,“PerceptioninChess,”CognitivePsychology4,no.1(January1973):55–81,http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.601.2724&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

7.Researchershaveestimated:FernandGobetandHerbertA.Simon,“ExpertChessMemory:RevisitingtheChunkingHypothesis,”Memory6,no.3(1998):225–55,https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d11f/079a1d6d3147abbb7868955a6231f4a5ba5b.pdf.

8.“If[he]hadsaid”:FeynmanandLeighton,“SurelyYou’reJoking,Mr.Feynman!,”21.9.Feynmantoldastory:Thework,whichwonthepairtheNobelPrize,demonstratedthattheuniverse

weliveinisnotmirror-imagesymmetrical.Thatistosay,therearecertainphysicalprocessesthatlookdifferentinamirrorversion.Atthetime,itwasanenormoussurprisetophysicists,whohadassumedthatthissymmetryexisted.Ibid.,249.

10.OneofEinstein’searliest:WalterIsaacson,Einstein:HisLifeandUniverse(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2008).

11.“illusionofexplanatorydepth”:RebeccaLawson,“TheScienceofCycology:FailurestoUnderstandHowEverydayObjectsWork,”Memory&Cognition34,no.8(2006):1667–75,http://gearinches.com/misc/science-of-cycology.PDF.

12.Feynman’sandEinstein’sapproach:TheartistanddesignerGianlucaGiminiplaysonthisconceptbydesigningbicyclesthatlookaspeoplethinktheyoughtto(butthatofcoursedon’twork).Youcanseesomeofhiscreationsatgianlucagimini.it/prototypes/velocipedia.html.

13.Inonestudyofthiseffect:FergusI.M.CraikandRobertS.Lockhart,“LevelsofProcessing:AFrameworkforMemoryResearch,”JournalofVerbalLearningandVerbalBehavior11,no.6(December1972):671–84,http://wixtedlab.ucsd.edu/publications/Psych%20218/Craik_Lockhart_1972.pdf.

14.Thosewhoprocessedthewords:ThomasS.HydeandJamesJ.Jenkins,“DifferentialEffectsofIncidentalTasksontheOrganizationofRecallofaListofHighlyAssociatedWords,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology82,no.3(1969):472–81,https://people.southwestern.edu/~giuliant/LOP_PDF/Hyde1969.pdf.

15.TheDunning-Krugereffectoccurs:JustinKrugerandDavidDunning,“UnskilledandUnawareofIt:HowDifficultiesinRecognizingOne’sOwnIncompetenceLeadtoInflatedSelf-Assessments,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology77,no.6(December1999):1121–34,https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e320/9ca64cbed9a441e55568797cbd3683cf7f8c.pdf.

16.“Somepeoplethink”:FeynmanandLeighton,“SurelyYou’reJoking,Mr.Feynman!,”244.17.Ihadthisuneasyfeeling:Ibid.,281.18.Withmytextbookatmyside:Youcanviewmynoteshere:

https://www.scotthyoung.com/mit/photogrammetry.pdf.19.Togetabetterhandle:Youcanviewmynoteshere:https://www.scotthyoung.com/mit/grid-accel.pdf.20.“Igotitdown”:Ibid.,141.

ChapterXII:Principle9—Experimentation:ExploreOutsideYourComfortZone1.“Youstartedtoolate”:StevenW.NaifehandGregoryWhiteSmith,VanGogh:TheLife(NewYork:

RandomHouse,2011),260.2.“Weconsideredhiswork”:Ibid.,514.3.soldformorethan$82million:JuddTully,“$82.5MillionforvanGogh;JapaneseBuyerSetsArt

AuctionRecord,”http://juddtully.net/auctions/82–5-million-for-van-gogh-japanese-buyer-sets-art-auction-record/.

