del casale et al. international journal of clinical and experimental hypnosis 2012_60(3) 286-317

8/19/2019 Del Casale Et Al. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 2012_60(3) 286-317

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Intl. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 60(3): 286–317, 2012

Copyright © International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis

ISSN: 0020-7144 print / 1744-5183 online

DOI: 10.1080/00207144.2012.675295

NEUROCOGNITION UNDER HYPNOSIS: Findings From Recent Functional

Neuroimaging Studies1

Antonio Del Casale and Stefano Ferracuti2

University of Rome “La Sapienza,” Italy

Chiara Rapinesi and Daniele Serata

University of Rome “La Sapienza” and Suore Hospitaliere of the Sacred Heartof Jesus, Viterbo, Italy

Gabriele Sani, Valeria Savoja, Georgios

D. Kotzalidis, and Roberto Tatarelli

University of Rome “La Sapienza,” Italy

Paolo Girardi

University of Rome “La Sapienza” and Suore Hospitaliere of the Sacred Heartof Jesus, Viterbo, Italy

Abstract: Functional neuroimaging studies show that hypnosis

affects attention by modulating anterior cingulate cortex activationand uncoupling conflict monitoring and cognitive control function.Considering functional changes in the activation of the occipitaland temporal cortices, precuneus, and other extrastriate visual areas,

Manuscript submitted April 20, 2011; final revision accepted April 27, 2011.1We acknowledge the aid provided by the Librarians of the School of Medicine and

Psychology of Sapienza University, Ms. Mimma Ariano, Ms. Tiziana Mattei, and Ms.Felicia Proietti, for the localization of relevant literature. Financial & Competing InterestsDisclosure: Stefano Ferracuti has in the past three years participated in advisory boardsfor Pfizer and Lilly and received honoraria from Lilly, Bristol-Meyers Squibb, Sigma Tau,

Schering, and Pfizer; Paolo Girardi has in the past three years received research sup-port from Lilly and Janssen, participated in advisory boards for Lilly, Organon, Pfizer,and Schering, and received honoraria from Lilly and Organon; Roberto Tatarelli has inthe past three years participated in advisory boards for Schering, Servier, and Pfizer, andreceived honoraria from Schering, Servier, and Pfizer. All other authors of this article haveno relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with afinancial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussedin the article. This includes employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership oroptions, expert testimony, grants or patents received or pending, or royalties. No writingassistance was utilized in the production of this article.

2Address correspondence to Antonio Del Casale, University of Rome “La Sapienza,”School of Medicine and Psychology, NESMOS Department (Neurosciences, Mental

Health, and Sensory Organs), Saint Andrea Hospital, Via di Grottarossa 1035-1039, 00189Rome, Italy. E-mail: [email protected]

286

D o w n l o a d e d b y [ A n t o n i o

D e l C a s a l e ] a t 1 2 : 4 3 0 8 J u n e 2 0 1 2


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NEUROCOGNITION UNDER HYPNOSIS 287

which account for hypnosis-induced altered reality perception, therole of mental imagery areas appears to be central under hypnosis.This is further stressed by the fact that motor commands are pro-cessed differently in the normal conscious state, deviating toward

the precuneus and extrastriate visual areas. Functional neuroimagingalso shows that posthypnotic suggestions alter cognitive processes.Further research should investigate the effects of hypnosis on otherexecutive functions and personality measures.

Hypnotic phenomena involve attention (Barnier, Cox, Connors,Langdon, & Coltheart, 2011; Karlin, 1979; Schlamann, Naglatzki,De Greiff, Forsting, & Gizewski, 2010; Tobis & Kihlstrom, 2010;Vermetten, & Christensen, 2010) and relate to self-regulation (Posner &Rothbart, 1998). The attentional network is a system of anatomical areas

carrying out the functions of alerting, orienting, and executive control(Raz & Buhle, 2006). Hypnosis can be considered as a state of focusedattention, concentration, and inner absorption with a relative suspen-sion of peripheral awareness (Laureys, Maquet, & Faymonville, 2004).It is often labeled as attentive receptive concentration (D. Spiegel, 1991;H. Spiegel & Spiegel, 1987). Indeed, evidence relating hypnotic phe-nomena to attentional mechanisms is increasing (Raz, Shapiro, Fan, &Posner, 2002a). Underlying differences in individual patterns of wakingattention seem to correlate with suggestibility (Tellegen & Atkinson,1974). Bernheim (1884/1964) first defined suggestibility as the attitudeof being influenced by an idea and implementing it. According tohim, the exaltation of this attitude is a feature of the foundation of hypnotic phenomena. Hypnosis is generally established by an induc-tion procedure. Many hypnotic inductions include suggestions forrelaxation.

