Democracy, Part IDemocracy, Part IDefinitions and DirectionsDefinitions and Directions

Defining Democracy: Defining Democracy: Your own ideasYour own ideas

What are the What are the essential essential characteristics of characteristics of democracy? democracy?

Sources:Sources:

Robert Dahl, Robert Dahl, PolyarchyPolyarchy (1971) and (1971) and On DemocracyOn Democracy (1998)(1998)

Samuel Huntington, Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: The Third Wave: Democratization in the late Twentieth CenturyDemocratization in the late Twentieth Century (1991)(1991)

Arend Lijphart, Arend Lijphart, Patterns of DemocracyPatterns of Democracy (1999) (1999) Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Problems of

Democratic Transition and ConsolidationDemocratic Transition and Consolidation (1996) (1996) Freedom House – Freedom House – www.freedomhouse.orgwww.freedomhouse.org The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Democracy The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Democracy

IndexIndex

General Point #1:General Point #1:Democracy is gettingDemocracy is getting

more popularmore popular

1900 – no democracies (by standard 1900 – no democracies (by standard of universal suffrage for competitive of universal suffrage for competitive multiparty elections).multiparty elections).

1950 – 22 democracies1950 – 22 democracies 2002 – 121/192 countries classified 2002 – 121/192 countries classified

as electoral democracies.as electoral democracies.

Map of world’s political Map of world’s political systems, 1900systems, 1900

L. blue=limited democracy pink=absolute monarchy; purple=constitutional monarchy gray & green =colonial authority orange=empire

Map of world’s political Map of world’s political systems, 2000systems, 2000

Dark Blue=democracy; light blue=limited democracy; yellow=authoritarian regime; red=“totalitarian”; purple=hereditary monarchy

The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Democracy Index 2007: the lighter the color, the more democratic the place

Caveats:Caveats:Not all democracies are equally Not all democracies are equally

freefree 89 Free countries89 Free countries 55 Partly Free 55 Partly Free

countries countries 48 Not Free 48 Not Free

countriescountries(Source: Freedom (Source: Freedom

House, 2003)House, 2003)

General Point #2:General Point #2:Mass democracy is Mass democracy is

modernmodernDistinctions between Distinctions between

earlier and later earlier and later democracies: democracies:

1. direct democracy (vs 1. direct democracy (vs elected representatives)elected representatives)

2. exclusion (vs 2. exclusion (vs inclusion) inclusion)

3. civil and political 3. civil and political rights?rights?

Greek voters, picture from National Geographic, 1944

Ways of Defining Ways of Defining DemocracyDemocracy

what it SHOULD be (“normative”)what it SHOULD be (“normative”) (“government by, of, for the people”)(“government by, of, for the people”)

institutional characteristics -- by its institutional characteristics -- by its PROCEDURES (approach favored by PROCEDURES (approach favored by CP)CP)

What is a democracy?What is a democracy?One basic definition:One basic definition:

““A system in which the most powerful A system in which the most powerful decisionmakers are selected through decisionmakers are selected through fair and periodic voting procedures in fair and periodic voting procedures in which candidates freely compete for which candidates freely compete for votes, and in which virtually all votes, and in which virtually all people have the right to vote.” people have the right to vote.”

(Samuel Huntington)(Samuel Huntington)

But is this enough?But is this enough? 8 essential components of a 8 essential components of a

full (liberal) democracy:full (liberal) democracy: the right to votethe right to vote the right to be elected/eligibility for public officethe right to be elected/eligibility for public office the right of political leaders to compete for support the right of political leaders to compete for support

and votesand votes free and fair electionsfree and fair elections freedom of associationfreedom of association freedom of expressionfreedom of expression alternative sources of informationalternative sources of information institutions that make government policies actually institutions that make government policies actually

depend on votes and other forms of (voter) depend on votes and other forms of (voter) preferencepreference

(Robert Dahl)(Robert Dahl)

““Levels” of democracy (based Levels” of democracy (based on “degrees” of democracy):on “degrees” of democracy):

Full (liberal) Full (liberal) democracydemocracy

Electoral Electoral democracy, semi-democracy, semi-democracy, democracy, pseudo-democracy, pseudo-democracy, “Illiberal” “Illiberal” democracydemocracy

Democracy, Part II:Democracy, Part II:Institutional VariationsInstitutional Variations

The ’80s Kids: From left to right, Margaret Thatcher, Ronald Reagan, Francois Mitterand, Helmut Schmidt. Source: http://www.digischool.nl/kleioscoop/mitterand.htm

Variation #1: Variation #1: degree of territorial & degree of territorial & political centralizationpolitical centralization

Federal System Federal System vs “Unitary” vs “Unitary”

SystemSystem

Federal systemFederal system::

Decentralized authorityDecentralized authority sovereignty constitutionally split sovereignty constitutionally split

between at least two territorial levels between at least two territorial levels units at each level can act units at each level can act

independently of the others in some independently of the others in some areas. areas.