4.“devouredthesebigbooks”:NaifehandSmith,VanGogh,214.5.“Scarcelyanycolorisnotgray”:Ibid.,333.6.growthmindset:CarolS.Dweck,Mindset:TheNewPsychologyofSuccess(NewYork:RandomHouse,

2008).7.Itmayalsodispel:Ihadmyownexperiencewhentryingtowritethisbook.Aspartofmyprocess,I

rereadmanyotherbookswhosestyleIwantedtoemulate.Indoingthis,athingthatsurprisedmewasthatmanysuchbookshadfarfewercitationsthanIremembered,the“seriousness”ofabookbeingmostlyamatteroftone,notofscholarship.

8.ScottAdams,thecreatorofDilbert:ScottAdams,“CareerAdvice,”Dilbert.Blog,July20,2007,http://dilbertblog.typepad.com/the_dilbert_blog/2007/07/career-advice.html.

ChapterXIV:AnUnconventionalEducation1.“Grandmastersdon’tliketolose”:ThesourceI’vebeenabletotrackdownseemstobehere:Shelby

Lyman(02–08–1987),“YoungerSistersAreAlsoProficient,”SundayTelegraph1(45).2.“threeorfourgreatchessprodigiesinhistory”:F.Lidz,“KidwithaKillerGame,”SportsIllustrated

72,no.6(1990):8–8.3.“Shehasfantasticchesstalent”:Ibid.4.“IwasplayingtheWorldChampion”:ChessLife50,(no.7–12):647.5.“Howcouldyoudothistome?”:LeonardBarden,“SweetRevengeforKasparov’sOpponent,”

Guardian,September11,2002,https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/sep/11/3.6.“Ithinkagirlofherage”:DirkJantenGeuzendam,“FindingBobbyFischer:ChessInterviewsbyDirk

JantenGeuzendam,”Alkmaar,theNetherlands:NewinChess(1994),203.7.“Ageniusisnotborn”:PeterMaass,“Home-GrownGrandmasters,”WashingtonPost,March1992.8.“[W]henIlookedatthestories”:LinnetMyers,“TrainedtoBeaGenius,Girl,16,WallopsChess

ChampSpasskyfor$110,000,”ChicagoTribune,February1993.9.“Womenareable”:PatriciaKoza,“SistersTestMaleDominationofChess,”MohaveDailyMiner,

November1986.10.“ThePolgársshowed”:G.K.KasparovandMigGreengard,HowLifeImitatesChess:MakingtheRight

Moves,fromtheBoardtotheBoardroom(NewYork:Bloomsbury,2008).11.“Havetheybeeneducated”:LászlóPolgár,RaiseaGenius!(Vancouver:self-published,2007),97,

https://docplayer.net/64270951-Raise-a-genius-by-laszlo-polgar-original-edition-laszlo-polgar-nevelj-zsenit-budapest-interviewer-endre-farkas.html.

12.“startingfrom4–5”:Ibid.,33.13.“playisnottheopposite”:Ibid.,20.14.“Followinganumber”:Ibid.,16.15.“Weshouldmake”:Ibid.,51.16.“Onethingiscertain”:Ibid.17.“oneofthemostimportant”:Ibid.,36.18.“openingpreparationwasnot”:JuditPolgár,HowIBeatFischer’sRecord(Glasgow:QualityChessUK

Ltd,2012),11.

Index

Thepaginationofthisdigitaleditiondoesnotmatchtheprinteditionfromwhichtheindexwascreated.Tolocateaspecificentry,pleaseuseyourebookreader'ssearchtools.

Adams,Scott,211AmericanRevolution,107analytics,10–11Anki,165–66arousal,taskcomplexityand,83–85artisticskills,intensivepracticeof,x–xi,xii,19–20AtomicHabits(Clear),xiiiAutobiography(Franklin),107–8,118Autor,David,28

Barone,Eric,12–15,21,23,33,91,93,117,118,139,142benchmarks,benchmarking,64–65,218Bishop,Errett,177Bjork,R.A.,125Blunt,Janell,122–23,132Bohr,Niels,178Brookhart,SusanM.,144

careers,ultralearningand:accelerationof,32changingof,32,45–46andcultivationofhiddenadvantages,32,33