Background

There is rapidly increasing interest in employing hypnosis as a toolin cognitive neuropsychological research (Oakley, Deeley, & Halligan,2007) and in using brain-imaging techniques to investigate hypno-sis and the related cognitive and behavioral phenomena (Kihlstrom,2003; Rainville & Price, 2003; Ray & Oathes, 2003; D. Spiegel, 2003;Woody & McConkey, 2003; Woody & Szechtman, 2003). Hypnosismay be used to learn more about the nature of hypnosis itself, aswell as its impact on sensation, perception, learning, memory, andphysiology. It is also a valid tool for the study of consciousness.Furthermore, it may be used to assess brain activity related to therapeu-

tic responses. Several studies used functional neuroimaging techniquesthat allow one to measure changes in brain activity associated with




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288 ANTONIO DEL CASALE ET AL.

synchronized changes in behavior or in response to a broad range of stimuli. Event-related potentials (ERP), functional magnetic resonanceimaging (fMRI), magneto-encephalography (MEG), positron emissiontomography (PET), and single photon emission computed tomography(SPECT) can all measure changes in brain activity. These neuroimagingprobes have been employed in the studies of hypnotic phenomenawith fascinating results. In this article, we outline the recent findingsrelating cognitive and behavioral phenomena associated with hypno-sis, focusing on how the functional neuroimaging studies can leadto understanding of this altered state of consciousness and cognition.Although most studies have used positron emission tomography (pet)in combination with hypnosis, the recent investigation of hypnosisthrough functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) boasted scien-tific interest; in fact, fMRI is becoming the neuroimaging technique of choice for investigating phenomena affected by hypnosis, such as mem-ory, consciousness, and pain. In contrast to PET, fMRI is not invasiveand does not expose the subject to radiation, which allows investiga-tors to use the same individual for repeat scans in a short period of time. However, fMRI is performed in an unpleasant setting, involvinga noisy machine, a claustrophobic, narrow space offered to the experi-mental subject, which may interfere with the very process of induction.Another unorthodox procedure involves instructions and suggestionsto the participant carried out remotely via earphones. Despite the above

issues, Oakley et al. investigated the potential adverse effects of thefMRI environment, concluding that hypnosis and suggestion withinhypnosis are reliable in fMRI neuroimaging studies.

We here review the principal functional neuroimaging studies of neurocognition under hypnosis, aiming to identify similar differencesacross studies between normal and hypnotic states and remark dif-ferences between highly and lowly hypnotizable persons, as well asto point out changes in brain functional connectivity occurring underhypnosis.

Method

We searched Medline and PsycInfo databases using as terms: hypno-sis, trance, attention, (neuro)cognition, motor control, mental imagery,memory and related terms, consciousness, event-related potentials(ERPs), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emis-sion tomography (PET), near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), magneto-encephalography (MEG), and single photon emission computedtomography (SPECT). Papers were included if they satisfied standards

for adequate methodology and inclusion criteria. Papers were excludedif they focused on hypnotic modulation of pain and hypnotic-induced




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analgesia, because of the confounding effects of tasks, demand char-acteristics, and performance expectations. Exclusion criteria com-prised inadequate methodology (method unspecified or inadequatelydescribed) and unspecified inclusion criteria. Papers published in peer-reviewed journals dealing with functional neuroimaging during hyp-notic states were included. Most of these studies were published in thelast 10 years. Further papers that did not appear in the above databaseswere searched from reference lists of retrieved papers. We list the mainstudies we considered in Table 1.

Conflict Monitoring Under Hypnosis and the Roleof the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) and Other

Attention-Modulating Areas

Hypnosis can deeply modify sensory awareness and cognitive pro-cessing. Individual differences in hypnotizability should be relatedto differences in executive attentional control (Egner, Jamieson, &Gruzelier, 2005). Fuster (1997) postulated that frontal lobes play akey role in attention focusing and directing during hypnotic trance,modulating subcortical neural networks.