Citizens have political obligations to Citizens have political obligations to two (or more) authorities two (or more) authorities

Examples: U.S., Canada, GermanyExamples: U.S., Canada, Germany

Unitary System:Unitary System:

Authority & sovereignty centralized in Authority & sovereignty centralized in one place (the capital)one place (the capital)

Policies largely set by “the center”Policies largely set by “the center” No (or weak) intermediary layer No (or weak) intermediary layer

between local and central government between local and central government Local govt subservient to central govtLocal govt subservient to central govt Examples: Turkey, France, BritainExamples: Turkey, France, Britain

What are the pros and cons of What are the pros and cons of federal and unitary systems?federal and unitary systems?

Variation #2: Variation #2: Powers and processes of Powers and processes of

leadershipleadership

Presidential VS parliamentary Presidential VS parliamentary systemssystems

a. Title & power of head of a. Title & power of head of statestate

Presidential systemPresidential system:: head of govt – always called the president – is elected head of govt – always called the president – is elected

for a prescribed period and generally cannot be for a prescribed period and generally cannot be dismissed unless guilty of severe wrongdoing. dismissed unless guilty of severe wrongdoing.

Parliamentary systemParliamentary system:: head of the government usually (but not always) head of the government usually (but not always)

called the Prime Minister. His/her cabinet responsible called the Prime Minister. His/her cabinet responsible to the legislature (Parliament); can be dismissed to the legislature (Parliament); can be dismissed through a vote of no confidence. through a vote of no confidence.

b. How head of state is b. How head of state is chosenchosen

In In Presidential SystemPresidential System, presidents are , presidents are popularly elected by populacepopularly elected by populace

In a In a Parliamentary systemParliamentary system, head of state , head of state (president) selected by the legislature.(president) selected by the legislature. Head of government (prime minister) Head of government (prime minister)

usually is the leader of the ruling party.usually is the leader of the ruling party.

How the people voted in Chiapas…

c. Status of the head of c. Status of the head of statestate

In a In a presidential systempresidential system, president , president appoints the cabinet and they are appoints the cabinet and they are considered subservient to him.considered subservient to him.

In a In a parliamentary systemparliamentary system, the prime , the prime minister serves as one among equalsminister serves as one among equals

d. selection of the cabinet…d. selection of the cabinet…

In Presidential systemIn Presidential system, cabinet , cabinet appointed separately by presidentappointed separately by president

In a Parliamentary systemIn a Parliamentary system, cabinet , cabinet drawn in part from legislature drawn in part from legislature

e. Length of term in officee. Length of term in office

In a presidential systemIn a presidential system, legislators , legislators and presidents serve fixed termsand presidents serve fixed terms

In a parliamentary systemIn a parliamentary system, , legislators and presidents serve a legislators and presidents serve a maximum time in office but a ruling maximum time in office but a ruling party can call early elections if it party can call early elections if it wants towants to

NotesNotes::

it is common in parliamentary systems to have a it is common in parliamentary systems to have a president or monarch who is the CEREMONIAL president or monarch who is the CEREMONIAL head of state, and a PM who is in charge of the head of state, and a PM who is in charge of the governmentgovernment

Examples of Parliamentary systems: Examples of Parliamentary systems: Britain, Turkey, South Africa, GermanyBritain, Turkey, South Africa, Germany

Examples of Presidential systems: U.S., Examples of Presidential systems: U.S., most of South America most of South America

Many countries have “mixed” systems, i.e. Many countries have “mixed” systems, i.e. FranceFrance

TurkeyTurkeychief of state:chief of state: President President Abdullah Gul Abdullah Gul

head of government:head of government: Prime Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Minister Recep Tayyip ERDOGAN (since 14 March ERDOGAN (since 14 March 2003)2003)

cabinet:cabinet: Nominated by Prime Nominated by Prime Minister, confirmed by Minister, confirmed by PresidentPresident

elections:elections: prime minister prime minister selected from majority party, selected from majority party, confirmed by president . confirmed by president . President elected by President elected by parliament.parliament.

