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DEPARTMENT OF WATER AFFAIRS AND FORESTRY

INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN WATER MANAGEMENT AREAS, SOUTH AFRICA

INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES, GUIDELINES AND PILOT IMPLEMENTATION IN THREE WATER MANAGEMENT AREAS, SOUTH AFRICA

DANIDA FUNDING AGENCY

Edition 1

March 2004

TITLE: GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN WATER MANAGEMENT AREAS, SOUTH AFRICA: VOLUME 2

FUNDING AGENCY: DANIDA CATEGORY: Guideline PURPOSE: To provide guidelines for integration of coordinated

groundwater management into IWRM at different levels of resource managers within Catchment Management Agencies.

TARGET GROUP: DWAF, IWRM Project Consultants and Resource

Managers in three Water Management Areas. DATE: March 2004 STATUS: Edition 1 ENQUIRIES: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Private Bag X 313 Pretoria 0001 Republic of South Africa Tel: (012) 336 7500 / +27 12 336 7500 Fax: (012) 323 0321 / +27 12 323 0321 Email: [email protected] Website: www.dwaf.gov.za

DOCUMENT INDEX

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE i VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

DOCUMENTS FOR OUTPUT 7: STRATEGIES, TOOLS AND SYSTEMS APPLIED WITHIN THE THREE SELECTED WMAS TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF IWRM: 1. a. Groundwater Management Strategy for National Water Resource Strategy,

DWAF/DANCED, 2001 b. Groundwater Management Strategy: Summary, DWAF/DANCED, 2002

c. Groundwater Management Strategy: Executive Summary, DWAF/DANCED, 2002

2. a. Guidelines for Groundwater Management in Water Management Areas, South Africa, Carl Bro a/s, IZNA Consortium, February 2002, Volume 1 and 2.

b. Guidelines for Groundwater Management in Water Management Areas: Summary, South Africa, Carl Bro a/s, IZNA Consortium, February 2002

c. Guidelines for Groundwater Management in Water Management Areas: Executive Summary, South Africa, Carl Bro a/s, IZNA Consortium, February 2002

RELATED DOCUMENTS: First Edition National Water Resource Strategy, DWAF 2002 Integrated Water Resources Management Communication Strategy, DWAF Generic Communication Strategy for IWRM, DWAF/DANCED, December 2001. Institutional Roles and Linkages: Phase 1 Report, Carl Bro a/s, IZNA Consortium, February 2002. Guidelines for Stakeholder Participation in Integrated Water Resources Management in Water Management Areas in South Africa, Carl Bro a/s, March 2001. Evaluation of the involvement of Previously Disadvantaged Individuals in the Catchment Management Agency establishment process the three Water Management Areas, date. Capacity Building Overview Assessment Vol.1, Carl Bro a/s, IZNA Consortium, October 2001. Capacity Building Overview Assessment Vol.2, Specific Capacity Building Requirements of Role-Players, Carl Bro a/s, IZNA Consortium, October 2001. Capacity Building Implementation Plan, Carl Bro a/s, IZNA Consortium, April 2002 Guideline on the Viability Study for the Establishment of a Catchment Management Agency, Carl Bro a/s, Pegasus Strategic Management, February 2002.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE ii VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

VOLUME 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

DOCUMENT INDEX I CHAPTER 1: GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND SITUATION ANALYSIS 1 Executive Summary 1

1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Steps in Resource Assessment 5 1.3 Developing a Conceptual Model 6

1.3.1 Initial and Conceptual Planning 6 1.4 Hydrocensus 10 1.5 Water Balance 12

1.5.1 Elements in the Water Balance Equation 13 1.5.2 Data Requirements for Resource Assessment 14

1.6 Detailed Planning and Reconnaissance 17 1.6.1 Procedure 17 1.6.2 Exploration Drilling 18

1.7 Aquifer Characterisation 19 1.7.1 Aquifer Tests 19 1.7.2 Planning and Performing of Pumping Tests 19 1.7.3 Downhole Geophysics Methods 19 1.7.4 Tracer Tests 19 1.7.5 Recharge Estimation 20 1.7.6 Discharge Estimation 22

1.8 Numerical Groundwater Modelling 25 1.9 Environmental Considerations 27

1.9.1 Strategic Environmental Assessment – “SEA” 27 1.9.2 Analysis of Opportunities and Constraints 27

1.10 References 29 CHAPTER 2: GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ALLOCATION 30 Executive Summary 30

2.1 Introdcution 30 2.2 How to Reconcile Sustainability, Equity and Efficiency with Groundwater

Quality 34 2.2.1 Sustainability 34 2.2.2 Sustainability Indicators 36 2.2.3 Equity 37 2.2.4 Efficiency 39

2.3 Recognising the Strategic Benefits and Values of Groundwater 42 2.4 How to Provide the Technical and Scientific Information for Stakeholders

To Establish a Fair and Equal Allocation Process 43

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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2.5 How Groundwater can Become Part of the Mainstream Water Service /

Water Supply Activities and Development 45 2.5.1 Available Groundwater Resources 45 2.5.2 Allocatable Groundwater Resources 45

2.6 References 50 CHAPTER 3: GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION APPROACHES 52 Executive Summary 52

3.1 Introduction 54 3.2 Principles of Water Resources Management in South Africa 58

3.2.1 Principles Underlying Water Resources Management 58 3.2.2 Resource Management Principles 60

3.3 Implementation of Resource Directed Measures 62 3.4 Prioritisation and Implementation of Source Directed Controls 70 3.5 Guidelines for Wellhead Protection 77

3.5.1 Minimum Borehole Construction Standards 77 3.5.2 Wellhead Protection Zones 78

3.6 Remediation Strategies 84 3.7 Water Quality Standards 89

3.7.1 Variations in Quality 89 3.7.2 Levels of Standard 89 3.7.3 The Reasons for Assessing Water Quality Standards 89 3.7.4 South African Water Quality Standards 90 3.7.5 Natural Groundwater Qualities 90 Appendix A 91

3.8 References 100

CHAPTER 4: GROUNDWATER MONITORING AND INTEGRATED MONITORING NETWORKS 101 Executive Summary 101

4.1 Introduction: Role-Players in Groundwater Monitoring 105 4.1.1 DWAF Responsibilities 105 4.1.2 A Tiered Approach to Monitoring: Other Stakeholder

Responsibilities 105 4.1.3 CMA Responsibilities 109

4.2 Risk-Based, Cost-Effective Monitoring Strategies 111 4.2.1 Guiding Principles 111 4.2.2 Monitoring Objectives (The Need for Groundwater Monitoring) 111 4.2.3 Risk-Based Approach 113 4.2.4 Iterative Approach 115 4.2.5 Overcoming Resource Limitations 116 4.2.6 Designing a Catchment (Level 2) Monitoring System 116 4.2.7 Designing a Local Monitoring Network (Level 3) 121 4.2.8 Monitoring Groundwater Use 124

4.3 Selection of Monitoring Sites and Data Collection 125 4.3.1 Monitoring Networks 125 4.3.2 Monitoring Borehole Design and Construction 128 4.3.3 Monitoring Point Density 128

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4.3.4 Frequency of Measurement 130 4.3.5 Data to be Collected 133

4.4 A Step by Step Approach to Groundwater Sampling and Monitoring 141 4.5 Integration of Groundwater monitoring with other Monitoring Networks,

Especially Surface Water and Hydro-Meteorological Monitoring 142 4.6 A 5-Year Resource Quality Monitoring Plan 146 4.7 References 147

CHAPTER 5: GROUNDWATER INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR IWRM 149 Executive Summary 149