Carr,GeorgeShoobridge,121,123,133challenges,self-generated,132chess:patternrecognitionin,182–83Polgársistersand,233–49sexismin,234,237–38

Chi,Michelene,95children:andpressuretoachieve,241–42ultralearningand,241–49

Cirillo,Francesco,76ncognitivecomponents,indrills,115cognitiveload,drilland,110–11,116cognitivescience,23,49collegedegrees:costvs.practicalvalueof,5,29–30,59;seealsoeducation,traditional

ComedyCellar,136competition,self-confidenceand,244,251–53conceptmapping,122–23,124,132–33concepts,inmetalearning,62copying,indrills,115–16correctivefeedback,141,144–45Cowen,Tyler,27–28Craig,Roger,9–12,21,23,33,91,93,99–100,137,163,164,165,229,251Csíkszentmihályi,Mihály,78cycling,156–57

Dalí,Salvador,197–98Davy,Humphrey,107DeclarationofIndependence,107DeepBluechesscomputer,234deliberatepractice,78,109,137–38deMontebello,Tristan,40–47,104,137,142,143,144–45,146,151,251,252DeNisi,Angelo,138–39difficulty,desirable,215–16directness(ultralearningprinciple),xi,xiii,48,87–105,222,246contextualemphasisof,90,91,97–99difficultyof,101

drilland,111–13feedbackand,144immersiveapproachin,102–3indirectlearningvs.,91,105overkillapproachto,104–5,171project-basedlearningand,101–2retrievaland,128–29simulationin,103skillsetsand,88–90transferand,97–101

directpractice,xi,157,218Direct-Then-DrillApproach,112–13,114distractions,77andchoiceoflearningtools,81–82environmentand,80–81mental,82–83

drill(ultralearningprinciple),xiii,48,106–18,223,246–47cognitivecomponentsin,115cognitiveloadand,110–11,116copyingin,115–16directnessand,111–13effective,difficultyofdesigning,113–14MagnifyingGlassMethodin,116prerequisitechainingin,116–17rate-determiningstepsand,110–11timeslicingin,114–15inultralearningvs.traditionallearning,117–18

Dunning-Krugereffect,190Duolingo,91–92,165Durant,Colby,32Dweck,Carol,207

Ebbinghaus,Hermann,159–60“EdictbytheKingofRussia,An”(Franklin),107Edison,Thomas,197education,traditional:failureoftransferin,94–97indirectlearningin,97practicalskillsdownplayedin,87–88,90,91,93–94valueof,231–32;seealsocollegedegrees

effectiveness,prioritizingof,17,26,29,36,37–39,48,49efficiency,maximizingof,10,11,32,38,39,49,127–28Einstein,Albert,72,186–87emotions,assourceofdistraction,82–83Emphasize/ExcludeMethod,65–66entrepreneurs,entrepreneurship,xii–xiiiErdős,Paul,72Ericsson,K.Anders,36,78,137,147,183nEuler,Leonhard,70“Eureka!”moments,84Everett,Dan,51–55,101experimentation(ultralearningprinciple),49,197–215,223,248–49combiningskillsin,211comparingmethodsin,209–10copyingin,208–9extremesand,211–12introducingnewconstraintsin,210–11learningresourcesand,204–5masteryand,203–4mindsetand,207–8,213–14withstyle,206tacticsfor,208–12withtechniques,205–6uncertaintyand,213–15

facts,inmetalearning,62Farkas,Endre,240FédérationInternationaledesÉchecs(FIDE)(WorldChessFederation),233feedback(ultralearningprinciple),xiii,48,135–52,223,247corrective,141,144–45difficultyoftaskand,149fearof,140,151filteringand,148–49high-intensity,150–51,152immediatevs.delayed,146–47informational,141,143–44

meta-,150outcome,141–43positivevs.negativeimpactof,138–40retrievaland,147self-provided,143–44self-testingand,123signalvs.noisein,148–49,152underuseof,140