Together with the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the thalamusis involved in attention, cortical arousal, mood, self-regulation, and

awareness. Previous studies showed coactivation in these areas follow-ing the induction of hypnosis (Maquet et al., 1999; Rainville et al., 1999).Brainstem nuclei are also critically involved in regulating consciousstates, constituting part of a neurocircuitry with the thalamus andthe ACC that regulates sleep-wakefulness and attention (Aston-Jones,Rajkowski, & Cohen, 1999; Kinomura, Larsson, Gulyas, & Roland, 1996;Steriade & McCarley, 1990). The serial pattern of regional CerebralBlood Flow (rCBF) changes in the brainstem, the thalamus, and theACC may reflect the interrelationships between the multiple compo-nents of a network (Paus et al., 1997) and may be linked to the sense

of “mental absorption.” The coactivation of the ACC and the ponto-mesencephalic brainstem may reflect the contribution of the ACC to theregulation of attention-related activity in the locus coeruleus (Cohen,Botvinick, & Carter, 2000).

Rainville, Hofbauer, Bushnell, Duncan, and Price (2002) showedincreases in mental relaxation, correlating with rCBF decreasesin the mesencephalic tegmentum of the brainstem and withincreases in the middle and perigenual ACC. Increases in absorp-tion were correlated with rCBF increases in the thalamus andin the rostral and perigenual ACC. In the same study, theauthors reported relaxation-specific, negative correlations in the




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T a b l e 1

M a i n F u n c t i o n a l N e u r o i m a g i n g S t u d

i e s A b o u t N e u r o c o g n i t i o n a n d H

y p n o s i s

S t u d

y

T e c h n i q u e

P a r t i c i p a n t s

P r o c e d u r e

G e n e r a l fi n d i n g s

D i e h

l e t a l . ,

1 9

8 9

P E T

1 3 3 X e , i n h a l e d

S t i m u l i -

i n d u c i n g

t a s k

1 2

h e a l t h y

s u b j e c t s

H y p n o s i s w

i t h e f f e c t i v e l y p e r f o r m e d

l e v i t a t i o n

a n d p e r s i s t e n t c a t a l e p s y

o f t h e r i g h

t a r m c o m p a r e d t o

h y p n o s i s w i t h u n s u c c e s s f u l

c a t a l e p s y

o f t h e s a m e a r m .

I n

a d d i t i o n t o g l o b a l c o r t i c a l b l o

o d

p e r f u s i o n i n c r e a s e s , f r o n t o t e m

p o r a l

R o l a n d i c a n d p r e - R o l a n d i c a r e a s s h o w

m a x i m u m p e r f u s i o n l e v e l s i n

t h e r i g h t

h e m i s p h e r e d u r i n g c a t a l e p s y

o f t h e r i g h t

a r m u n d e r h y p n o s i s , s i g n i fi c a

n t l y

d i f f e r e n t f r o m u n t r a i n e d s u b j e c t s .

G r o n d e t a l . ,

1 9

9 5

P E T 2 [ 1 8 F ] fl u o r o - 2 -

d e o x y - o -

g l u c o s e i . v .

1 5

H H s u b j e c t s

D

r u g - f r e e

A

l l r i g h t - h a n d e d

8

f e m a l e , 7 m a l e

M

e a n A g e =

2 7

y e a r s

( S

D =

4 . 5 y e a r s )

H y p n o t i c c a

t a l e p s y o f t h e w h o l e

b o d y , e x c l

u d i n g t h e c a t h e t e r i z e d

a r m , i n d u c e d 1 0 – 1 5 m i n . b e f o r e

t r a c e r i n j e

c t i o n a n d m a i n t a i n e d f o r

2 5 – 3 5 m i n

. w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e

f r o m t h e t h e r a p i s t . P a r t i c i p a n t s

w e r e i n s t r

u c t e d t o l e t t h e i r

t h o u g h t s fl u c t u a t e w i t h o u t

f o c u s i n g o

n a p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e

d u r i n g t h e P E T s c a n . S u b s e q u e n t l y ,

t h e y w e r e

i n t e r v i e w e d a b o u t

m e n t a l a c t i v i t y , a n d a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s

d e n i e d a n

y f o c u s e d m e n t a l a c t i v i t y .