5.1 Introduction 152 5.2 The Type of Queries that a Geohydrological Information System should be

Able to Address 153 5.3 Reasons for Data Collection 155 5.4 Relevant and Associated IWRM Information Systems 157

5.4.1 Water Situation Assessment Model (WSAM) 159 5.4.2 Water Resource Monitoring and Assessment Information System

(WRMAIS) 159 5.4.3 Water Management System (WMS) 159 5.4.4 Hydrological Information System (HIS/HydSys) 159 5.4.5 National Groundwater Archive (NGA) 160 5.4.6 Water Use Authorisation and Registration Management System

(WARMS) 161 5.5 Information System Architecture 162 5.6 Information Distribution Mechanisms 163 5.7 Data Types and Frequency of Collection 164 5.8 Data Collection Methods 169 5.9 Data Verification, Data Quality, Confidence Limits, Data Analysis and

Metdata 170 5.10 Potential Information System Constraints 172 5.11 Information System Outputs 173 5.12 Recommedations 174 5.13 References 175

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 1VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

VOLUME 2

CHAPTER 1

GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND SITUATION ANALYSIS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Expected context

The development of CMAs offers an opportunity for integrated assessment and optimal use of water resources. It is hoped that investigation of groundwater potential in the WMAs will result in an appreciation of the strategic value of groundwater and will encourage improved investment in groundwater feasibility studies.

In this scenario, the Groundwater Coordinator will need to develop a sound understanding of the aquifer potential of the WMA, and will be provided with the resources necessary to de-termine, with reasonable confidence, the volumes of allocatable groundwater available on a sustainable basis.

The role of the Groundwater Co-ordinator

It is likely that most of the CMAs will appoint someone to specifically handle and coordinate the groundwater component of its water resources management function. The specialised nature of groundwater management means that such a person must be a trained hydro-geologist.

The Groundwater Coordinator will need to act as a central point of understanding in balanc-ing the predicted potential for groundwater delivery against the demands of water users. The Coordinator will need to commission and coordinate resource investigations, many of which will be undertaken by specialist consultants. It is the role of the coordinator to ensure that best practices are followed in these investigations and that the most appropriate and cost effective tools and technologies are employed. A phased approach is generally used, as de-scribed in this chapter. The groundwater resources in many catchments remain undefined in terms of the water balance, and its role in the larger water cycle and environment. Tools for assessing these components of the resource are described. Where the location and extent of the groundwater resource remains undefined, groundwater exploration and aquifer charac-terisation is required. An overview of the tools and methods for exploration and aquifer char-acterisation is given.

At the end of a groundwater resource assessment the Groundwater Coordinator must ensure that the catchment manager/stakeholders/etc understand the basic functioning of groundwa-ter in the catchment and the sustainable yield of the resource.

The Groundwater Coordinator needs to ensure that investigation results are captured and stored in the current WMA and national databases.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 2 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

The Groundwater Coordinator is directed through exploration best practice at a level of detail that should help to manage and commission appropriate projects. Available tools and sources of more detailed information are given. Particular emphasis is given to the assess-ment of fractured aquifer yields and reference made to recent work by the WRC.

Resource Assessment Phases

The following diagram illustrates the phases that would typically be expected of a groundwa-ter resources assessment study:

Monitoring

The final decision on the development of a groundwater resource is generally a comparative one, assessing the costs and benefits of groundwater development against those for other available water sources. Key criteria are identified on which these decisions are often made are described and some typical issues for different sources listed. The groundwater coordi-nator needs to understand how these decisions are taken so that they can fully represent the opportunities and constraints presented by aquifer development.

Key Recommendations

The investigation of aquifer potential is the core of hydrogeological science and much of a hydrogeologists’ formal training is focussed on this technical area. If we hope to be able to make full assessments of available groundwater resources around the country we will need ‘more of the same’ in terms of strong hydrogeological expertise, mainly in the consulting field, and a significant increase in geophysical capacity.

Situational Assessment

Reconnaissance/ Target Identification

Desktop study Review of Literature & data bases (e.g. NGDB)

Demand for new re-sources/Impacted current resources

Sustainable Resource Development

Field Assessment (Remote Sensing, Geological mapping, Hydrocensus, and Geophysics)

Aquifer assessment

Target Appraisal

Geophysics, Drilling, Pumping tests Recharge Estimation.

Resource Selection Cost-benefit compari-son of water sources

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


An area where improved approaches and capacity is required is in recharge estimation, which will be critical for sustainable yield determination. We need to improve the accuracy of recharge estimation around the country and in a greater variety of hydrogeological settings.

An area where most hydrogeologists need additional training and exposure is in cost-benefit comparisons of groundwater with other water sources. Hydrogeologists need to be able to understand and speak the language of resource planners in order to articulate the benefits of groundwater development, as well as understand the long-term socio-economic constraints.

INTRODUCTION


1.1 INTRODUCTION

General

The extent of groundwater resources can be complex to assess and difficult for non-specialists to picture. As a result groundwater resources have often been neglected in the assessment of regional water resources. The National Water Act requires water managers to consider all the water resources of a region. This has coincided with the recognition of groundwater’s ecological functions and its valuable role in rural supply, drought relief and supply security.

Aims

This chapter aims to help water managers in CMAs to assess the groundwater resources of their region and to plan with a full appreciation of their value and the close connection to sur-face water resources.

Document Content

The aim above is tried achieved through a description of the various steps in a groundwater resource assessment, suggestions for data collection and discussions of strengths and weaknesses in various methods.

Tools for the assessment of aquifers at both the regional and local levels are briefly de-scribed and discussed. The information required for water managers to develop a holistic ap-preciation of the groundwater resources of a region is listed, as well as its place in water bal-ance models.

Tools for the development and assessment of aquifers are discussed in terms of their appli-cation, what they measure, and the steps required for their application and use. An apprecia-tion of the dynamics of hydraulic systems and the role of integration of groundwater with other sources of supply is vital if the exploitation of groundwater resources is to be sustain-able.

The subjects of reuse and the conservation of water are discussed in Chapter #X of this document.

This chapter will also provide a perspective on the determination of recharge and its role in the sustainable exploitation of groundwater resources.

Approach

It should be noted that the generic nature of this document means that a lot of the information contained here is of a general nature. The most appropriate strategy should be determined by case specific circumstances, including available budget, water quality, variations, and the location of recharge and discharge areas.

Integration

It is important to recognise that groundwater resource assessment is part of assessing the total water resources of the catchment. The results of groundwater resource assessment should thus be integrated with the results of surface water resources studies. Care should always be taken that double accounting does not take place where groundwater supplies baseflow to surface water.

STEPS IN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT


1.2 STEPS IN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

The following steps are necessary to assess groundwater resources in an area. The steps to be followed will depend on the extent to which the resources have already been studied and developed.

Where no development of the resources has taken place, the assessment will follow the steps from one to 5.

1. Initial/Conceptual Planning: This includes the understanding of the situation, water requirements and description of possible development scenarios. Existing knowledge is used to develop a conceptual understanding of the groundwater system.

2. Water Balance calculation: Develop conceptual model to illustrate the interactions of groundwater and surface water resources in the relevant catchment. Then a water balance equation is set up based on the conceptual model and available data. This requires a good understanding of inflows (recharge) and outflows (discharge) to and from the system. Provided that sufficient data is available, the conceptual model should be supported by a simple numerical model.

3. Detailed Planning and Reconnaissance: Based on the conceptual understanding of the system and the water balance, more detailed planning and field reconnaissance are done to verify the results and interpretations.

4. Characterisation of the Aquifer: Use tests, geophysics and tracer tests to determine the aquifer characteristics. Also assess water quality through hydro census and analysis. At this stage a comprehensive numerical model may be possible and useful.