Fehsenfeld,Diana,33Felt,Bob,155Feynman,Richard,177–81,193–94,195–96FeynmanTechnique,191–95filtering,feedbackand,148–49Fischer,Bobby,233,235five-minuterule,75–76,77flashcards,130,166flow,78–79focus(ultralearningprinciple),xiii,48,70–86,222,246arousalvs.taskcomplexityin,83–85failingtosustain,77–83;seealsodistractionsoptimallengthof,79–80procrastinatingand,seeprocrastinatingschedulesand,76–77

Foer,Joshua,174foolingoneself,understandingand,187–88,190–91,192forgetting,159–63,175–76

seealsoretentionformaldisciplinetheory,95–96forward-testingeffect,126–27Fowler,Trent,22Franklin,Benjamin,106–9,111,114,115,118free(active)recall,121–23,125,131,157,166,176

games(video),12–15Gauguin,Paul,201,206Gendler,Michael,42–45,144–45generaltheoryofrelativity,72genes,intelligenceand,36genius,34–35,177,179geneticsand,240L.Polgár'stheoryof,236,239–40

Gleick,James,179globalization,28Graham,Paul,xiv

habits,low-intensity,learningand,229–31Hardy,G.H.,119–20,121HarvestMoon(videogame),12Haskell,Robert,94,96–97,100Herschel,Caroline,71humility,learningand,256HungarianChessFederation,237hyperpolyglots,9

illusionofexplanatorydepth,187–88,192incomeinequality,28“InfluenceofImprovementinOneMentalFunctionupontheEfficiencyofOtherFunctions,The”(ThorndikeandWoodworth),95–96informationalfeedback,141,143–44instrumentallearningprojects,58intelligence,genesand,36interference,retentionand,161–62intrinsiclearningprojects,58–59intuition(ultralearningprinciple),49,177–96,223,248demystifyingof,195–96FeynmanTechniquefordeveloping,191–95problemsolvingand,seeproblemsolving

italki,166

Jaiswal,Vatsal,87–90,93James,William,119Jaunzeikare,Diana,21–22Jefferson,Thomas,107Jeopardy!(TVshow),9–12,33,91,93,99–100,137,163,165,229,251Johnston,Philip,106judgmentsoflearning(JOLs),124

Kac,Mark,177Karpicke,Jeffrey,122–23,124,132Kasparov,Garry:initialsexismof,234J.Polgár'sfirstmatchwith,234–35J.Polgár'srematchwith,238–39

keywordmnemonicmethod,173–74Kluger,Avraham,138–39knowledge,unlimitedexpansionof,256–57Kulik,Chen-LinC.,146–47Kulik,JamesA.,146–47

languagelearning,5–9,209–10immersive,ix,x,51–53,56,91,92,102metalearningand,53–54,55–56proceduralmemoryin,169

Laplace,Pierre-Simon,71,72Latin,studyof,96LawofDiminishingReturns,68Lawson,Rebecca,187–88learning:askingquestionsand,190–91coercive,244conceptmappingand,122–23,124,132–33creatinginspiringgoalsin,250–51bydoing,xi,92–93,99;seealsodirectnessfree(active)recalland,121–23,131humilityand,256immersive,17–19,102–3;seealsolanguagelearning,immersiveindirectapproachesto,91–92,97,101,105lifelong,232low-intensityhabitsfor,229–31passivereviewand,121–22,124,130prioritizingof,253–54project-based,101–2rate-determiningstepsin,109–11,112,113researchon,254–57retrievaland,seeretrievalroleplayin,243–44self-confidenceand,xiv,256technologyand,5,29–32transferand,seetransferseealsoultralearning,ultralearners

Lee,T.D.,186,187LeonardodaVinci,87,197levels-of-processingeffect,189–90Lewis,Benny,5–9,17,21,33–34,40,91,92,104–5,117,125–26,137,151,163,229lifelonglearning,232Littlewood,John,120

McKeachie,Wilbert,96MagnifyingGlassMethod,116Maini,Vishal,32,100Mair,Victor,66ManhattanProject,178MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT),onlinecourseof,1–5mastery:experimentationand,203–4ultralearnersand,100–101

mathematics,1–2,22,63,109Feynmanand,177–78,179,180,181Ramanujanand,119–21,123Somervilleand,71–73Taoand,34–36