D u r i n g p r

e - P E T h y p n o s i s s e s s i o n s ,

t h e s a m e i n s t r u c t i o n s h a d b e e n

g i v e n f o r t r a i n i n g .

M

a r k e d d e p r e s s i o n o f v i s u a l a n d

p a r a v i s u a l c o r t i c e s .

M

o d e r a t e a c t i v a t i o n s e n s o r i m o t o r a r e a s

( s e n s o r i m o t o r a n d s u p e r i o r p a r i e t a l

c o r t e x , b a s a l g a n g l i a , t h a l a m u

s , a n d

c e r e b e l l u m ) .

B

e y o n d g l o b a l r e c r u i t m e n t , l o w

e r o r

i n c o n s i s t e n t a c t i v a t i o n i n f r o n

t a l ,

t e m p o r a l , n e o c o r t i c a l a n d l i m b i c r e g i o n s .




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M a q

u e t

e t

a l . , 1 9 9 9

P E T H 2 1 5 O i . v .

S t i m u l i -

i n d u c i n g

t a s k

1 5

h e a l t h y H H

s u b j e c t s A l l

r i g h t - h a n d e d

E X P E R I M E N T 1 :

9

h e a l t h y H H

s u b j e c t s

7 f e m a l e ,

2 m a l e

M

e a n A g e =

3 0 . 7

y e a r s ( r a n g e :

2 3 – 3 8 y e a r s )

E X P E R I M E N T 2 :

6

h e a l t h y H H

s u b j e c t s

4 f e m a l e ,

2 m a l e

M

e a n A g e =

2 9 . 3

y e a r s ( r a n g e :

2 4 – 3 9 )

E X P E R I M E N T 1 : E a c h s u b j e c t w a s

s c a n n e d t w i c e i n e a c h o f t h r e e

c o n d i t i o n s , u n d e r u n i n t e r r u p t e d

p o l y g r a p h

i c m o n i t o r i n g .

C o n d i t i o n I

— A l e r t s t a t e w i t h

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n :

l i s t e n i n g t

o s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g

p l e a s a n t i n f o r m a t i o n t a k e n f r o m

t h e p a s t o f e a c h s u b j e c t , w h i c h

r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n s t o i m a g i n e

w h a t h a p p e n e d i n t h e d e s c r i b e d

s i t u a t i o n s . T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e u r g e d

n o t t o t r y t o e n t e r a h y p n o t i c s t a t e .

C o n d i t i o n I

I — H S : T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e

s c a n n e d a

f t e r h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n .

H S w a s c o

n s i d e r e d t o b e e f f e c t i v e

w h e n r o v i n g e y e m o v e m e n t s w e r e

o b s e r v e d o n o c u l o g r a p h y a n d i f ,

j u s t b e f o r e t h e s c a n , t h e s u b j e c t

r e s p o n d e d b y a f o o t m o v e m e n t t h a t

h e o r s h e f e l t i n H S . D u r i n g t h e H S ,

s u b j e c t s w

e r e i n v i t e d t o h a v e

r e v i v i fi c a t i o n o f p l e a s a n t l i f e

e x p e r i e n c e s .