5. Strategic Environmental Assessment: The results of the Resource assessment should form part of the regional scale planning process. Decisions on the develop-ment of the groundwater resource should be done with due consideration of physical, environmental, economic and social factors.

DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL MODEL


1.3 DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL MODEL

A conceptual model is a descriptive or pictorial representation of a regional water system, including the dimensions of the system, its functioning, flow and recharge. Existing data and expert knowledge provide sufficient information in most areas for the construction of a con-ceptual model.

The first step in the development of the conceptual model involves a description in terms of the geological and hydrographic units in the area, the types of aquifers, their interconnected-ness with each other and surface water sources, and the boundaries of the system. Existing reports, maps and first hand experience may provide sufficient insight for the groundwater system to be described to a reasonable level of accuracy.

The next step is a description of the existing flow systems. This may require information and a description on geomorphology, hydrological data, precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, groundwater head data, probable areas of groundwater recharge and discharge, and geo-chemical data.

A preliminary water budget for the area should also be calculated. This includes a quantita-tive description of the inputs and outputs to the system, including both natural and anthropo-genic inputs. The water budget should include estimates on the magnitudes of flows and possible changes in storage.

The conceptual model provides the foundation for developing a detailed plan for the resource assessment study and should describe the initial understanding of the hydrological system. It should identify the areas most suited for exploration, give an indication of the yields that may be expected and its quality and help to select the most appropriate tools to use during the more detailed study. The conceptual model will define the needs for further data as the study continues and as more data becomes available this understanding will broaden and refine.

1.3.1 Initial and Conceptual Planning Assessing the resource

Where new groundwater resources are explored, an assessment of poten-tial sustainable yield and pilot abstraction will be needed. However, in many cases some exploitation or monitoring has already been completed. In that case, a consolidation of the available data will be needed.

Groundwater Exploration

The need for the water source to be located reasonably close to the set-tlement that requires supply tends to limit the area of exploration.

Most South African aquifers are of a deep nature, occurring under con-fined or semi confined conditions. This means that in most cases, defining the aquifer geometry equates to the location of aquifers.

Phases of Exploration and As-sessment

Exploration can be divided into a number of interlinked and sequential stages, which involve increasing expenditure and knowledge and decreas-ing risk.

The early phases are known as the planning and reconnaissance phases. These phases cover the stages leading to the selection of an area for de-tailed ground work.



The first two steps of the exploration study are the conceptual and detailed planning phases.

These phases cover the review of existing literature, maps and aerial pho-tographs, and the selection of an appropriate exploration technique and strategy.

The next phase in the exploration project is the reconnaissance phase, which involves the gathering and interpretation of focussed field data, and culminates in the selection of exploration drill sites.

This is followed by the target appraisal phase where various methods in-cluding detailed geophysics are used to pinpoint the drilling target.

After a successful target-drilling programme follows aquifer assessment. The boreholes are test pumped, results are interpreted and the capacity is calculated. Water chemistry is checked to establish if the water is suitable e.g. for drinking water.

After aquifer assessment and successful exploration drilling follows the development phase, which includes the construction of the production boreholes and the installation of the pumping and distribution infrastruc-ture.

Following this is the production phase where the water resources are put to use.

The final phase is the monitoring of the groundwater resource, which in-clude background monitoring, flow path monitoring and impact monitoring. Completion of this phase results in the evaluation of the monitoring data, reporting to the relevant authorities and necessary actions or changes in the management plan if needed.



Figure 1 illustrates the different phases of the groundwater exploration study, with the rela-tive expenditure required during each phase. The figure also illustrates the time at which de-cisions on the continuation of the study should be made.

Expe

nditu

re –

Log

arith

mic

Sca

le

Conceptual Planning

Detailed Planning

Reconnaissance Phase

Target Ap-praisal

Aquifer As-sessment

Development

Decommissioning

Act

ivity

Literature review, and Discussion with Peers

Literature review, field visit

Remote sensing, Hydro-census, Geophysics.

Detailed geophysics, Geological mapping verification.

Drilling, Test Pumping, Chemical sampling and analysis

Borehole con-struction, pump installa-tion, Supply infrastructure

Removal of equip-ment and closure of boreholes. Monitoring starts.

FIGURE 1: STAGES OF A GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION PROJECT (MODIFIED FROM MOON AND WHATELEY, 1995)

High Risk

Decreasing Risk

Key Decision node Rate of expenditure

Regional Selection

Area Selection

Formation Suitability

Feasibility



Constraints The planning of an exploration programme needs to identify and account for various constraints, which may include:

• Quantity and quality of water required

• Preferred sources of supply

• Location of the demand

• Resources available to assess and develop a source

• Environmental considerations

Tools If it is expected that groundwater can supply the quantity and quality of water required in a feasible location, planning for resource development needs to take into account the local geological conditions. An under-standing of the hydrogeological terrains will direct the exploitation, as-sessment and interpretation methods, which are suitable.

The planning process for an exploration programme needs to include the relevant professionals who can take account of the acceptable spending and risk for the project.

Information All available information on the study area should be reviewed. This may include:

• Borehole logs

• Maps, including topo-cadastral, geology and geophysical maps

• Reports

• Rainfall

• Test-pumping data

• Water quality data

• Water levels

Even information on dry boreholes can provide invaluable information about drilling targets (DWAF, 1997).

The data should then be used in a preliminary groundwater resource as-sessment to define the areas or zones of potential groundwater occur-rence that will be investigated further.

If geophysics are to be used during the exploration phase it must be es-tablished at this stage and the appropriate techniques defined. This should be conducted by a hydrogeologist and a geophysicist in co-operation.

Hydrogeological terrains

A number of distinct hydrogeological terrains exist in South Africa. The tools used in the groundwater exploration programme should be selected based on the hydrogeological characteristics of the exploration area. A description of the South African hydrogeological terrains is presented in level 4 of this guideline.

HYDROCENSUS


1.4 HYDROCENSUS

Background

Existing and historical database data rarely provide adequate information on the distribution of water sources and the water quality within an area. In the design of a resource develop-ment programme, it is often valuable to gather additional information from users of aquifers and surface water bodies.

The design and execution of a programme that collects field data in order to develop a more complete understanding of the hydrological systems within a study area is known as a hydro-census. An example of a hydrocensus questionnaire/ data sheet is given in Level 4 of these guidelines.

In groundwater studies this generally involves the collection of data on groundwater levels, chemistry, and use. During the hydrocensus it may also be important to record the interac-tions between groundwater and surface water. A risk-based approach can be followed to identify the type of data that should be collected.

The information needs that will be addressed through the hydrocensus could be established by asking simple quesitons, like:

• Why do we need data?

• How will we obtain this data?

• What must the data represent?

• How will we use the data?

The process ensures that the data collected for decision-making are of the right type, quan-tity, and quality. The following steps are usually part of a hydrocensus:

Step 1: State the Problem

The description should include study objectives, the regulatory context, groups who are involved or who have an interest in the study, political is-sues, funding, previous study results, and any obvious sampling con-straints.

Step 2: Iden-tify Inputs

The next step is to identify the different types of information needed to re-solve the problem. Data from previous studies or investigations may be available, or new data may need to be collected.

Step 3: Define the Bounda-ries of the Study Area

The spatial and temporal boundaries of the study area are defined and the data collection process placed within this context. Factors such as sea-sonal or daily variations, as well as weather and temperature conditions that may affect the data collected must be considered. Identification of ob-stacles to data collection, such as access to private property and the avail-ability of sampling equipment and personnel.