Turkish Prime Minister Erdogan, 2003

Examples: Presidential or Parliamentary?

Example: BrazilExample: Brazil

chief of state:chief of state: President President Luiz Inacio LULA DA Luiz Inacio LULA DA SILVA (since 1 January SILVA (since 1 January 2003)2003)

note - the president is note - the president is both the chief of state both the chief of state and head of government and head of government

elections:elections: president and president and vice president elected vice president elected on the same ticket by on the same ticket by popular vote for four-popular vote for four-year termsyear terms

United KingdomUnited Kingdom chief of state: Queen chief of state: Queen

ELIZABETH IIELIZABETH II head of government: Prime head of government: Prime

Minister Gordon BrownMinister Gordon Brown cabinet: Cabinet of Ministers cabinet: Cabinet of Ministers

appointed by the prime appointed by the prime minister minister

elections: monarchy is elections: monarchy is hereditary; following legislative hereditary; following legislative elections, the leader of the elections, the leader of the majority party or the leader of majority party or the leader of the majority coalition is usually the majority coalition is usually the prime ministerthe prime minister Gordon Brown, British PM

(photo from the Birmingham Post)

parliamentary system:parliamentary system: pros and cons? pros and cons?

+ Strengthens parties + Strengthens parties over individualsover individuals

+ Encourages policy-+ Encourages policy-based voting rather based voting rather than voting based on than voting based on individual charisma or individual charisma or $$$$

+ Fusing of legislative + Fusing of legislative & exec. branches can & exec. branches can promote efficiencypromote efficiency

- Gives the public less - Gives the public less choice over choice over leadershipleadership

- Flexible election - Flexible election terms can = less terms can = less stabilitystability

- Fusing of executive - Fusing of executive & legislative & legislative branches can branches can concentrate too much concentrate too much power in one placepower in one place

Presidential system:Presidential system:pros and cons?pros and cons?

+ Gives the people more + Gives the people more choice over leadershipchoice over leadership

+ “strong” government- + “strong” government- president more president more insulated and can act insulated and can act with daringwith daring

+ higher levels of + higher levels of government government accountabilityaccountability

+ Greater stability+ Greater stability + Clear separation of + Clear separation of

powerspowers

- Power of presidency - Power of presidency can be abusedcan be abused

- Can encourage - Can encourage deadlock between deadlock between legislature & executivelegislature & executive

- Encourages - Encourages charisma, $$, rather charisma, $$, rather than substance & than substance & policiespolicies

- Set terms= rigidity - Set terms= rigidity (bad leaders can’t be (bad leaders can’t be easily removed)easily removed)

Institutional variation #3:Institutional variation #3:

Electoral systemsElectoral systems

(how voting works: (how voting works:

who gets elected, and how)who gets elected, and how)

Electoral systems: 2 main Electoral systems: 2 main typestypes

1- 1- Plurality SystemPlurality System (“Winner-take-all” (“Winner-take-all” system)system) Single member districts; whoever gets the most Single member districts; whoever gets the most

votes wins the seatvotes wins the seat used by about 54% of world’s countriesused by about 54% of world’s countries

2- 2- Proportional RepresentationProportional Representation (PR system) (PR system) Multi-member districts; # of reps. determined by Multi-member districts; # of reps. determined by

% of vote% of vote Used by about 35% of world’s countries, by most Used by about 35% of world’s countries, by most

of western Europeof western Europe

Plurality SystemsPlurality Systems

Single-member electoral districts (usually)Single-member electoral districts (usually) Also called “winner-take-all”Also called “winner-take-all” Simplest & most common form: “First Past the Simplest & most common form: “First Past the

Post” : winning candidate is the one who gains Post” : winning candidate is the one who gains more votes than any other candidate, but not more votes than any other candidate, but not necessarily a majority of votes.necessarily a majority of votes. Alternative: Ranked Choice/Instant Runoff Alternative: Ranked Choice/Instant Runoff