Mauve,Anton,201Mednis,Edmar,234Meena,Rajveer,173memory,seeretentionMemrise,165metafeedback,150metalearning(ultralearningprinciple),xiii,48,51–69,203,217,222,245–46definitionof,53expertinterviewsin,59–60“How?”questionsin,58,64–65long-termeffectsof,57,68–69asmapmaking,54–56

planningtimein,66–68short-termstrategiesfor,56–69“What?”questionsin,58,61–64“Why?”questionsin,57–61

metalinguisticawareness,55mindset:experimentationand,207–8fixedvs.growth,207,213–14

MITChallenge,x,2–5,15–16,67,92,93,144,167,169,171,250,261–63mnemonics,172–75,209–10,214monolingualfieldwork,54MoonwalkingwithEinstein:TheArtandScienceofRememberingEverything(Foer),174multitasking,81

Naifeh,Steven,199Nemitrmansuk,Pakorn,156Newton,Isaac,51noise,signalvs.,148–49,152

outcomefeedback,141–43overlearning,104–5,170–72

patternrecognition,182–83,184Pavlina,Steve,21photography,x–xi,xiiphysics,178,180,181,182Picasso,Pablo,197Pike,Kenneth,54Pimsleur,165pixelart,13–14,117planning,allottingtimefor,66–68play,inlearning,243–44Polgár,Judit,233–49chessasobsessionof,238chesseducationof,235–38Kasparov'sfirstmatchwith,234–35Kasparov'srematchwith,238–39

Polgár,Klára,236,237Polgár,László,237,242coercivelearningopposedby,244daughters'chesseducationasfocusof,236–37,243daughters'generaleducationand,237educationalstrategyof,242–49geniusasviewedby,236,239–40playemphasizedby,243–44positivereinforcementpracticedby,244sexismopposedby,237–38ultralearningprinciplesusedby,245–49

Polgár,Zsófia,236,238chesseducationof,237

Polgár,Zsuzsa,236,237,238chesseducationof,237

PomodoroTechnique,76,77PoorRichard’sAlmanack(Franklin),106,108–9PortraitDrawingChallenge,265positivereinforcement,244praise,negativeimpactof,138–39prerequisitechaining,116–17problemsolving:concreteexamplesin,189–90notgivingupon,185–86patternrecognitionin,182–83,184principles-firstapproachto,182,183–84provingand,186–87

proceduralizations,167–70procedures,inmetalearning,62–63processing,levelsof,189–90procrastinating,73–77causesof,74self-recognitionof,74–75tacticsforcombating,75–77

proving,developingunderstandingthrough,186–88publicspeaking,ultralearningand,41–46PutnamMathematicsCompetition,178PythagoreanTheorem,187

questions,importanceofasking,190–91

RaiseaGenius!(Polgár),240,242Ramanujan,Srinivasa,119–21,123,133Rappard,Anthonvan,201,206rate-determiningsteps,109–11,112,113drilland,110–11

recall,free(active),121–23,125,131,157,166,176Reddit,16referencegroups,ultralearningand,252–53regionalization,28–29remembering,seeretention;retrievalresearch:allottingtimefor,66–68forultralearningprojects,217–19

resources,choosing,218retention(ultralearningprinciple),48,153–76,223,248decayovertimeof,160–61difficultyof,159–63falsememoriesand,163interferenceand,161–62lostcuesand,162–63mechanismsfor,163–75mnemonicsand,172–75overlearningand,170–72proceduralizationin,167–70spacingand,164–65

retrieval(ultralearningprinciple),48,119–34,223,247–48closed-booktacticin,132–33desirabledifficultyin,125–26directnessand,128–29feedbackand,147flashcardsand,130forward-testingeffectin,126–27free(active)recalland,121–22,131,157,166,176maximizingefficiencyin,127–28question-booktechniquein,131–32self-generatedchallengesin,132

