delivering development after 2015

8/11/2019 Delivering Development After 2015

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1 Center for American Progress | Delivering Development After 2015

Delivering Development After 2015

By Molly Elgin-Cossart August 25, 2014

World leaders are se o mee in Sepember 2015 o agree on a se o goals o replace

he Millennium Developmen Goals, which will expire in 2015. People rom all over

he world have been engaged in opining, discussing, debaing, and even voing on wha

hose new goals should be.1

While significan atenion is being paid o he vision o he pos-2015 agenda, less

atenion has ocused on he deails o how o achieve his vision by 2030, he assumed

deadline or he nex se o goals.

Forunaely, he conversaion is now urning rom he wha o he how wih

he recen announcemen o he Tird Inernaional Conerence on Financing or

Developmen, or FFD, conerence o ake place in July 20152in Addis Ababa, jus ahead

o he Sepember 2015 U.N. summi o adop he pos-2015 ramework.

Te Addis conerence will ocus on channeling he resources and ools necessary oachieve he new se o developmen goals. Te proposed goals3submited o he U.N.

General Assembly cover a broad range o issues, rom economic growh o social issues

o global public goods. Te pos-2015 agenda will be much more ambiious han he

MDGs. o have any chance o realizing his vision, a jus-as-ambiious plan or financing

and implemenaion is needed.

Te MDGs financing and implemenaion policies were no agreed upon unil

he 2002 Monerrey Consensus o he Inernaional Conerence on Financing or

Developmenwo years afer he Millennium Declaraion, which se ou commi-

mens or povery eradicaion, developmen, and he environmen, was signed.10

Holding he financing conversaion earlier in he process is a welcome developmen,

one proposed by he High Level Panel on Pos-2015on which CAP ounder and or-

mer Chair John Podesa servedwhich called or a conerence in he firs hal o 2015

o address in pracical erms how o finance he pos-2015 agenda.11


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The road to Addis

Te governmen o Ehiopia, as he hos counry, will play a pivoal role in shaping

he Addis conerence and is oucome, hough he precise naure o ha roleand

Ehiopias role in he process leading up o he conerenceremain unclear. In many

ways, Ehiopia is ideally suied o hos a conerence on financing inclusive and susain-

able developmen, wih enormous gross domesic produc, or GDP, growh; one o

Aricas larges social proecion programs;16and a Climae-Resilien Green Economy

Sraegy17

o achieve carbon-neural middle-income counry saus by 2025.

Te Inergovernmenal Commitee o Expers on Susainable Developmen Financing

has issued is repor, which esablishes he empirical oundaion or he conerences

oucome documen and oulines policy opions ha could be developed ino he financ-

ing deal ha will underpin he pos-2015 agenda.18Nongovernmenal organizaions and

oher groups, such as he World Economic Forum, have issued repors on financing and

he pos-2015 agenda ha will also provide useul background.19

Te oucome documen or he Addis conerence will be negoiaed in advance, wih

U.N. diplomas discussing and drafing hroughou he winer o 2014 and early spring

o 2015 and producing a firs draf in February 2015 ha will serve as he reerence

poin or negoiaions a he conerence isel.

Consulaions60 o which have been proposed20will generae addiional inpu on

he conerence oucome documen, wih meeings beginning his all and coninuing

hrough January 2015. Te Norwegian and Guyanese U.N. ambassadors will aciliae

he process and preparaions or he conerence and aim o balance he ineress o

developed and developing counries.

FIGURE 1

Millennium Development Goals mobilize

increase in official development assistance

Total ODA commitments from all donors

in current prices (in billions of dollars)

Source: OECD.Stat Extracts, "Creditor Reporting System," available at http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?datasetcode=CRS1#

(last accessed August 2014).

$0

$50,000

$100,000

$150,000

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

$47,582.60

$171,951.15


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Te conerence isel will be atended by heads o sae and min-

isers o finance, oreign affairs, developmen, and rade, who will

negoiae any changes o he oucome documen and hen adop i

as he major reerence poin or inernaional developmen coopera-

ion going orward.

Conerence paricipaion is open o all U.N. member saes, spe-cialized agencies, and observers in he U.N. General Assembly.

Following he models or openness and paricipaion used in previ-

ous inernaional conerences, civil sociey groups, business acors,

and organizaions are also invied o atend and o aciliae heir

own mulisakeholder evens in boh New York and Addis around

he summi.21Te involvemen o nongovernmenal acors can

bolser he ambiion o he final oucome and provide a plaorm o

launch o exernal iniiaives ha complemen and srenghen he

inergovernmenal agreemen.