HYDROCENSUS


Step 4: Develop action plan

Proper planning can save time and expense when things go wrong in the field. Important points to note before embarking on the field data gathering are:

• That practical arrangements have been made for analysis of the water or soil samples.

• That access to the measuring/sampling points has been arranged with the proper authorities or landowners.

• That the necessary field equipment is available, and in working order. A checklist of necessary equipment can be very helpful and may eliminate the likelihood of finding yourself in the field without the right equipment. An example of such a list is given in Appendix D#.

• That transport and accommodation has been arranged, and that ar-rangements have been made for the samples that are collected to be returned to the lab for analysis, or a place of storage.

Step 5: Collect Field Data

A decision has already been made on what data needs to be collected (Step 2) and the area over which the data is to be collected – geography and time (Step 4). The parameters that will be measured vary depending on conditions prevailing at specific sites as well as the type of data needed to develop a model or for monitoring.

Step 6: Collation,Manipulation and Analysis of Data

When the data have been collected and the results of the sample analysis received, they need to be entered into a database. Once in the database the data can be transformed, manipulated and presented in various forms. Geographically referencing the data and mapping then usually proves valuable in the interpretation of the data. The hydrocensus report shall in-clude the operational details and theoretical assumptions of the sampling and analysis plan. This is necessary for the following statistical interpreta-tion of the data.

WATER BALANCE


1.5 WATER BALANCE

The National Water Act recognises the hydrological cycle and the integrated nature of water resources. As such the management of groundwater needs to be integrated with the man-agement of all other water resources. The management of groundwater entails assessing and controlling the degree of fluctuation that can be tolerated in an aquifer to ensure that wa-ter levels remain above a critical level, below which further pumping could cause harmful and often irreversible effects (Bredenkamp, et al., 1995). Significant in the management of groundwater resources is the recognition of groundwater’s function in maintaining the eco-logical reserve. The use of water balance models offers a means of integrating the manage-ment of groundwater and other water resources in this way addressing the mis-accounting and mis-allocation of water resources.

Water balance approaches are based on the principle of the conservation of mass. The in-puts: “precipitation; groundwater; surface water inflows” - equals the outputs: “evapotranspi-ration, groundwater and surface water outflow” - plus the change in storage.

Inputs = Outputs+∆S

FIGURE 2: AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE WATER CYCLE, SHOWING THE MAJOR COMPONENTS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN WATER BALANCE MODELS.

WATER BALANCE


The water budget for a basin can be stated as:

P + Qon = ET + Qoff + �S

Where P = precipitation

Qon = water flow onto the site (sum of surface flow, interflow and groundwater flow)

Qoff = water flow off the site (sum of surface flow, interflow and groundwa ter flow)

ET = evapotranspiration

�S = change in water storage

All components are given as rates, eg. Mm /day or mm/year

Rewriting the water budget to incorporate subcomponents like water storage in snow, surface water reservoirs, the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone results in the following equa-tion which gives recharge as result:

R = Qoff gw – Qon gw + Qbf + ETgw + �Sgw

Where R = recharge to groundwater

Qbf = groundwater discharge to streams or springs

The recharge component of the water balance is essential and gives a very good indication of how much water gets into the system and might be available for allocation.

Various methods for the water balance calculation exist in the literature, and this is just one example.

1.5.1 Elements in the Water balance equation

Groundwater in the hydro-logical cycle

The management of a groundwater resource must take place within the recognised context of groundwater’s role in the hydrological cycle. Ex-ploited aquifer systems need to be managed in such a way that exploita-tion can be sustained over an extended period, and that associated effects are within acceptable limits. The impacts of exploitation will include a re-duction in the overall discharge from the groundwater unit, possibly a de-crease in overall storage and likely an increase in overall recharge.

Recharge characteristics

Effective recharge to an area can be highly variable, in time and space. Such variations may be overlooked when using an average annual value for effective recharge. It is likely that the water balance approach will re-quire adjustment, to account for drought cycles over periods of several years.

WATER BALANCE


Integration with surface water man-agement

The new Water Act requires water managers to consider groundwater as part of the larger hydrologic cycle, in a continual interaction with surface water. It is therefore essential that any groundwater planning method fits with local surface water strategies, ensuring the two linked resources can be conjunctively used in a pragmatic manner, minimising adverse impacts on the overall water resource.

Water quality issues

The Resource Directed Measures and the Reserve encompasses quality as well as quantity issues. Water quality and quantity are inextricably linked factors and it is possible that quality thresholds could be surpassed prior to quantity thresholds. It will therefore often be necessary to adjust the quantitative resource assessment to account for water quality issues, to ensure that the resource is of an acceptable standard with respect to both criteria.

Storage / groundwater mining

Part of the groundwater within a region may be identified as neither enter-ing nor leaving the aquifer. Such groundwater could be considered as be-ing held in storage. If abstraction is possible, without impacting upon the surface environment, this additional volume of groundwater could be used and, subsequently, included in the available resource of an area. However, care must be employed to ensure that this valuable back-up resource is not degraded over the long term.

1.5.2 Data Requirements for Resource Assessment

The following Table summarises the kinds of data that are typically required for groundwater resource assessments.

WATER BALANCE


TABLE 1: INFORMATION TYPICALLY REQUIRED, AS PART OF A RESOURCE ASSESSMENT/SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS PROGRAMME

Category Information Source Topographic maps* Surveyor General

Aerial photographs Surveyor General Surface features

Satellite imagery Surveyor General, CSIR, NASA

Geological maps* Geological Survey

Existing reports* DWAF, Consultants, Gov. De-partments

Aerial photos Surveyor General

Satellite imagery Surveyor General, CSIR, NASA

Field geological mapping Field Reconnaissance Phase

Geophysical surveys Target Appraisal Phase

Geology and Structure

Lithological and geophysical borehole logs

Aquifer Assessment Phase

Piezometry Water level measurements in observation boreholes and non-pumped wells*


Rainfall records* DWAF, Weather Bureau

Meteorological data* (evapora-tion, sunshine, wind, humidity)

Weather Bureau, ARC

Land-use and vegetation Satelite imagery, Topographic Maps

Soil type and hydraulic proper-ties*

Leakage losses from water sup-ply

Local Authority

Irrigation return flow (from crop type, soils, agricultural prac-tices, climate, irrigation tech-niques)

ARC, Dept. Agriculture

Recharge

Sewage leakage flows (from population, water use, recorded sewer flow)

Local Authority

Pumped abstraction* (from flow-meter records, abstraction returns, pump capacity, hour/fuel consumption)

DWAF, WUA

Spring flows* DWAF

Discharge

Flow in drains and sewers Local Authority

Interpretation of peizometric gradients*

Calculation of water balances*

Aquifer Properties

Interpretation of pumping test data


WATER BALANCE


Category Information Source Estimates for Transmissivity and Storage Coefficient*

Tracer Tests Aquifer Assessment Phase

Flow, fluid conductivity and tem-perature logs


Interpretation of well hydrog-raphs

Laboratory measurements on cores

Losses/gains to or from streams*

RDM determination

Water levels in lakes or rivers* DWAF

Rating curves to convert levels to flows

Interaction with surface water

Lithologies and inferred hydrau-lic properties of bed material

Council for Geoscience

Items marked with * are considered essential in most resource assessments

DETAILED PLANNING AND RECONNAISSANCE


1.6 DETAILED PLANNING AND RECONNAISSANCE

FIGURE 3: STEPS TYPICAL OF A GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION PROGRAMME, WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE USE OF GEOPHYSICS.