Revit,89Richards,Nigel,153–59,164,166,176Rock,Chris,135–36,140,143RoyalAstronomicalSociety,71Ruiz-Primo,MariaAraceli,144

schedules,76–77Scrabble:French-languageversionof,153–54rulesandstrategiesof,154–56

self-confidence:competitionand,244,251–53learningand,xiv,256

self-education:directnessand,90intense,seeultralearning,ultralearnersofvanGogh,200–203,204–5,206

self-testing,121–23feedbackand,123seealsoretrieval

Shelley,Mary,216Short,Nigel,234signal,noisevs.,148–49,152skillpolarization,28skillsets,acquiringandupgradingof,88–90Smalley,Susan,83Smith,GregoryWhite,199Socraticmethod,108Somerville,Mary,70–73,77,85,86spaced-repetitionsystems(SRS),11,165–66,175spacing,retentionand,164–65Spectator,107–8StardewValley(videogame),15subjectmatter,masteryof,100–101Sujjayakorn,Panupol,156SynopsisofElementaryResultsinPureandAppliedMathematics,A(Carr),121,123

Tal,Mikhail,234talent,ultralearningand,34–37Tamu(username),22

Tao,Terence,34–35taskcomplexity,arousaland,83–85technology:learningand,5,29–32workand,28–29

10PercentRule,66–67,68Tersteeg,H.G.,198Thorndike,Edward,95–96timeslicing,114–15ToastmastersInternational,42–45topics,choosingof,217–18Toulouse-Lautrec,Henride,198Traitédemécaniquecéleste(Laplace),71,72transfer,94–99directnessand,97–101failureoftraditionaleducationtoachieve,94–97

Tyson,Mike,135

ultralearning,ultralearners,9,21alternativesto,228–32careersand,seecareers,ultralearningandchildrenand,241–49definitionof,25–26ethosof,49–50,158everydayapplicationof,23–24fosteringof,249–54instrumentalvs.intrinsicprojectsin,58–59aslifechanging,45–46L.Polgár'sstrategyfor,242–49masteryand,100–101obsessiveintensityof,26,39,133–34,157,158,176,202,241personalstoriesof,2–24,40–47,51–55,70–73,87–89,106–9,119–21,153–59,177–81,183–86,193–94,195–96,197–98,233–49,255principlesof,xiii,47–50,245–49;seealsospecificprinciplesprocessof,40–50publicspeakingand,41–46referencegroupsand,252–53asself-directed,x,xiv,25,39,49–50,145,231,241senseofselfasexpandedby,xiv–xv,33–34sharedtraitsof,22–23,26,33–34asstrategy,25,228tacticsof,12,21,38,47,49talentand,34–37timecommitmentand,37–38valueof,26–27,39

ultralearningprojects,216–32applyingprinciplesandmeasuringprogressin,221–24effortrequiredby,216–17instrumentalvs.intrinsic,58–59maintainingknowledgegainedthrough,225–26masteryofskillsgainedthrough,227–28relearningknowledgegainedthrough,227researchfor,217–19reviewingresultsof,224–25schedulingtimefor,219–21workethicof,x,46

UltraSpeaking,45uncertainty,experimentationand,213–15understanding:illusionof,187–88,190–91,192provingaspathto,186–88

UnschooledMind,The(Gardner),95

vanGogh,Vincent,197–98,200–203,204–5,206videogames,12–15VitruvianStudio,171

Watson,John,233Willingham,Daniel,153Winston,Diana,83Woodworth,Robert,95–96work,technologyand,28–29workethic,46WorldChampionshipofPublicSpeaking,43–45,104WorldChessChampionship,233–34WorldScrabbleChampionships,153,156

Woźniak,Piotr,11

Yang,C.N.,186,187“YearWithoutEnglish,The,”ix,18–19,263–65

Zenger,JohnH.,95

AbouttheAuthor

SCOTTH.YOUNGisawriterwhoundertakesinterestingself-educationprojects,suchasattemptingtolearnMIT’sfour-yearcomputersciencecurriculumintwelvemonthsandlearningfourlanguagesinoneyear.HelivesinVancouver,Canada.