Alhough he greaer par o he FFD negoiaions will ake place in

New York leading up o he Addis conerence, a wider audience

especially naional governmensneed o be meaningully engaged

or he conerence o be a success. Expec o see discussions abou

pos-2015 financing a boh he all and spring annual meeings

o he World Bank and he Inernaional Moneary Fund, or IMF;

he World Economic Forum meeing in Davos nex January; side

meeings a he G-20 meeing in Brisbane; and a he G-7 mee-

ing in June 2015. Te BRICS counriesBrazil, Russia, India,

China, and Souh Aricaalready reerenced he process in heForaleza Declaraion,22which announced he New Developmen

Bank and could play an imporan role in developmen financing

needs.23Tere will also be a high-level Organisaion or Economic

Co-operaion and Developmen, or OECD, developmen finance

meeing in December 2014 ha will ocus on ODA.

Key issues for negotiators to address

Alhough he global economys recovery rom he 2008 crisis has

been slow, he oulook or global developmen is no quie as dire as

i may seem. Developing counries coninue o grow much aser han

developed counries; non-ODA sources o financing, such as oreign

direc invesmen, or FDI, coninue o grow; and as a resul o imple-

mening he MDGs or he pas 15 years, here is more knowledge

abou how o use developmen resources wisely.

September 16, 2014

Opening of the 69th session of the U.N. General

Assembly.

October 1012, 2014

Annual World Bank and International Monetary

Fund meetings, Washington, D.C.

November 1516, 2014

G-20 Leaders Summit, Brisbane, Australia.

November 30, 2014

U.N. secretary-generals synthesis report on

the post-2015 development agenda presented

to the U.N. General Assembly.

December 1516, 2014

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development DAC High-Level Meeting, Paris, Franc

January 2124, 2015

World Economic Forum, Davos, Switzerland.

April 1719, 2015

2015 spring meetings of the World Bank and

International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C.

June 45, 2015

G-7 Annual Heads of State and Government

Meeting, Schloss Elmau, Germany.

July 1316, 2015

Financing for development meeting, Addis Ababa

Ethiopia.

September 1528, 2015

70th session of the U.N. General Assembly,

New York, New York.

November 30December 11, 2015

21st Conference of the Parties to the U.N. Framewo

Convention on Climate Change, Paris, France.

December 2015

10th World Trade Organization Ministerial

Conference.

Timeline for the Financingfor Development process


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While he Addis conerence is reerred o as he financing or developmen conerence,

money is only par o he sory. Tere are many poenial sources o developmen financ-

ing and invesmen, bu he sraegies, insiuions, and policies ha help o increase,

improve, and channel unds, align incenives, and drive acion oward goals ha improve

he lives o people and proec he naural environmen are equally imporan.

Te Monerrey Consensus provides a good sar or he FFD financing discussion. Iincludes airly comprehensive coverage o he range o financial flows or developmen,

including domesic financial resources, inernaional public financing, and inernaional

rade, and addresses sysemic issues. I will need o be updaed, however, o reflec he

needs o he pos-2015 agendaespecially he greaer ocus on global public goods and

joinly ackling economic, social, and environmenal challenges.

Improving domestic resource mobilization

Mobilizing domesic resources is he main mechanism or achieving goals a henaional level. Te good news is ha developing counries are growing, and his GDP

growh has he poenial o generae increased unds or healh, educaion, and oher

core componens o developmen.24Bu oo ofen, developing counries lack he capac-

iy and sysems o collec axes, reduce ax evasion, and accoun properly or financing

allocaions. I growh is o lead o improvemens in qualiy o lie, responsible and effec-

ive insiuions and policies will be required, boh domesically and inernaionally.

Source: Development Initiative calculations are based on data from a wide range of sources discussed in the methodology of Development

Initiatives, "Investments to End Poverty: Real money, real choices, real lives" (2013), available at http://devinit.org/report/investments-to-end-poverty/.

$5,900BDomestic

FIGURE 2

Domestic resources are driving development

Total flows by sector, 2011 (in billions of dollars)

$2,100BInternational

Resource types

$148.7B Development AssistanceCommittee ODA

$79.1B Other official flows

$45.3B Private developmentassistance

$37.8B Development financeinstitutions

$18.3B Net portfolio equity

$16.8B Non-DAC developmentcooperation

$529.9BLong-term loans

$471.6BNet foreign direct investment

$179.6B Net short-term loans

$211.4BMilitary expenditures

$343.4BRemittances

International


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Improving domesic resource mobilizaion has several componens ha could be dis-

cussed in Addis, wih acions o be aken by boh developed and developing counries.

Developed counries can help o ge heir own houses in order, improving ranspar-

ency, reducing illici flows and ax evasion, and ensuring ha more revenue says where

i is generaed. According o Global Financial Inegriy, an esimaed $946.7 billion

lef developing counries in illici financial ouflows during 2011,25ofen ending up in

banks in developed counries or ax havens. Iniiaives such as he Exracive Indusriesransparency Iniiaive, or EII, and he Dodd-Frank bill are promising atemps o

improve ransparency and decrease abuse o ranser pricing and oher ax-avoidance

acics,26bu he effeciveness o such iniiaives and legislaion is sill being esed.