VotingVoting Encourages 2-party systemsEncourages 2-party systems Examples: U.S., U.K, Canada, RwandaExamples: U.S., U.K, Canada, Rwanda

Proportional Proportional Representation(PR)Representation(PR)

Multi-member electoral districtsMulti-member electoral districts Seats in legislature divided by % of votes. Seats in legislature divided by % of votes. Most common type: “List system”: parties select Most common type: “List system”: parties select

candidates, who goes to legislature depends on what candidates, who goes to legislature depends on what % that party gets % that party gets

““preferential voting” - voters rank preferences on preferential voting” - voters rank preferences on party listparty list

encourages multi-party systemencourages multi-party system Min. Min. threshold (barrier)threshold (barrier): parties have to get a certain : parties have to get a certain

% of votes to enter legislature% of votes to enter legislature Examples: Belgium, South Africa, Spain, Norway, Examples: Belgium, South Africa, Spain, Norway,

Turkey, BrazilTurkey, Brazil

Sample ballot from Sonoma Co., USA (Plurality system)

Sample ballot from S. Africa’s national elections, 1994 (PR system) Source: aceproject.org

Example: TurkeyExample: TurkeyHow power is distributedHow power is distributed

Central governmentCentral government Sets rules & policiesSets rules & policies Appoints officialsAppoints officials

Government Government spendingspending In Turkey, 15% of In Turkey, 15% of

funds to local funds to local governmentgovernment

In Europe, 50%In Europe, 50%

Municipal funding Municipal funding basebase In Turkey, 75% of city In Turkey, 75% of city

revenue from central revenue from central govt.govt.

National Government(Ankara)

81 Provinces(centrally appointed

governor)

3, 215 Municipalities(elected mayor & municipal councils)

35,000 villages

• Investment plans• Road maintenance

•Social & cultural services

•Caring for cemeteries• waste disposal

Turkey: Top leadershipTurkey: Top leadership

Prime Minister Prime Minister (usually) from majority party(usually) from majority party Officially “appointed by the Officially “appointed by the

President of the Republic President of the Republic from from among the members of the among the members of the Turkish Grand National Turkish Grand National AssemblyAssembly.”.”

(cabinet) ministers nominated by (cabinet) ministers nominated by the Prime Minister and appointed the Prime Minister and appointed by the Turkish Grand National by the Turkish Grand National AssemblyAssembly

““The Prime Minister, as Chairman The Prime Minister, as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, shall of the Council of Ministers, shall ensure cooperation among the ensure cooperation among the ministers, and ministers, and supervise the supervise the implementation of the implementation of the government’s general policygovernment’s general policy..  The members of the Council of The members of the Council of Ministers are jointly responsible for Ministers are jointly responsible for the implementation of this policy.”the implementation of this policy.”  

The PM’s duties:The PM’s duties: 1)To provide cooperation among ministries, to 1)To provide cooperation among ministries, to supervise the executionsupervise the execution

of government general policyof government general policy, to take necessary measures with a view to , to take necessary measures with a view to providing public services as listed in the constitution and laws,providing public services as listed in the constitution and laws,

To develop the principles required for an efficient administration of state affairs, to To develop the principles required for an efficient administration of state affairs, to supervise the implementation of the government program as well as the supervise the implementation of the government program as well as the development of annual plansdevelopment of annual plans,,

3)3) To examine actsTo examine acts, regulations and recommendations on decisions in terms of , regulations and recommendations on decisions in terms of compliance with the constitution and other regulations, and to maintain relations with compliance with the constitution and other regulations, and to maintain relations with the legislation organ,the legislation organ,

4)4) To set and improve the principles on the To set and improve the principles on the preparation of regulationspreparation of regulations, to ensure , to ensure the codification and publication of active regulations,the codification and publication of active regulations,

5)5) To To provide efficiency in administrationprovide efficiency in administration, simplification of administrative , simplification of administrative processes and procedures, to follow developments in state organization systems,processes and procedures, to follow developments in state organization systems,

6)6) To set principles for a more efficient system of supervision and inspection in the To set principles for a more efficient system of supervision and inspection in the state organization, and to carry out supervision and inspection if deemed necessary,state organization, and to carry out supervision and inspection if deemed necessary,

7)7) To collect, evaluate and regulate important documents for Turkish Nation and To collect, evaluate and regulate important documents for Turkish Nation and State, to set up archive laboratories, to present archive documents to scientists and State, to set up archive laboratories, to present archive documents to scientists and scientific activities,scientific activities,

8)8) To take necessary measures for an efficient To take necessary measures for an efficient crisis managementcrisis management at the time of at the time of natural disasters, migration and other important events threatening national security, natural disasters, migration and other important events threatening national security, and to ensure efficient coordination among public establishments in the crisis and to ensure efficient coordination among public establishments in the crisis management.management.