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ULTRALEARNING.Copyright©2019byScottHYoung.comServicesLtd.Forewordcopyright©2019byJamesClear.AllrightsreservedunderInternationalandPan-AmericanCopyrightConventions.Bypaymentoftherequiredfees,youhavebeengrantedthenonexclusive,nontransferablerighttoaccessandreadthetextofthise-bookon-screen.Nopartofthistextmaybereproduced,transmitted,downloaded,decompiled,reverse-engineered,orstoredinorintroducedintoanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,inanyformorbyanymeans,whetherelectronicormechanical,nowknownorhereafterinvented,withouttheexpresswrittenpermissionofHarperCollinse-books.

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*Creditforthisquotehasbeengiventoahandfulofpeopleovertheyears,butIbelievetheearliestsourceisfrom1882whenastudentnamedBenjaminBrewsterwroteintheYaleLiteratureMagazine,“Iheardnomore,forIwaslostinself-reproachthatIhadbeenthevictimof‘vulgarerror.’Butafterwards,akindofhauntingdoubtcameoverme.Whatdoeshislucidexplanationamounttobutthis,thatintheorythereisnodifferencebetweentheoryandpractice,whileinpracticethereis?”

*PaulGraham,“HowtoBeanExpertinaChangingWorld,”December2014,http://www.paulgraham.com/ecw.html?viewfullsite=1.

*Technically,thetermultralearningwasfirstusedbyCalNewport,inhisheadlinetoanarticleIwroteforhiswebsiteaboutmyrecentlycompletedMITChallenge,whichhetitled“MasteringLinearAlgebrain10Days:AstoundingExperimentsinUltra-Learning.”

*Thelanguageofthespeaker,itturnedout,wasadialectofHmong,spokeninpartsofChina,Vietnam,andLaos.

*Forourpurposes,thetermsmetalinguisticawarenessandmetalearningareinterchangeable.Theliteratureisrepletewithmeta-terms(metaknowledge,metacognition,metamemory,meta-metacognition,etc.)thathaverelatedusages.

*Callsonthephonemightalsoavoidunwantedsideeffectsofface-to-facemeetings.Womenwhohavetriedthismethodhavetoldmethatoccasionallytheirintervieweemisinterprettheirdesireforlearningadviceasadate.

*ThistimemanagementmethodcomesfromanItalianmanagementconsultant,FrancescoCirillo.ItissonamedbecausepomodoroisItalianfor“tomato,”andthetimerheusedwasshapedlikeatomato.

*Directness,asI’mwritingabouthere,iscloselyrelatedtotheconceptoftransfer-appropriateprocessing,frompsychologicalliterature.

*InfairnesstoDuolingo,therearewaysofusingtheapptogetmoredirectformsofpractice,butthesetendtocomeonlyfromrepeatedlypracticingthesamelessonsonthemobileversionoftheapp.

*Modallogicisanextensionofpropositionallogic,allowingyoutoexpressideassuchas“should,”“usually,”or“possibly.”

*Itshouldbenotedthatnotallresearchersagreewiththechunkingmodel.K.AndersEricsson,thepsychologistbehinddeliberatepractice,prefersanalternativemodelcalled“Long-TermWorkingMemory.”Thedifferencesarelargelytechnical,andbothmodelspointtotheideaofexpertisebeinggainedthroughextensivecontext-specificpractice.

*CallingthistheFeynmanTechniquewaspossiblyunwise.It’sunclearifFeynmaneverusedthisexactmethod,soImayhaveinadvertentlygiventhetechniqueanillustrioushistoryitdoesn’tpossess.Inaddition,oneofFeynman’sgreatcontributionstophysicswasintheformof“FeynmanDiagrams.”So,theFeynmanTechniquecanleadtodiagrams,althoughnotnecessarilyFeynmanDiagrams!

*Thisbook,RaiseaGenius!,originallyappearedunderthetitleNevelizsenit!I’mindebtedtothebloggerScottAlexanderandhisreadersforsourcingatranslationinEnglish.