Developing counries have work o do, oo. Improving he capaciy o domesic ax

sysems can help sem illici flows and ax avoidance, and developmen assisance could

play a role in shoring up hese capaciies. Developing counries collec significanly less

in axes as a percenage o GDP han developed counries do and, as a resul, end o be

dependen on a narrow ax base, which has economic and poliical consequences. While

high-income counries collec an average o abou 35 percen o heir GDP in axes,hal o he counries in sub-Saharan Arica collec less han 17 percen.27Ensuring ha

governmen spending is ocused on concree benefis or ciizens is a final challenge,

and such a drive or accounabiliy mus be domesically driven. A broader ax base and

more argeed subsidies can help achieve his objecive and should be par o he policy

packages discussed or FFD.

Improving development assistance and cooperation

Tough domesic resource mobilizaion is he mos powerul financing ool or devel-opmen, radiional developmen assisance is he mos discussed. Monerrey noably

called or developed counries o dedicae 0.7 percen o heir gross naional income,

or GNI, oward official developmen assisance, a call ha is likely o be repeaed in

Addis.28Fulfilling his arge is a major concern or developing counries, which poin

ou ha only six counries have me his arge.29Alhough many ohers call atenion o

he dwindling role o ODA, especially in rapidly growing developing counries, i would

be a misake o neglec his cenral componen o financing. Especially or low-income

and vulnerable counries and hose rapped in cycles o violence, i is difficul or impos-

sible o atrac oher orms o financing. Ye economic growh and he access o good

jobs30are key o escaping cycles o povery, violence, and poor governance and overcom-

ing vulnerabiliy o shocks such as naural disasers and he effecs o climae change.31

Te FFD conerence is likely o eaure discussions o how o beter use aid o accom-

plish developmen aims. One emerging soluion wih he poenial o play a larger role

in he uure is he Inernaional Aid ransparency Iniiaive, or IAI. More han 260

organizaions have published daa o he IAI sandard, including governmens, muli-

laerals, nongovernmenal organizaions, oundaions, and privae-secor companies, bu

i remains o be seen how widely his sysem is adoped and uilized.32


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Improving he availabiliy, qualiy, and ransparency o inormaion abou where oreign

assisance money is spen and is impac is a major issue and has hi some poliical sum-

bling blocks. Te mos complee source o inormaion on developmen assisance is he

OECD Developmen Assisance Commitee, or DAC, which racks no only ODA, bu

also oher official flows using daa rom he IMF and naions cenral banks.

Many quesion wheher he DAC sysems will work in he new developmen landscape.DAC is considered o be a rich counry club. Is 29 members are all classified as upper

income and are required o mee crieria abou heir developmen cooperaion srae-

gies, insiuions, and policies. Ye, increasingly, developmen cooperaion ranscends

he radiional divide beween developed and developing counries. Many middle-

income counries, such as China and Brazil, now boh give and receive aid, engaging

in cooperaion wih oher developing counries in wha is called souh-souh coopera-

ion.33Seveneen non-DAC members repor aid ransacions o DAC34on a volunary

basis bu mos emerging marke economies do no, and i appears unlikely ha hey will.

Tey consider he DAC o be oo Wesern-driven and wan o mainain independence

over heir developmen assisance and when and how i is moniored.35

Te lack o a complee and coheren sysem o rack and monior, however, makes i

difficul o assess how much money is being spen on developmen and wheher i is

improving peoples lives. Some non-DAC donors are beginning o discuss develop-

ing heir own sysem or developmen cooperaion, and his is a good saring poin,

bu much work remains o be done. Creaing a clearer picure o he many sources o

suppor available or developmen, including flows beween developing counries, is a

necessary par o achieving he ambiious aims o he pos-2015 developmen agenda.

Unlocking climate finance

Perhaps he mos difficul quesion in Addis will be he relaionship beween climae

and developmen financing. While here is no official number o how much public

and privae climae finance is currenly flowing around he world, he Climae Policy

Iniiaive esimaes ha public and privae climae invesmens amoun o approximaely

$360 billion per year.36Te share o public financing provided by developed counries

has grown over he pas years o beween $10 billion and $20 billion annually.37

While here is a shared undersanding ha he curren scale o climae finance is insu-

ficien o mee he challenge o climae change and mus be increased, developing

counries worry ha climae financing will compee wih developmen financing or ha

donors will simply repackage ODA as climae financing. Tey argue ha he wo should

be kep compleely separae o ensure ha any climae finance is in ac addiional.


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In an agenda ha inegraes economic, social, and environmenal issues, however, i is

hard o separae climae and povery challenges on he ground, especially since climae

change affecs he poor mos immediaely and severely.38Especially in areas such as agri-

culure and nuriion, waer, and energy, climae is inherenly linked o developmen.