E X P E R I M E N T 1 : S i g n i fi c a n t i n c

r e a s e s i n

r C B F d u r i n g h y p n o s i s ( C o n d i t i o n s I I

a n d I I I ) , a s c o m p a r e d t o n o r m

a l a l e r t n e s s

( C o n d i t i o n I ) i n f o u r r e g i o n s . T h e l a r g e s t

e x c u r s i o n s w e r e l e f t - s i d e d a n d i n v o l v e d

e x t r a s t r i a t e v i s u a l c o r t e x ( B A 1 8 , 1 9 , 3 7 ) ,

i n f e r i o r p a r i e t a l l o b u l e ( B A 4 0

) ,

p r e c e n t r a l a n d a d j a c e n t p r e m o t o r

( B A 6 ) c o r t e x , a n d d e e p V L P F

C ( B A 4 5 ) ,

c l o s e t o t h e I C . T h e s e c o n d a r e a w a s

r i g h t - s i d e d a n d i n v o l v e d d e e p c e r e b e l l a r

n u c l e i a n d p r e s t r i a t e c o r t e x ( B

A 1 8 ) . T h e

t w o l a s t a r e a s w e r e r i g h t A C C

( B A

2 4 / 3 2 ) a n d l e f t O T C ( B A 3 7 ) . S i g n i fi c a n t

d e c r e a s e s i n r C B F d u r i n g h y p

n o s i s a s

c o m p a r e d t o n o r m a l a l e r t n e s s

w e r e

o b s e r v e d i n l e f t t e m p o r a l c o r t

e x ( B A 2 0 ,

2 1 , 3 8 , 3 9 ) , r i g h t t e m p o r a l c o r t e x ( B A 2 1 ,

2 2 ) , m P F C ( B A 8 , 9 , 1 0 ) , P C C ( B A

3 9 ) a n d a d j a c e n t p r e c u n e u s ( B

A 7 ) , r i g h t

p r e m o t o r c o r t e x ( B A 6 / 8 ) , a n d

r i g h t

c e r e b e l l a r h e m i s p h e r e . N o s i g

n i fi c a n t l y

d i f f e r e n t r C B F v a r i a t i o n s d u r i n g

h y p n o s i s b e t w e e n t h e f o r c e d c o l o r

s u g g e s t i o n a n d n o c o l o r s u g g e s t i o n .

( C o n t i n u e d )




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T a b l e 1

( C o n

t i n u e d )

S t u d

y

T e c h n i q u e


P r o c e d u r e


C o n d i t i o n I I I — H y p n o s i s w i t h f o r c e d

c o l o r h a l l u c i n a t i o n s : W h i l e i n H S ,

t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e a s k e d t o c e n t e r o n

t h e i r f a v o r i t e c o l o r s a n d t o v i e w

s e t t i n g s a n d m a t t e r i n t h e s e c o l o r s .

S c a n w a s a l s o a c q u i r e d a f t e r t h e y

m a n i f e s t e d b y a f o o t m o v e m e n t

t h a t h e o r

s h e a c t u a l l y s u c c e e d e d i n

a t t a i n i n g t h e t a r g e t e d c o l o r s .

E X P E R I M E N T 2 : a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

c o n d i t i o n

c o n t r a s t e d t o a R S .

C o n d i t i o n I

V — R e s t : S u b j e c t s w e r e

s c a n n e d i n a R S a n d a s k e d t o c l e a r

t h e i r m i n d

.

C o n d i t i o n V

— A u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l :

E q u a l t o t h e c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n o f

t h e fi r s t e x p e r i m e n t .

E X P E R I M E N T 2 : S i g n i fi c a n t b i l a t e r a l

i n c r e a s e i n r C B F ( T a b l e 2 ) d u r

i n g t h e

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l c o n d i t i o n ( V

) , a s

c o m p a r e d t o t h e r e s t c o n d i t i o n ( I V ) , i n

t e m p o r a l p o l e s ( B A 3 8 ) , S T G ( B A 4 2 ) ,

a n d M T G ( B A 2 1 a n d 2 2 ) , a n d

a r e g i o n

l o c a t e d n e a r t h e b a s a l f o r e b r a i n . O n t h e

l e f t s i d e , s i g n i fi c a n t i n c r e a s e s

i n t h e l e f t

e n t o r h i n a l c o r t e x , a n d i n t h e p

r e m o t o r

c o r t e x ( B A 6 ) .

K o s s l y n

e t

a l . , 2 0 0 0

P E T [ 1 5 O ] C O 2 i . v .

S t i m u l i -

i n d u c i n g

t a s k

8 h e a l t h y H H

s u b j e c t s :

6 f e m a l e ,

2 m a l e

M

e a n A g e =

2 4 y e a r s

( r a n g e :

2 0 – 3 5 y e a r s )

F o u r t a s k s a

f t e r h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n

a n d f o u r t

a s k s w i t h n o h y p n o t i c

i n d u c t i o n :

1 . S u b j e c t s w e r e s h o w n t h e c o l o r

s t i m u l u s a

n d a s k e d t o p e r c e i v e i t

v e r i d i c a l l y ;

L e f t I T G ( B A 2 0 ) , l e f t F u s i f o r m g y r u s

( B A 1 9 ) , a n d r i g h t F u s i f o r m g y r u s

( B A 3 7 ) w e r e a c t i v a t e d m o r e w h e n t h e

s u b j e c t s w e r e t o l d t o v i e w v e r

i d i c a l l y a

c o l o r s t i m u l u s t h a n w h e n t h e y w e r e t o l d

t o v i e w v e r i d i c a l l y a g r a y - s c a l e s t i m u l u s .