Source: http://www.basbakanlik.gov.trSource: http://www.basbakanlik.gov.tr

Turkey: The Turkey: The presidentpresident

““ARTICLE 101.ARTICLE 101. The President of the Republic shall be elected The President of the Republic shall be elected

for a term of office of seven years for a term of office of seven years by the by the Turkish Grand National Assembly from Turkish Grand National Assembly from among its own membersamong its own members who are over 40 who are over 40 years of age and who have completed their years of age and who have completed their higher education or from among Turkish higher education or from among Turkish citizens who fulfill these requirements and are citizens who fulfill these requirements and are eligible to be deputies.eligible to be deputies.  ……

  The President-elect, if a member of a party, The President-elect, if a member of a party, shall sever his relations with his party and his shall sever his relations with his party and his status as a member of the Turkish Grand status as a member of the Turkish Grand National Assembly shall cease.National Assembly shall cease.    ARTICLE 102. The President of the Republic ARTICLE 102. The President of the Republic shall be elected by a two-thirds majority of the shall be elected by a two-thirds majority of the total number of members of the Turkish Grand total number of members of the Turkish Grand National Assembly and by secret ballot.” National Assembly and by secret ballot.”

http://www.abdullahgul.gen.tr/EN/Video.asp

Turkey: How Votes are Turkey: How Votes are CountedCounted

550 seats in Parliament550 seats in Parliament 85 electoral districts85 electoral districts Districts have from 2-26 Districts have from 2-26

representatives in the representatives in the ParliamentParliament

PR List System (Closed PR List System (Closed List)List)

10 percent threshhold10 percent threshhold

Who won which provinces in Turkey, Who won which provinces in Turkey, 2002 and 2007 compared2002 and 2007 compared

FranceFrance 577 deputies in the National Assembly577 deputies in the National Assembly 577 legislative districts577 legislative districts single-district, plurality system (2 rounds of single-district, plurality system (2 rounds of

voting)voting) Candidates that win more than 50% in the first round Candidates that win more than 50% in the first round

win seatwin seat If no one does, 2If no one does, 2ndnd round: the candidate that wins the round: the candidate that wins the

most votes wins the seatmost votes wins the seat

Pros & Cons of Plurality Pros & Cons of Plurality Systems:Systems:

+ gives voters + gives voters clear choiceclear choice

+ maintains close + maintains close geographic link geographic link between voters and between voters and elected officialselected officials

+ creates effective + creates effective government -- clear government -- clear majority party and majority party and unified oppositionunified opposition

- Not very - Not very representative; representative; many votes many votes “wasted”“wasted”

- Excludes smaller - Excludes smaller & minority parties & minority parties from from representationrepresentation

Pros & Cons of PR systems:Pros & Cons of PR systems:

+ highly + highly representative: all representative: all or nearly all votes or nearly all votes “count”“count”

+ encourages + encourages diversity & range diversity & range of perspectivesof perspectives

+ Greater voter + Greater voter turnoutturnout

- Can lead to - Can lead to fragmentation & fragmentation & ineffective govt.ineffective govt.

- “List” PR, in - “List” PR, in particular, can particular, can weaken link weaken link between voters & between voters & elected officials elected officials (officials more loyal (officials more loyal to party than to party than voters)voters)

Note: Note: Many countries used Many countries used

“mixed-PR” systems: some “mixed-PR” systems: some sort of mixture between sort of mixture between plurality & PR systems!plurality & PR systems!

Examples: MexicoExamples: Mexico

500-person Chamber of Deputies 500-person Chamber of Deputies Elections every three yearsElections every three years Parallel voting: 300 deputies elected in Parallel voting: 300 deputies elected in

single-seat constituencies by first-past-the-single-seat constituencies by first-past-the-post plurality post plurality

Other 200 elected through PR voting with Other 200 elected through PR voting with open-party lists open-party lists country is divided into 5 constituenciescountry is divided into 5 constituencies