I is hard o see how his poliical impasse can be unlocked, bu beter and smarer financ-

ing will be needed o boh ackle povery and he caasrophic effecs o climae change.

New opportunities and challenges

Building on Monerrey, he discussion o resources will need o go beyond business as

usual o include no only he more efficien and effecive use o curren financing flows,

bu also ways o caalyze addiional resources and enable creaive problem solving o

mee he needs o a more ambiious developmen agenda.

Private financing

Privae financing flowsFDI, equiy, and oherswere discussed in Monerrey, bu

have become a much larger par o financing ha flows ino developing counries in

he years since hen. Ne FDI flows o developing counries reached $471.6 billion in

2011, while ODA and oher official flows oaled only $227 billion.39In 2012, privae

flows o developing counries oaled $222.5 billion, while is official developmen flows

amouned o jus $150 billion,40and many oher OECD DAC counries have greaer

amouns o privae flows han official aid flows.

Privae flows are poenially more pleniul and more susainable han concessional

grans, bu hey do no necessarily reap developmen benefis. Te effeciveness o FDI

in financing developmen objecives depends upon how he flows are caalyzed, lever-

aged, and channeled. More work needs o be done in his area. Public unding is sil l

necessaryhe wo are complemenary in ulfilling developmen needs. Privae finance

flows o areas o expeced reurn, and public finance can fill he gap in areas where risk is

oo high, he reurns are hard o moneizein public goods, or exampleor here are

asymmeries o inormaion.

Public financing can also serve as an invesmen or caalys, atracing privae finance or

greaer developmen gains. Te Global Environmen Faciliy, or GEF, which unds envi-

ronmenal projecs such as building agriculural susainabiliy and developing renewable

groundwaer resources in arid lands, has provided $12.5 billion in grans since 1991,

atracing an addiional $58 billion in projec co-financing rom he privae secor. For

every $1 o public financing invesed, GEF atraced $5 in addiional privae financing.41

Imagine i all developmen assisance were used o caalyze addiional financing on he

same scalehundreds o billions o addiional dollars could be made available or vial

needs such as nuriion, educaion, basic sheler, and healh care.


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While he economics are appealing, he poliics o privae finance are ricky. Many

developing counries are suspicious o privae-secor involvemen, conending ha

privae financing does no replace he need or public financing. On he oher hand,

many Wesern counries encourage he inclusion o privae-secor flows bu are hesian

o include specific recommendaions or businesses, in paricular reporing on he social

and environmenal effecs o heir aciviies. As a resul, he discussion on privae-secor

financing is likely o be conenious bu is worh pursuing anyway. Te realiy is haprivae finance will be par o achieving he pos-2015 goals, and ensuring ha i is chan-

neled and invesed wisely and responsibly is an imporan opic or FFD. Negoiaors

should no be araid o have an open conversaion wih each oher and wih he business

and finance communiies abou hese opics.

The role of middle -income countr ies

One emerging opic in developmen financing is he role o middle-income counries, or

MICs. Naions wih per-capia gross naional incomes o more han $1,045 bu less han$12,74642are classified as middle income by he World Bank, a caegory ha encom-

passes a wide variey o counries and capabiliies, rom he BRICS o key regional play-

ers such as urkey and Mexico o populous-bu-ragile counries such as Pakisan. Many

o he worlds wealhies and mos powerul counries have large numbers o people

living in exreme povery. For example, India, a booming economy and inormaion

echnology hub, is also home o more han one-hird o he worlds exreme poor.43

MICs conron a dual challenge: ackling povery while also growing heir economies

inclusively and susainably. Wih growing middle classes and rapid urbanizaion, hey

need o finance exensive invesmen in power, waer, and oher developmen needs.MICs sill need o build mos o heir inrasrucure. For example, India sill needs o

build 70 percen o he inrasrucure i will need by 2030, according o global consul-

ancy McKinsey & Company.44MICs have he opporuniy o leaprog o low-carbon,

susainable inrasrucure.45Invesmen o his kind requires large amouns o upron

financing, and neiher ODA nor domesic resources are sufficien o mee his need.

Nonconcessional loans, bilaeral expor credis, FDI, commercial deb, echnical coop-

eraion, and specific regulaions and acions o spur marke developmen hold greaer

promise in ackling MICs challenges. A growing ocus on inrasrucure rom he G-20

and he New Developmen Bank sared by he BRICS are iniial seps in he righ direc-

ion. Te mechanisms o suppor MICs developmen are weak, and his nascen conver-

saion deserves much more atenion in he pos-2015 era, especially given is proound

implicaions or global issues such as resource scarciy and climae change.