I n t h e L e f t F u s i f o r m R e g i o n , n o

r m a l i z e d

r C B F w a s g r e a t e r w h e n a c o l o

r s t i m u l u s

w a s d i s p l a y e d t h a n w h e n a g r a y - s c a l e

s t i m u l u s w a s d i s p l a y e d a n d w

a s g r e a t e r

w h e n t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e i n s t r u

c t e d t o




8/32


2 . S u b j e c t s w

e r e s h o w n t h e c o l o r

s t i m u l u s b

u t a s k e d t o d r a i n t h e

c o l o r f r o m

i t , v i s u a l i z i n g t h e

s t i m u l u s a

s i f i t w e r e i n s h a d e s o f

g r a y ;

3 . S u b j e c t s w e r e s h o w n t h e

g r a y - s c a l e

s t i m u l u s a n d a s k e d t o

p e r c e i v e i t a s i t w a s ;

4 . S u b j e c t s w e r e s h o w n t h e

g r a y - s c a l e

s t i m u l u s b u t a s k e d t o

a d d c o l o r , v i s u a l i z i n g i t a s i f i t w e r e

a c o l o r s t i m u l u s .

p e r c e i v e c o l o r t h a n w h e n t h e y

w e r e

i n s t r u c t e d t o p e r c e i v e g r a y s c a l e .

H o w e v e r , t h e i n s t r u c t i o n t o p e r c e i v e

c o l o r r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r b l o o d

fl o w o n l y

i n t h e h y p n o s i s c o n d i t i o n .

I n t h e R i g h t F u s i f o r m R e g i o n , g

r e a t e r

r C B F r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n s t r u c t i o

n t o

p e r c e i v e c o l o r , c o m p a r e d t o t h

e

i n s t r u c t i o n t o p e r c e i v e s h a d e s

o f g r a y .

W i l l i a m s o n

e t

a l . , 2 0 0 2

S P E C T

9 9 m T c -

E t h y l c y s t -

e i n a t e d i m e r ,

i . v .

9 h e a l t h y

s u b j e c t s :

5

H H f e m a l e

4

L H f e m a l e

a g e d 2 3 ±

2 . 1 y e a r s

8 r i g h t - h a n d e d

S u b j e c t s s c r e e n e d f o r h y p n o t i z a b i l i t y

w e r e t e s t e

d u n d e r t w o c o n d i t i o n s

i n v o l v i n g

3 m i n . o f ( a ) s t a t i c H G a t

3 0 % o f M V C a n d ( b ) I - H G a t 3 0 % o f

M V C .

I n

c o m p a r i s o n o f r C B F , t h e L H s h o w e d

s i g n i fi c a n t l y l o w e r a c t i v i t y i n

t h e A C C

a n d I C d u r i n g I - H G . T h e s e fi n

d i n g s

s u g g e s t t h a t c a r d i o v a s c u l a r r e

s p o n s e s

e l i c i t e d d u r i n g i m a g i n e d e x e r c i s e

i n v o l v e c e n t r a l a c t i v a t i o n o f I C a n d

A C C , i n d e p e n d e n t o f m u s c l e

a f f e r e n t

f e e d b a c k ; t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a p p

e a r t o

h a v e k e y r o l e s i n t h e c e n t r a l m

o d u l a t i o n

o f c a r d i o v a s c u l a r r e s p o n s e s . D

i f f e r e n c e s

i n b r a i n a c t i v a t i o n f o r a c t u a l a

n d

i m a g i n e d h a n d g r i p f o r H H S a n d L H S :

S P E C T d a t a f o r t h e H H S s h o w

s t h e

s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n a c t u a l a n

d i m a g e d

h a n d g r i p ( n o s i g n i fi c a n t c h a n g e s ) .

S i g n i fi c a n t d e c r e a s e s i n a c t i v a

t i o n f o r

b o t h A C C a n d I C f o r t h e L H S

, w h o d i d

n o t m a n i f e s t c a r d i o v a s c u l a r r e s p o n s e

m o d i fi c a t i o n s d u r i n g i m a g i n e

d

h a n d g r i p .