1.6.1 Procedure

Following from the conceptual planning, areas for further investigation are delineated and more detailed information gathered. Such information may include airborne geophysics, re-mote sensing and aerial photography data and hydrocensus/database information. The in-sight and experience of hydrogeologists who have previously worked on groundwater prob-lems in the study area will provide essential insight and detail, and should be consulted. The regional offices of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry can be a valuable reference point.

It is important to note that airborne and regional data often lack resolution due to the scale of survey. It should always be considered that the regional anomaly could result from a number of smaller anomalies on the surface. These target areas should be mapped on a base map.

Desktop study (Including airborne geophysical data)

Target zone identification

Field reconnaissance (Viability of geophysical methods)

Pilot field-testing (Initial reconnaissance geophysics)

Detailed surface geophysics (To select optimal drilling locations)

Geophysical logging (Aquifer characterisation and

refine exploration programme)

DETAILED PLANNING AND RECONNAISSANCE


1.6.2 Exploration Drilling

Most groundwater investigations involve the drilling of one or more exploration wells before the construction of production wells is begun. The information gained from exploration wells can be used for the following general purposes:

• Regional groundwater assessment study

• Design and construction of one or more production wells at a particular site

• Where no or poor targets are identified the exploration borehole may be preserved for monitoring purposes.

During water resources studies features of likely groundwater occurrence are defined and locations with a high probability of intersecting the target water body are pinpointed for drill-ing. The presence of water and the quality of that occurrence can only established through the drilling of a borehole.

It is important for the results of the exploration drilling to be carefully recorded by a qualified geotechnician or geologist. Among the more important things to note is the geology and min-eralogy of the formations being drilled. This is done by collecting drill samples at regular in-tervals, usually at one meter depth intervals. Notes should also be made on depth to any wa-ter strikes, the size of the water strike and its quality. If an air drilling system is being used, the blow yield should be noted. Variations in water quality can provide valuable information on the interaction and mixing of different structures or formations.

The information gathered during the drilling is usually summarised in a lithological log (see example in Level 4). Consultation with the drilling operator will help in compiling an accurate and informative log. The drilling action and penetration rate provide valuable information on the formation being drilled. As a supplement to the lithological log a drilling-time log that rec-ords the amount of time required to drill a certain distance may also be compiled. The drilling-time log is constructed as a curve or diagram showing penetration for each length of drill rod, with significant changes in drilling rate indicating that a different formation is being drilled. The logs can then be used to correlate the results of the geophysics exploration programme.

To minimise the cost every one of the drill locations should be re-evaluated as more informa-tion becomes available during the drilling programme. A number of drilling techniques are available and in common use in South Africa. These are described further in Level 4

The drilling method selected will depend on the geological terrain, the depth of the target and the budget available. It is common to use more than one technique where the target structure or formation occurs at depth. For example the mud rotary drilling method may be used to drill through unconsolidated or badly weathered deposits, and the air rotary method to drill through the harder formations.

A large number of drilling operators are active in South Africa. Most of them are affiliated to either the Borehole Water Association of South Africa or the Drilling Contractors Association of South Africa.

AQUIFER CHARACTERISATION


1.7 AQUIFER CHARACTERISATION

Once an aquifer has been located, it needs to be assessed for its ability to supply water. This requires the determination of the aquifer’s hydraulic properties. Pumping tests offers direct physical information about the characteristics of aquifers.

1.7.1 Aquifer Tests

Controlled pump testing is a well-established means of assessing aquifer characteristics. Aq-uifer tests, eg, pumping tests, are the only method that provide simultaneous information on the hydraulic behaviour of the well, the reservoir and the reservoir boundaries, which are es-sential for efficient aquifer and wellfield management. These tests are conducted in the field, stressing the aquifer through highly controlled pumping. Such a test involves the pumping of a production well at several fractions of full capacity (the step drawdown test) and at a con-stant rate (the constant discharge test), with water levels measured at frequent intervals in the production well and nearby observation wells, and sometimes surface water bodies like streams and springs. Time-drawdown and distance drawdown data are analysed with various methods including computerised model equations and type-curve matching.

The method used and the interpretation of pumping test data requires an understanding of the aquifer system or systems being pumped. Pumping tests usually have the following as objectives (Van Tonder, et al., 2001):

• To develop a better understanding of the aquifer system

• The quantification of its hydraulic characteristics and properties

• An assessment of both the sustainable yield and efficiency of the borehole

The sustainable yield is defined as the discharge rate that will not cause the water level to drop below a prescribed limit, for example the position of a major water strike. It is also im-portant that the total abstraction rates of boreholes situated in an aquifer must not exceed the sustainable yield of the aquifer in total, i.e. the average annual recharge (Van Tonder, et al., 2001).

1.7.2 Planning and Performing of Pumping tests

Guidelines have been developed by the Water Research Commission for conducting pump-ing tests under South African conditions (Van Tonder, et al., 2001). The document focuses on the analysis and interpretation of pumping test data from fractured-rock aquifers. Sections of Van Tonder et al. (2001) is reproduced in Level 4.

1.7.3 Downhole Geophysics Methods

Aquifers can be investigated by using geophysical tools in the borehole. Several geophysical methods have been adapted to provide data such as thickness of different formations, zones of highest porosity, water quality, etc. The commonly used geophysical logging tools avail-able are resistivity, spontaneous potential (SP), gamma, neutron, sonic / acoustic, tempera-ture and calliper logs. The different methods are briefly described in level 4 of the guidelines.

1.7.4 Tracer Tests

A Water Research Commission funded study by Van Wyk, et al. (2001) provides good back-ground to the use of tracer tests in South Africa.



1.7.5 Recharge Estimation

Pumping test analyses provide most of the information necessary to determine the hydraulic characteristics of aquifers, but it is not possible to calculate the sustainable yield without a reasonable estimation of the amount of recharge that it receives over an extended period.

Recharge Processes

The principle recharge mechanisms based on their sources have been de-scribed by Lerner, et al. (1990). These are:

Direct Recharge: This is water added to the groundwater reservoir by direct vertical percolation through the unsaturated zone.

Indirect recharge: This is percolation to the water table through the beds of lakes and streams.

Localised Recharge: This is an intermediate form of groundwater recharge resulting from the horizontal (near-) surface concentration of water in the absence of well defined channels.

Challenges in Estimating Recharge

Recharge in arid and semi-arid regions tends to be highly variable. It is thus important to note that under such circumstances water balance calculations done on precipitation data from a single or few years will not reflect actual groundwater recharge. The reason for this the fact that significant infiltration to the groundwater only results from the larger events at infrequent inter-vals. Thus it is critical to have daily rainfall data to estimate recharge.

A further challenge in recharge estimation is the issue of spatial variability. Natural variations in soil type, vegetation, aspect, and others, influence re-charge figures over an area and so does human activities. Care should thus be taken when using point observations to estimate the recharge over larger areas.

Recharge Methods

A description of the recharge methods adapted to South African conditions is provided by Van Tonder and Xu (2001). Generally, an integrated ap-proach that uses more than one method of recharge calculation is advo-cated.

Qualified es-timates

Qualified estimates on the percentage of recharge in an area are based on the study of existing maps on soil type, geology, vegetation and land-cover. The use of multiple criteria could be used to refine the recharge estimates for an area.

The following soil types are used with the assumed recharge percentage on a flat bare area given in brackets (Van Tonder and Xu, 2001)

% Clay Soil Type

0 – 10 Sand (50)

10 – 20 Sandy loam (20)

20 – 35 Sandy Clay loam (5)

> 35 Clayey loam, clay (3)



Depending on the vegetation in the area the following percentage correc-tions are made to the above percentages:

• Wood/Tree (90)

• Grass (40)

• Bare (0)

Geology may be used in a similar manner. In this case the qualified guess is dependent on the percentage of the area covered by a specific type of formation or soil cover and the slope of the topography.