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Innovative financing

Tere is much buzz abou innovaive financing, an ill-defined erm ha sreches rom

advanced marke commimens o und medicines o axing airline ickes wih proceeds

direced a developmen. Te curren discussion on innovaive financing is vague and

someimes conroversial and will need o be more closely ied o specific recommen-

daions or specific secors o gain more racion. Successul models can help o break-hrough such negoiaion deadlocks. For example, he Pneumococcal Advanced Marke

Commimenwih unding rom he Canadian, Ialian, Norwegian, Russian, and U.K.

governmens46and he Bill & Melinda Gaes Foundaionhas aciliaed he rollou o

newly developed pneumococcal vaccines, which are generally available only in wealhier

counries, o children in low-income counries.47Such ools have he poenial o help

bring ogeher parners and direc unding oward he achievemen o pos-2015 goals in

areas rom healh o conserving environmenal resources.

A political deal?

Alhough an agreemen ha akes all o he various sources o developmen finance

ino accoun is crucial, he make-or-break decisions or he pos-2015 agenda will come

down o highly poliical opics such as global governance, inernaional rade, echnol-

ogy ranser and inellecual propery, migraion, and deb relie. Especially or many

middle-income counries, hese broader issues are more relevan han developmen

financing, which has limied impac or heir economies. Addiionally, hese poliical

issues have a broad consensus among he MICs, compared opics such as souh-souh

cooperaion, aid ransparency, and heir own needs.

I he pos-2015 agenda is o live up o is hype as a ransormaive agenda ha moves

beyond ackling absolue povery o pu he world on rack oward more-inclusive and

more-susainable globalizaion, hese issues are cenral. A he same ime, negoiaors

will be wary o wading ino he waers o oher mulilaeral negoiaions, such as hose

on rade and inellecual propery. I remains o be seen how much o a financing deal

can be orged a FFD, especially wih climae and rade alks ye o come. A good financ-

ing deal ha offers somehing o all sides can help build rus, resolve some aspecs o

hese conroversial issues, and creae space or deals in oher areas.

Te conours o a poliical deal are cleargreaer influence in he global sysem or

developing counries in reurn or increased responsibiliies. Bu he deails are sill

muddy. Such a deal is a all order or a mulilaeral sysem ha is sruggling o make

progress on rade, climae, and oher areas o inernaional cooperaion. And i here is

no agreemen on developmen, i is hard o see how progress is possible in oher areas.

Wih such high expecaions, will he leaders who urn up in Addis rise o he occasion?


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Molly Elgin-Cossar is a Senior Fellow wih he Naional Securiy and Inernaional Policy

eam a he Cener or American Progress.

Tis brie includes subsanial conribuions fom Annie Malknech, Pee Ogden, and

Varad Pande.

Te Cener or American Progress hanks he William and Flora Hewlet Foundaion or heirsuppor o his brie. Te views and opinions expressed in his repor are hose o Cener or

American Progress and he auhor and do no necessarily reflec he posiion o he William and

Flora Hewlet Foundaion. Te Cener or American Progress produces independen research

and policy ideas driven by soluions ha we believe will creae a more equiable and jus world.


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Endnotes

1 United Nations, My World 2015: The United Nations Surveyfor a Better World, available athttp://vote.myworld2015.org/(last accessed August 2014).

2 United Nations, Draft Resolution: Modalities for the ThirdInternational Conference on Financing for Development,June 4, 2014, available at http://www.un.org/en/ga/

president/68/pdf/letters/6112014Draft%20resolution%20-%20Financing%20for%20Development%20-%2011%20June%202014.pdf#page=4.

3 United Nations, Outcome Document Open WorkingGroup on Sustainable Development (2014), available athttp://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html.

4 World Health Organization, Advanced Market Commit-ments for vaccines, Press release, July 19, 2006, available athttp://www.who.int/immunization/newsroom/amcs/en/.

5 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,Glossary of Statistical Terms: Export Credits, available athttp://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=909(last ac-cessed August 2014).

6 International Monetary Fund, Factsheet: IMF Lending,available at http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/howlend.htm(last accessed August 2014).

7 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,OECD Factbook 2013: Economic, Environmental, and SocialStatistics, available at http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2013-en/04/02/01/index.html?itemId=/content/chapter/factbook-2013-34-en (last accessed August 2014).

8 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-ment, OECD Factbook 2010: Economic, Environmental,and Social Statistics, available at http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2010-en/10/04/03/index.html;jsessionid=mbs7a25w0nev.x-oecd-live-%2002?contentType=%2Fns%2FStatisticalPublication%2C%2Fns%2FChapter&itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fchapter%2Ffactbook-2010-82-en&mimeType=text%2Fhtml&containerItemId=%2Fcontent%2Fserial%2F18147364&accessItemIds(last accessedAugust 2014).

9 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,Glossary of Statistical Terms: Other O fficial Flows, availableathttp://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1954(last

accessed August 2014).

10 United Nations, Monterrey Consensus on Financing forDevelopment (2003).

11 U.N. High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015Development Agenda, A New Global Partnership: EradicatePoverty and Transform Economies Through SustainableDevelopment (2013), available at http://www.post2015hlp.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/UN-Report.pdf.