9/32


T a b l e 1

( C o n

t i n u e d )

S t u d

y

T e c h n i q u e


P r o c e d u r e


R a i n

v i l l e

e t

a l . , 2 0 0 2

P E T H 2 1 5 O

S t i m u l i -

i n d u c i n g

t a s k

1 0

h e a l t h y

s u b j e c t s 4 m a l e ,

6 f e m a l e

A l l r i g h t - h a n d e d

H y p n o t i c i n

d u c t i o n s t a r t e d

i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r S c a n 4 a n d w a s

s u s t a i n e d

i n t h e r e m a i n i n g s c a n s b y

r e p e a t i n g

t h e f o l l o w i n g i n d u c t i o n

i n s t r u c t i o n s b e t w e e n s c a n s : ( a )

I n c r e a s e d

p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l

r e l a x a t i o n

; ( b ) c o m f o r t a b l e f e e l i n g

o f w a r m t h

, h e a v i n e s s , a n d

d r o w s i n e s s ; ( c ) s u s t a i n e d p a s s i v e

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ’ s

v o i c e a n d

t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s ; a n d

( d ) d e c r e a

s e d c o n c e r n w i t h , a n d

o r i e n t a t i o n t o , e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l

( m e n t a l ) s

o u r c e s o f d i s t r a c t i o n .

N o s p e c i fi

c i n s t r u c t i o n f o r v i s u a l

i m a g e r y w

a s i n c l u d e d .

R e l i a b i l i t y o f h y p n o s i s - r e l a t e d c

h a n g e s i n

r C B F : r C B F i n c r e a s e s i n b o t h o c c i p i t a l

l o b e s , t h e r i g h t S y l v i a n r e g i o n

( p e a k s i n

t h e I F G a n d S T G ) , t h e l e f t I C ( m o r e

a n t e r i o r a n d b i l a t e r a l i n t h e p r e s e n t

s t u d y ) , a n d t h e r i g h t A C C .

M

e n t a l R e l a x a t i o n - a n d

A b s o r p t i o n - R e l a t e d E f f e c t s : I n

c r e a s e s i n

m e n t a l r e l a x a t i o n w e r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h

r C B F d e c r e a s e s i n t h e m e s e n c e p h a l i c

t e g m e n t u m o f t h e b r a i n s t e m a n d w i t h

i n c r e a s e s i n t h e m i d d l e a n d p e r i g e n u a l

A C C . I n c r e a s e s i n a b s o r p t i o n

w e r e

c o r r e l a t e d w i t h r C B F i n c r e a s e

s i n t h e

t h a l a m u s a n d i n t h e r o s t r a l a n

d

p e r i g e n u a l A C C .




10/32


E g n e r e t a l . ,

2 0

0 5

f M R I

E v e n t - r e l a t e d

S t r o o p t a s k

2 2

h e a l t h y

s u b j e c t s :

1 0 f e m a l e ,

1 2 m a l e

M

e a n A g e =

2 6 . 5 y e a r s

( S D =

5 . 6 )

H

H S : 1 1 s u b j e c t s

L H S : 1 1 s u b j e c t s


E v e n t - r e l a t e

d f M R I a n d E E G

c o h e r e n c e

m e a s u r e s .

S t r o o p t a s k

p e r f o r m a n c e b e t w e e n

H H S a n d

L H S a t b a s e l i n e a n d a f t e r

h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n .

C o n fl i c t - r e l a t e d A C C a c t i v i t y i n

t e r a c t e d

w i t h h y p n o s i s a n d h y p n o t i c

s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . H H S d i s p l a y e d

i n c r e a s e d

c o n fl i c t - r e l a t e d n e u r a l a c t i v i t y

i n t h e

h y p n o s i s c o n d i t i o n c o m p a r e d

t o

b a s e l i n e , a s w e l l a s w i t h r e s p e

c t t o

s u b j e c t s w i t h l o w s u s c e p t i b i l i t y .

C o g n i t i v e - c o n t r o l r e l a t e d L F C

a c t i v i t y

d i d n o t d i f f e r b e t w e e n g r o u p s a n d

c o n d i t i o n s . T h e s e d a t a w e r e

c o m p l e m e n t e d b y a d e c r e a s e i n

f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i v i t y ( E E G g a m m a

b a n d c o h e r e n c e ) b e t w e e n f r o n

t a l

m i d l i n e a n d l e f t l a t e r a l s c a l p s i t e s i n

H H S a f t e r h y p n o s i s .