Geology % Recharge (Soil cover <5 m)

% Recharge (Soil cover >5 m)

Sandstone, mudstone, siltstone

5 2

Hard Rock (granite, gneiss, etc.)

7 4

Dolomite 12 8

Calcrete 9 5

Alluvial sand 20 15

Coastal sand 30 20

Alluvium 12 8

Coastal sand 30 20

• A correction of 40% should be made if the surface slope is more than 5%.

The Chloride method

This is the cheapest method to estimate recharge. The Cl in rainfall and in the saturated zone must be known as well as the dry deposition of Chloride, which may be a factor in coastal areas. The method is described in detail by Van Tonder and Xu, 2001.

Isotopes Oxygen-18 and Deuterium (2H) will fingerprint the origin of the water while the Deuterium displacement method will give an estimate of recharge if the recharge is generally below 20 mm/a (Van Tonder and Xu, 2001).

Isotopes are specifically useful to determine the recharge source and the age of the groundwater.



1.7.6 Discharge Estimation

It is essential to gain a good understanding of the groundwater discharge processes in a catchment in order to balance the estimates of inflows and outflows. Groundwater discharge may occur through any of the following:

• Abstraction from boreholes;

• Baseflow to rivers;

• Baseflow to springs;

• Baseflow to wetlands;

• Discharge to the sea;

• Transpiration from vegetation;

• Evaporation from the capillary zone.

Various methods are available to either directly measure or infer discharge volumes. These are summarised below.

Abstraction from bore-holes / wells

May be calculated through:

• Records of pumped volumes

• Records of power or diesel consumption

• Records of the irrigated area, crop types and crop coefficients

• Records of the number of people & livestock dependent on a source

Baseflow Groundwater fed baseflow to surface water features such as springs, riv-ers, wetlands and lakes may be calculated from stream hydrographs. This requires the volume of flow in the stream or spring to be measured.

The separation of a stream hydrograph into its components is based on the assumption that the different components of flow arrive at the stream at different intervals. Overland flow arrives most rapidly, followed by through-flow and groundwater flow at the slowest rate. Two methods exist to differentiate between baseflow and stormflow, graphical methods and Isotopic/chemical methods.

Graphical methods

In graphical hydrograph separation an arbitrary separation is made be-tween quick-flow and slow-flow. A widely used approach is described by Hewlett and Hibbert (1967). It must however be noted that hydrometric methods alone fail to adequately explain stream chemistry during storm runoff events.

Isotope/Chemical Separation

Hydrograph separation using stable environmental isotopes has been widely applied in hydrological process studies (Saayman and Scott, 2002).

The basis of this method is temporal variations in the isotopic composition of precipitation, resulting in the isotope composition of the event water dif-fering from the composition of the water already in the catchment (Genereux and Hooper, 1998).



Where hydrograph separation methods are used, the surface hydrograph data needs to be checked against relative groundwater/surface water lev-els and the occurrence of permeable zone, in order to confirm the feasibil-ity for discharge.

Gaining and losing reaches of rivers should be identified as well as areas where the surface and groundwater systems are isolated from each other by impermeable layers.

The baseflow separation technique used will depend on the type of data that is available. Xu, et al. (2001) give an assessment of the methods in a Water Research Commission report on the reserve determination, and recommend a modified Herold (1980) approach.

Actual measurements of groundwater inflows to surface water can be made using a simple drum and plastic bag as described by Bokuniewicz and Zeithin (1980).

Continuous measurements of groundwater seepage can be made using an ultrasonic groundwater seepage meter (Paulsen, et al., 1997) (O’Rourke, et al., 1999).

Discharge to the sea

Underground discharge to the sea occurs in considerable volumes, which may be estimated from observations of groundwater flow and aquifer thick-ness. Point measurements may be made using either the ‘drum method’ or an ultrasonic groundwater seepage meter as mentioned above.



FIGURE 4: GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GAINING (LEFT) AND LOSING (RIGHT) STREAMS. THE BOTTOM IMAGES SHOW THE GROUNDWATER FLOW LINES.

NUMERICAL GROUNDWATER MODELLING


1.8 NUMERICAL GROUNDWATER MODELLING Background Groundwater models play an increasingly important role in groundwater

management. Through the construction of numerical models we are able to simulate the response of aquifers and surface water resources to ab-straction, land-use change and the effects of climate changes before such events become a reality.

Numerical modelling offers the opportunity to generate a simulation of field conditions. When considering issues of groundwater management and groundwater contamination, models help to develop an understand-ing of the problem and can be used to find the best solution among sev-eral, in terms of both effectiveness and cost-efficiency.

Numerical Models

A numerical model attempts to simulate groundwater flow indirectly by means of a governing equation thought to represent the physical proc-esses that occur in the system, together with equations that describe heads or flow along the boundaries of the model. For time-dependent problems, an equation describing the initial distribution of heads in the system is also needed (Anderson and Woesner, 1992)

Limitations of Hydrogeologi-cal modelling

It must be strongly emphasised that numerical models are only simple representations of a very complicated reality. Through the use of Graphic User Interfaces the outputs however appear very convincing regardless of the quality of input and skills of the modeller. The results should always be subject to a professional quality control.

One of the main difficulties in modelling groundwater flow and mass transport is the heterogeneity of the geology and the flow systems. Measures to overcome such heterogeneities have been developed for the large, intermediate and small scales. When dealing with large scale structures we use in situ surveys and borehole measurements, followed by deterministic modelling; while for small scale structures we use some kind of averaging and representation (Tsang, 2000).

Steps to con-structing Hy-drogeological models

The development of hydrogeological models can be complex and time consuming. A thorough understanding of the hydrogeological system is an important requirement for the construction of the model. The concep-tual understanding is often based on other processes such as the hydro-census, exploration drilling, hydraulic testing, and recharge estimation. The complexity of the model to be developed will depend on the scale of the study site and the level of output detail required; while the availability of budget, time, expertise and infrastructure/software will define the model construction options.

The steps proposed for the development of a hydrogeological model are stipulated in Anderson and Woessner, 1992, and Tsang, 2000.

Sustainable Yield estimation

The estimation of the sustainable yield of an aquifer depends on an un-derstanding of the long-term average recharge of the aquifer. Numerical modelling offers a method for obtaining dynamic and cumulative recharge estimates (Merrick, 2000).

NUMERICAL GROUNDWATER MODELLING


Interaction of surface water and ground-water

Assessing the interaction of groundwater and surface water forms an im-portant component of resource accounting, especially in the determina-tion of the groundwater reserve.

Numerical models provide a tool for estimating the contributions of groundwater to stream flow, and the sustenance of water levels in sur-face water bodies such as lakes and wetlands. In groundwater - surface water interaction models, the surface water features are usually treated as fixed heads, and Darcy’s law is used to assess the water exchange.

Care is advised in using tools that simulate the interaction of groundwater and surface water, as they have been developed with a particular field situation in mind that may not necessarily reflect local conditions. Groundwater – Surface water modelling is a specialised field that re-quires the participation of a modeller experienced in its application.

The work of Kelbe and Germishuyse (2000) serves as an illustration of the way in which Groundwater - Surface water models can be applied to address water resource management issues in South African coastal aq-uifers.

A list of Computer Methods for Water Resources Assessment is included as part of level 4 in the guidelines.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS


1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

1.9.1 Strategic Environmental Assessment: “SEA”

Strategic Environmental Assessment offers a process that assesses larger scale projects or developments in a holistic manner, by taking account of environmental, social and physical factors in the development of natural resources.