12 John McArthur, Own the Goals: What the MillenniumDevelopment Goals have Accomplished (Washington:Brookings Institution, 2013), available at http://www.brook-ings.edu/research/articles/2013/02/21-millennium-dev-goals-mcarthur.

13 United Nations, Doha Declaration on Financing for Devel-opment (2009).

14 Hai-Anh Dang, Steve Knack, and Halsey Rogers, HowFinancial Crises in Donor Countries Affect Ai d (Washington:World Bank, 2010), available at http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?theSitePK=469382&contentMDK=22576972&menuPK=574960&pagePK=64165401&piPK=64165026.

15 John Norris, Molly Elgin-Cossart, and Casey Dunning,Universality in Focus (Washington: Center for AmericanProgress, 2014), available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/report/2014/05/12/89459/applying-universal-goals-to-the-united-states/.

16 Alex Evans, Resources, risks, and resilience: scarcity andclimate change in Ethiopia (New York: New York University,Center for International Cooperation, 2012), available athttp://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/evans_security_ethio-pia_2012.pdf.

17 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, The Path to

Sustainable Development: Ethiopias Climate-ResilientGreen Economy Strategy (2011), available at http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/287CRGE%20Ethio-pia%20Green%20Economy_Brochure.pdf.

18 U.N. Non-Governmental Liaison Service, Update on thework of the Intergovernmental Committee on SustainableDevelopment Finance, July 30, 2014, available at http://www.un-ngls.org/spip.php?article4491.

19 See, for example, Hirohito Arakawa and others, Payingfor Zero: Global Development Finance and the Post-2015Development Agenda (World Economic Forum, 2014),available at http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GAC/2014/WEF_GAC_PovertySustainableDevelopment_GlobalDevel-opmentFinance_Paper_2014.pdf.

20 United Nations, Fifth Committee Considers Funding ForThird International Conference

On Financing For Development, Set For July 2015, Press release,June 18, 2014, available athttp://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2014/gaab4115.doc.htm.

21 International Union for Conservation of Nature, Brief Analy-sis of the Rio+20 outcome document The Future we wantin relation to I UCNs position (2012), available at http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/brief_analysis_of_the_fu-ture_we_want_july_2012.pdf#page=5.

22 VI BRICS Summit, Fortaleza Declaration Press release, July15, 2014, available athttp://brics6.itamaraty.gov.br/media2/press-releases/214-sixth-brics-summit-fortaleza-declaration.

23 Molly Elgin-Cossart, What to Watch at the BRICS Summitin Brazil, Center for American Progress, July 14, 2014, avail-able athttp://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/news/2014/07/14/93801/what-to-watch-at-the-brics-sum-mit-in-brazil/.

24 A WHO study finds that there is high variability, but in

general spending on health follows growth in GDP. Xu Ke,Priyanka Saksena, and Alberto Holly, The Determinants ofHealth Expenditure: A Country-Level Panel Data Analysis(World Health Organization, 2011), available at http://www.who.int/health_financing/documents/report_en_11_deter-he.pdf.

25 Global Financial Integrity, Illicit Financial Flows, available athttp://www.gfintegrity.org/issue/illicit-financial-flows/(lastaccessed August 2014).

26 See, for example, Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Con-sumer Protection Act, H.R. 4173, 111th Cong. 2 sess. (2010),available at https://www.sec.gov/about/laws/wallstreet-reform-cpa.pdf;and Extractive Industries TransparencyInitiative, available at http://eiti.org/ (last accessed August2014).