B

y m e a n s o f a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a

n c e :

R

e l a x a t i o n - s p e c i fi c n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s

w e r e f o u n d i n t h e b r a i n s t e m , i n t h e

t h a l a m u s , a n d i n t h e S F G i n a

c l u s t e r o f

s i g n i fi c a n t v o x e l s e x t e n d i n g o

v e r t h e

r o s t r a l A C C . A b s o r p t i o n - s p e c

i fi c e f f e c t s

c o n fi r m e d t h e s i g n i fi c a n t p o s i t i v e

c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m e n t a l a b s o r p t i o n

a n d r C B F i n t h e t h a l a m u s a n d i n t h e

r o s t r a l A C C a n d f u r t h e r r e v e a

l e d a

s i g n i fi c a n t p o s i t i v e p e a k i n t h e u p p e r

p o n s o f t h e b r a i n s t e m .





11/32


T a b l e 1

( C o n

t i n u e d )

S t u d

y

T e c h n i q u e


P r o c e d u r e


R a z

e t a l . ,

2 0

0 5

f M R I

C o n fl i c t t a s k

1 6

h e a l t h y

s u b j e c t s ;

8

H H S : 4 m a l e ,

4 f e m a l e

8 L H S : 4 m a l e ,

4 f e m a l e ;

A

g e 2 0 – 3 5 y e a r s

( M e a n =

2 7 y e a r s )


S t i m u l i c o n s i s t e d o f a n E n g l i s h w o r d

p r i n t e d i n

o n e o f f o u r i n k c o l o r s

( r e d , b l u e , g r e e n , o r y e l l o w )

a p p e a r i n g

a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e

c o m p u t e r

s c r e e n w i t h a b l a c k

fi x a t i o n c r

o s s . A f t e r a s t a n d a r d

h y p n o t i c i n d u c t i o n , a p o s t h y p n o t i c

s u g g e s t i o n w a s v e r b a l l y p r e s e n t e d

t o a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s t o s t u d y h o w

s u g g e s t i o n a f f e c t s c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l

b y m o d u l a t i n g a c t i v i t y i n s p e c i fi c

b r a i n a r e a

s .

B e h a v i o r a l r e s u l t s a c q u i r e d t h r o

u g h o u t

f M R I s c a n s r e v e a l e d a r e d u c t i

o n i n

S t r o o p c o n fl i c t f o r t h e H H g r o

u p a s a

f u n c t i o n o f s u g g e s t i o n b u t s h o w e d n o

p e r f o r m a n c e d i f f e r e n c e s f o r t h e L H

g r o u p . W h e r e a s f o r t h e L H g r o u p , A C C

a c t i v a t i o n w a s n o t r e d u c e d u p

o n

s u g g e s t i o n , w i t h i n t h e H H g r o u p

s u g g e s t i o n e l i c i t e d a s i g n i fi c a n t

r e d u c t i o n i n A C C a c t i v a t i o n . A n f M R I

s i g n a l r e d u c t i o n i n p o s t e r i o r b

r a i n

a c t i v i t y w i t h i n a n e x t r a s t r i a t e

v i s u a l a r e a

w a s f o u n d i n t h e h i g h l y h y p n

o t i z a b l e

g r o u p .

H a l s b a n d ,

2 0

0 6

P E T H 2 1 5 O i . v .

V e r b a l

e p i s o d i c

m e m o r y t a s k

7 h e a l t h y H H

s u b j e c t s

M

e a n A g e =

2 5 . 4 y e a r s

( S D =

3 . 1 )


D u r i n g e n c o

d i n g , s u b j e c t s w e r e

v i s u a l l y p

r e s e n t e d 1 2 w o r d p a i r s .

A f t e r w a r d

s , t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e

a s k e d t o r e t r i e v e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

w o r d - p a i r

a s s o c i a t e a f t e r h a v i n g

b e e n r a n d

o m l y p r e s e n t e d t h e fi r s t

o f t h e t w o

w o r d s o f e a c h w o r d p a i r

( r e t r i e v a l )

. T h e w o r d p a i r s w e r e

s e m a n t i c a

l l y u n r e l a t e d �

del casale et al. international journal of clinical and experimental hypnosis 2012_60(3) 286-317

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