The holistic nature of SEAs makes it ideal for WMA level planning of water resources devel-opment. It is thus important that the insight and understanding of the groundwater resources of an area be placed within the SEA context. The guiding principles for SEA are listed below.

Guideline Principles for SEA in South Africa:

• SEA is driven by the concept of sustainability.

• SEA identifies the opportunities and constraints, which the environment places on the development of policies, plans and programs.

• SEA sets the criteria for levels of environmental quality or limits of acceptable change.

• SEA is a flexible process which is adaptable to the policy, planning and sectoral devel-opment cycle.

• SEA is a strategic process, which begins with the conceptualisation of the policy, plan or programme.

• SEA is part of a tiered approach to environmental assessment and management.

• The scope of a SEA is defined within the wider context of environmental processes.

• SEA is a participative process.

• SEA is set within the context of alternative scenarios.

• SEA is based on the principles of precaution and continuous improvement in achieving sustainability objectives.

Source: SEA Guidelines prepared for Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism by CSIR, 2000 as sighted in DWAF (2001).

1.9.2 Analysis of opportunities and constraints

Once the total water resources of an area have been reasonably assessed, the use of oppor-tunities and constraints analysis may provide valuable insight into the most appropriate re-source for exploitation. Such an analysis is area specific, and follows from a needs determi-nation.

Table 2 below summarises the most important criteria to be considered in such an analysis. Each of the criteria listed is evaluated in terms of its sustainability and an evaluation of the costs and benefits that would follow from the development of a particular water resource. It should also be emphasised that conjunctive use often offers an opportunity to maximise the benefits associated with different sources of supply. The table below summarises the costs and benefits that are typically associated with a water resource derived from: Water Conser-vation/Water Demand Management (WC/WDM), Surface Water, Groundwater and the De-salination of Seawater.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS


TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF TYPICAL OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR DIFFERENT WATER SOURCES

Constraint issues are in shaded italics.

WC/WDM (Water

Recycling) Surface Water Groundwater Desalination of

Seawater

Maximises use of available resources reducing need for new developments

Associated uses for dams (recreational, fishing, etc.) and flood control

Often most inex-pensive option, with higher assurance of supply

Small scale possi-ble for coastal communities

Economic Cost of treatment is high for some uses

Generally expensive; Infrastructure costs increasingly high as easy targets disap-pear

Resource assess-ment costs high

High operational and capital costs

Educates communi-ties on the value of water

Is often preferred source and dams create recreational environment.

Local con-trol/management is possible

Relatively secure

Social Cultural aversion to use of recycled water.

Population dis-placement in relation to larger dams. Limi-tations to local con-trol and participation.

Hand or wind pump delivery perceived as second rate

Alienating technol-ogy

Possible in most ur-ban and some irriga-tion areas

Allow storage and planning

Distributed widely.

Seasonally reliable

Seawater quantity not a limiting factor

Brine water Availability

Layman education insufficient

Limited distribution; Evaporation losses; Seasonally variable

Difficult to under-stand for the lay-man

Restricted to coastal areas

Education is most important. Technology for retro fitting is available

Tried and tested ex-tensively

Readily available, with various energy sources (hand/wind/diesel)

Technology Required

Re-use of waste wa-ter requires advanced treatment

Specialised Some prone to breakdown without proper maintenance

New technology required to improve feasibility

Can be behavioural rather than engi-neered

Long life expectancy Usually only local infrastructure needed

Many sites avail-able

Engineering/ Infrastructure

Retro fitting limited to industry and higher income groups

Requires extensive construction and of-ten lengthy pipeline

Vulnerable to sabo-tage

Increased uncer-tainty in develop-ment of resource, especially by non-hydrology scientists

Big plants are most viable

Reduces resource impacts

Increased aquatic habitat with dam construction

Generally limited impact on ecosys-tems

Limited impact on water source

Environment Treatment may be energy intensive

Potentially huge en-vironmental impact when dam building

May impact on groundwater de-pendant ecosys-tems

Waste by-product and significant en-ergy impact.

REFERENCES


1.10 REFERENCES REFERENCES ARE INCLUDED IN LEVEL 4 OF THE GUIDELINES

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


CHAPTER 2

GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ALLOCATION

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Context

The National Water Act gives an allocation priority to categories of water use as follows: The Reserve, International Obligations, Schedule 1 Activities, General Authorisations, and Existing Lawful uses. Following these allocations groundwater should be allocated to individual/compulsory applicants whilst ensuring:

• Improved equity of access to resources • Optimal use of groundwater in terms of assurance and distribution of supply • Optimal beneficiation • Efficient use, and • Sustainable use.

Role of the groundwater coordinator

In order to ensure equitable, sustainable and efficient allocation, the groundwater coordinator needs to understand the socio-economic context and vision for development in the Water Management Area. He/ She needs to be able to communicate to stakeholders and decision makers issues like:

• The availability of groundwater • Characteristics of the resource which increase its value, and • Means to sustainable management.

Communication to previously disadvantaged groups is particularly important. Tools for communication vary in sophistication and accuracy. Simple diagrams and sketches are useful to impart a conceptual understanding of the catchment in three dimensions. Numerical optimisation software and multi-criteria decision analysis will require a high quality of considered input from the groundwater coordinator.

The Groundwater coordinator will need to make a first estimate of annual volumes of groundwater abstracted for Schedule 1 uses, General Authorizations and Existing Lawful Uses. This will be an essential part of the groundwater balance for the WMA. A precautionary, phased approach is recommended for allocating the remaining utilizable groundwater in the catchment, once the requirements of the RQOs and international obligations have been met.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


Recommendations.

Predicting the impact of groundwater allocations and determining optimal patterns of use are a key challenge to the groundwater coordinator. Water allocation managers need to understand available volumes, water quality and assurance of supply. The groundwater coordinator needs to understand how aquifer characteristics, which influence these values, vary within the resource, what are the critical thresholds (RQOs) and to what degree of confidence the necessary data are known/quantified. Another key challenge facing the groundwater coordinator is converting the intrinsic heterogeneity and unpredictability of hidden groundwater systems into a reliable resource for supply. This should be achieved by applying the principles for sustainability, equity and efficiency within the management of the groundwater resource.

INTRODUCTION


2.1 INTRODUCTION

Water resource allocation is one of the core functions of DWAF and will be of the CMAs. Priority uses of water are pre-allocated under the NWA and include the quantity and quality of water required for the Reserve and Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs), International Obligations, Schedule 1 uses, General Authorisations and Existing Lawful uses (see section 5.2 for definitions of these terms) and can be seen in Figure 5. An estimation of the total sustainable yield of the resource and the quantities of groundwater required for these uses should be made to determine how much groundwater remains for sustainable licensed allocation.

These estimates will be made through:

� The resource assessment (Volume 2, Chapter 1);

� Determination of the Class, Reserve and Resource Quality Objectives (Volume 2, Chapter 3).

� Hydrocensus and groundwater monitoring (Volume 2, Chapter 4), and

The groundwater coordinator needs to be clear about levels of confidence in these estimations. It is accepted that confidence will be low initially but will improve with time and the range of monitoring conditions.

In many aquifers, the priority uses of groundwater listed above will place not only volumetric, but also quality and water level constraints on the remaining water available. The position of licensed abstractions, as well as the pumping schedule and depth of abstraction, may need to be included in license conditions to ensure that other priority uses, particularly the RQOs, are not infringed.

The water allocation plan is key to the Catchment Management Strategy and will require the considered participation of the groundwater coordinator. The strategy for groundwater allocation should highlight the benefits and value of groundwater in the catchment (drought resilience, protection from pollution, etc) and ensure that the resource is used optimally.