27 David McNair, Alison Holder, and Liam Crosby, Tackling Taxand Saving Lives(London: Save the Children, 2014).

28 United Nations, Monterrey Consensus (2003).

29 The United Kingdom officially met the 0.7 percent targetin 2013. Ian Townsend, UK first G7 country to reach 0.7%of national income as aid, Development Initiatives, April2, 2014, available at http://devinit.org/uk-first-g7-country-to-reach-0-7-of-national-income-as-aid/.The five othercountries to meet the target are Denmark, Luxembourg,Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden. Owen Barder, BritainJoins the G-0.7, Center for Global Development Blog, March20, 2013, available athttp://www.cgdev.org/blog/britain-joins-g-07.
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p://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2014/gaab4115.doc.htmhttp://brics6.itamaraty.gov.br/media2/press-releases/214-sixth-brics-summit-fortaleza-declarationhttp://brics6.itamaraty.gov.br/media2/press-releases/214-sixth-brics-summit-fortaleza-declarationhttp://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/news/2014/07/14/93801/what-to-watch-at-the-brics-summit-in-brazil/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/news/2014/07/14/93801/what-to-watch-at-the-brics-summit-in-brazil/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/news/2014/07/14/93801/what-to-watch-at-the-brics-summit-in-brazil/http://www.who.int/health_financing/documents/report_en_11_deter-he.pdfhttp://www.who.int/health_financing/documents/report_en_11_deter-he.pdfhttp://www.who.int/health_financing/documents/report_en_11_deter-he.pdfhttp://www.gfintegrity.org/issue/illicit-financial-flows/https://www.sec.gov/about/laws/wallstreetreform-cpa.pdfhttps://www.sec.gov/about/laws/wallstreetreform-cpa.pdfhttp://eiti.org/http://devinit.org/uk-first-g7-country-to-reach-0-7-of-national-income-as-aid/http://devinit.org/uk-first-g7-country-to-reach-0-7-of-national-income-as-aid/http://www.cgdev.org/blog/britain-joins-g-07http://www.cgdev.org/blog/britain-joins-g-07http://www.cgdev.org/blog/britain-joins-g-07http://www.cgdev.org/blog/britain-joins-g-07http://devinit.org/uk-first-g7-country-to-reach-0-7-of-national-income-as-aid/http://devinit.org/uk-first-g7-country-to-reach-0-7-of-national-income-as-aid/http://eiti.org/https://www.sec.gov/about/laws/wallstreetreform-cpa.pdfhttps://www.sec.gov/about/laws/wallstreetreform-cpa.pdfhttp://www.gfintegrity.org/issue/illicit-financial-flows/http://www.who.int/health_financing/documents/report_en_11_deter-he.pdfhttp://www.who.int/health_financing/documents/report_en_11_deter-he.pdfhttp://www.who.int/health_financing/documents/report_en_11_deter-he.pdfhttp://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/news/2014/07/14/93801/what-to-watch-at-the-brics-summit-in-brazil/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/news/2014/07/14/93801/what-to-watch-at-the-brics-summit-in-brazil/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/news/2014/07/14/93801/what-to-watch-at-the-brics-summit-in-brazil/http://brics6.itamaraty.gov.br/media2/press-releases/214-sixth-brics-summit-fortaleza-declarationhttp://brics6.itamaraty.gov.br/media2/press-releases/214-sixth-brics-summit-fortaleza-declarationhttp://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2014/gaab4115.doc.htmhttp://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2014/gaab4115.doc.htmhttp://www3.weforum.org/docs/GAC/2014/WEF_GAC_PovertySustainableDevelopment_GlobalDevelopmentFinance_Paper_2014.pdfhttp://www3.weforum.org/docs/GAC/2014/WEF_GAC_PovertySustainableDevelopment_GlobalDevelopmentFinance_Paper_2014.pdfhttp://www3.weforum.org/docs/GAC/2014/WEF_GAC_PovertySustainableDevelopment_GlobalDevelopmentFinance_Paper_2014.pdfhttp://www.un-ngls.org/spip.php?article4491http://www.un-ngls.org/spip.php?article4491http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/287CRGE%20Ethiopia%20Green%20Economy_Brochure.pdfhttp://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/287CRGE%20Ethiopia%20Green%20Economy_Brochure.pdfhttp://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/287CRGE%20Ethiopia%20Green%20Economy_Brochure.pdfhttp://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/evans_security_ethiopia_2012.pdfhttp://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/evans_security_ethiopia_2012.pdfhttp://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/report/2014/05/12/89459/applying-universal-goals-to-the-united-states/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/report/2014/05/12/89459/applying-universal-goals-to-the-united-states/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/report/2014/05/12/89459/applying-universal-goals-to-the-united-states/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?theSitePK=469382&contentMDK=22576972&menuPK=574960&pagePK=64165401&piPK=64165026http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?theSitePK=469382&contentMDK=22576972&menuPK=574960&pagePK=64165401&piPK=64165026http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?theSitePK=469382&contentMDK=22576972&menuPK=574960&pagePK=64165401&piPK=64165026http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?theSitePK=469382&contentMDK=22576972&menuPK=574960&pagePK=64165401&piPK=64165026http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2013/02/21-millennium-dev-goals-mcarthurhttp://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2013/02/21-millennium-dev-goals-mcarthurhttp://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2013/02/21-millennium-dev-goals-mcarthurhttp://www.post2015hlp.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/UN-Report.pdfhttp://www.post2015hlp.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/UN-Report.pdfhttp://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1954http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2010-en/10/04/03/index.html;jsessionid=mbs7a25w0nev.x-oecd-live-%2002?contentType=%2Fns%2FStatisticalPublication%2C%2Fns%2FChapter&itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fchapter%2Ffactbook-2010-82-en&mimeType=text%2Fhtml&containerItemId=%2Fcontent%2Fserial%2F18147364&accessItemIdshttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2010-en/10/04/03/index.html;jsessionid=mbs7a25w0nev.x-oecd-live-%2002?contentType=%2Fns%2FStatisticalPublication%2C%2Fns%2FChapter&itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fchapter%2Ffactbook-2010-82-en&mimeType=text%2Fhtml&containerItemId=%2Fcontent%2Fserial%2F18147364&accessItemIdshttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2010-en/10/04/03/index.html;jsessionid=mbs7a25w0nev.x-oecd-live-%2002?contentType=%2Fns%2FStatisticalPublication%2C%2Fns%2FChapter&itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fchapter%2Ffactbook-2010-82-en&mimeType=text%2Fhtml&containerItemId=%2Fcontent%2Fserial%2F18147364&accessItemIdshttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2010-en/10/04/03/index.html;jsessionid=mbs7a25w0nev.x-oecd-live-%2002?contentType=%2Fns%2FStatisticalPublication%2C%2Fns%2FChapter&itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fchapter%2Ffactbook-2010-82-en&mimeType=text%2Fhtml&containerItemId=%2Fcontent%2Fserial%2F18147364&accessItemIdshttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2010-en/10/04/03/index.html;jsessionid=mbs7a25w0nev.x-oecd-live-%2002?contentType=%2Fns%2FStatisticalPublication%2C%2Fns%2FChapter&itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fchapter%2Ffactbook-2010-82-en&mimeType=text%2Fhtml&containerItemId=%2Fcontent%2Fserial%2F18147364&accessItemIdshttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2010-en/10/04/03/index.html;jsessionid=mbs7a25w0nev.x-oecd-live-%2002?contentType=%2Fns%2FStatisticalPublication%2C%2Fns%2FChapter&itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fchapter%2Ffactbook-2010-82-en&mimeType=text%2Fhtml&containerItemId=%2Fcontent%2Fserial%2F18147364&accessItemIdshttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2010-en/10/04/03/index.html;jsessionid=mbs7a25w0nev.x-oecd-live-%2002?contentType=%2Fns%2FStatisticalPublication%2C%2Fns%2FChapter&itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fchapter%2Ffactbook-2010-82-en&mimeType=text%2Fhtml&containerItemId=%2Fcontent%2Fserial%2F18147364&accessItemIdshttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2013-en/04/02/01/index.html?itemId=/content/chapter/factbook-2013-34-enhttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2013-en/04/02/01/index.html?itemId=/content/chapter/factbook-2013-34-enhttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2013-en/04/02/01/index.html?itemId=/content/chapter/factbook-2013-34-enhttp://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/howlend.htmhttp://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/howlend.htmhttp://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=909http://www.who.int/immunization/newsroom/amcs/en/http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.htmlhttp://vote.myworld2015.org/http://vote.myworld2015.org/


13/13

30 World Bank, World Development Report 2011 (2011).

31 Ibid.

32 International Aid Transparency Initiative, available athttp://www.aidtransparency.net/ (last accessed August2014).

33 The Economist, Crumbs from the BRICs-mans table,March 18, 2010, available athttp://www.economist.com/node/15731508.

34 DAC Working Party on Development Finance Statistics,

Multilateral Agencies, Non-DAC Countries And PrivateFoundations Statistical Reporting To The OECD-DAC In2013 (2014).

35 Vijaya Ramachandran and Julie Walz, Brave New World: ALiterature Review of Emerging Donors and the ChangingNature of Foreign Assistance Working Paper 273 (Wash-ington, Center for Global Development, 2011), availableat http://www.cgdev.org/publication/brave-new-world-literature-review-emerging-donors-and-changing-nature-foreign-assistance.

36 Barbara Buchner and others, The Landscape of ClimateFinance 2012(Climate Policy Initiative, 2012), availableat http://climatepolicyinitiative.org/wp-content/up-loads/2012/12/The-Landscape-of-Climate-Finance-2012.pdf.

37 World Resources Institute, Climate Finance, available athttp://www.wri.org/our-work/project/climate-finance/

climate-finance-and-private-sector (last accessed August2014).

38 World Bank, Climate change affects the poorest indeveloping countries, March 3, 2014, available at http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/03/03/climate-change-affects-poorest-developing-countries.

39 Development Initiatives, Investments to End Poverty: RealMoney, Real Choices, Real Lives(2013).

40 International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlookdatabase, available at http://www.imf.org/external/Pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/(last accessed August 2014).

41 Global Environment Facility, What is GEF?, available athttp://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef (last accessed August2014).

42 In fiscal year 2015, according to the World Bank countryand lending group c lassifications. World Bank, Country and

Lending Groups, available at http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups (last accessed August2014).

43 World Bank, India: Country Results Profile, available athttp://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:22888405~menuPK:141310~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html(last accessed August 2014).

44 McKinsey & Company, Environmental and Energy Sustain-ability: An Approach for India(2009).

45 Ibid.

46 Gavi, Pneumococcal AMC, available at http://www.gavial-liance.org/funding/pneumococcal-amc/(last accessedAugust 2014).

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