INTRODUCTION


FIGURE 5: HIERARCHY OF WATER USE AUTHORISATION UNDER THE NATIONAL WATER ACT

(SOURCE: BRAUNE, ED. SILILO ET AL, 2000)

Key principles relating to the allocation of water resources are:

• Lawful rights to water use which pre-date the NWA should be protected, subject to public interest, or where they are reduced or removed, should be compensated.

• All citizens have the right to access to basic water services. • Responsibility for the development, apportionment and management of available

water resources should be delegated to a catchment level to enable interested parties to participate and reach consensus.

• The rights to use water should be allocated in good time and in a manner that is clear, secure and predictable in respect of assurance of availability, extent and duration of use.

• Water resources should be developed, apportioned and managed in such a manner as to enable all user sectors to gain equitable access to the desired quantity, quality and reliability of water.

In order to realise these principles the groundwater coordinator will need to integrate with surface water coordinators, integrated water resource managers, water service providers, water user associations and other catchment stakeholders.

Likely impact

INCREASING

IM PACT

LICENCE � Reserve determination � Other use allocations � Registration � Monitoring and reporting � Charges

Common use: Low or

normal impact

Widespread use: Low or normal

impact

GENERAL AUTHORISATION � Applicable to all � Some

registration � Some monitoring� Some reporting

SCHEDULE ONE � Detailed Use

not known to Department

HOW TO RECONCILE SUSTAINABILITY, EQUITY AND EFFICIENCY


2.2 HOW TO RECONCILE SUSTAINABILITY, EQUITY AND EFFICIENCY WITH GROUNDWATER QUANTITY AND GROUNDWATER QUALITY

2.2.1 Sustainability

Also see sustainability in Volume 1, Chapter 4.

The currently accepted understanding of environmental sustainability was formulated by Brundtland (1987). In terms of groundwater abstraction, sustainable yield can be viewed as the amount of water that can be abstracted to meet the need of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

It is reasonable to assume that the needs of future generations will be similar to our own, with increasing magnitude as the size of population and standard of living increases. In the case of most aquifers therefore, sustainability means maintaining the functioning of the aquifer in terms of the quality and quantity of water available to be used. It is usually acceptable to abstract only what can confidently be expected to be recharged in the short to medium term (average annual recharge). Sustainability of the aquifer resource needs to be protected through:

• Controlling the total volume of water abstracted. • Controlling the impact of land-based activities. • Placing conditions on the situation under which water may be abstracted.

The allocation of water and the conditions under which it is allocated are therefore critical controls in sustainable groundwater use. Water allocation mechanisms need to take into account the mechanisms for water resource protection (Resource Directed Measures, Source Directed Controls – Volume 2, Chapter 3).

In order to ensure sustainable use of a groundwater resource the system and its sustainable limits need to be understood. This requires long term monitoring data and an understanding of the critical ‘points of no return’ and irreversible damage. Irreversible damage may be considered as the loss of a critical function of the aquifer for the duration of more than a century (100 years). Common triggers of irreversible damage include:

• Mining of groundwater – abstraction of groundwater at significantly more than recharge rates, particularly fossil groundwater which is receiving little or no modern recharge.

• Land subsidence as a result of lowering water tables (dolomites, limestones and unconsolidated primary aquifers), which irreversibly reduces the storage capacity of the aquifer.

• Saline intrusion of the aquifer as a result of lowered water tables near the coast or overlying saline aquifers, and

• Contamination of groundwater, particularly where a contaminator is ‘stored’ in the aquifer by diffusion into storage water in a dual porosity aquifer or adsorption to the matrix.

• Fracture zones that get dewatered cause irreversible damage to this groundwater flow conduits.



The following legal and regulatory tools are available to the groundwater coordinator in the CMA to ensure the sustainable functioning of aquifers in WMA:

• Setting the Class, the consequent RQOs and the Reserve (Volume 2, Chapter 3) will outline the limits of socially acceptable impact to the functioning of the groundwater system. It is possible that these will exceed environmentally sustainable limits. For example, in a highly water stressed area a decision may be taken to mine groundwater or industrial development in an area may prioritise dewatering over the maintenance of aquifer integrity (subsidence).

• Non-allocation to unsustainable uses or levels of use. • Setting licensing conditions which

⇒ Limit drawdown of the groundwater level ⇒ Prescribe the type of pumping technology used (i.e. to low abstraction continuous

rate technology) ⇒ Limit the depth of boreholes, well or pump installation ⇒ Prescribe monitoring data to be collected ⇒ Demand abstraction to be managed within certain boundary conditions

In addition to using the regulatory instruments at his/her disposal the Groundwater coordinator needs to ensure a greater level of understanding and awareness of the importance of sustainability to assure groundwater supply, and resolve competition between users for short term, unsustainable gains.

Sustainable use of a groundwater resource is dependent on:

1. Resource quantity: Typically, the amount of groundwater to be abstracted from any one scheme needs to be less than the recharge to that part of the aquifer. This will ensure that groundwater is available to fulfil its environmental functions in addition to the other uses. This element of sustainability relates most closely to the safe yield concept, derived from water balance estimations (Volume 2, Chapter 1). Where there is low confidence in the water balance estimations, a precautionary estimate of abstraction volumes should be made. In addition to a volumetric estimation of water available, it is critical to take into account the planned location of abstraction points and the local impacts on established RQOs and the Reserve. A WRC project is currently looking at methodologies to set the RQOs in CMAs and is will be available as a report from the WRC.

2. Resource quality: Abstraction as well as land-based activities needs to be managed to minimise the risk of groundwater pollution (see Volume 2, Chapter 3 for more details) or saline intrusion.

3. Appropriate technology: The technology used should be able to meet the demands of the users and be operated and maintained within the constraints of the local environment e.g. has to decide whether hand pumps will be better under certain conditions than an electric pump, or vice versa.



4. Social acceptance: The local users need to participate in the choice of resource to be developed. If they understand the benefits of groundwater use for their particular circumstances, they are more likely to protect it and use it sustainably. This is a very important factor and should be addressed adequately to avoid vandalism of equipment.

5. Long-term economic viability: Financing of the long term operation and maintenance of the scheme should be understood, as well as the initial capital costs for establishment.

6. Capacity: Capacity needs to be developed at several levels to ensure the long-term support for use of groundwater. The local managers and monitors of the scheme need to be trained (at a municipal or village level). An understanding of the sustainable limits and opportunities for groundwater use should be developed at all relevant levels of decision making within local and provincial government, as well as the CMA and DWAF National Planning.

2.2.2 Sustainability indicators

So how do we know that the resource is managed in a sustainable way or not?

Here follows a few indicators that can be used to monitor the status and sustainability of a groundwater resource:

Element of sustainability

Indicators

Resource quantity Water levels. (e.g. fix a maximum draw down for water levels to avoid ‘mining” of resource)

Isotopic tracers of water age and source. (to determine if system gets recharged frequently to sustain abstraction)

Appropriate abstraction schedule that takes into account local hydrogeological conditions and water balance.

Implementation of water conservation and demand measures.(eg. not pumping if there are sufficient surface water for users or to reduce pumping if demand gets lower)

Resource quality TDS/ EC (indicators of salt loads)

Faecal coliforms, NO3, Fl, contaminants related to local activity. (Elevated levels of these could cause serious health problems)

Implementation of protective land management and best wellhead practices.



Appropriate technology Identification of local technology constraints (energy, infrastructure, costs, etc).

Identification of hydrogeological operating constraints (depth, corrosive water, recovery periods, acceptably draw down). These can be determined by conducting a pumping test.

Selection of pumping equipment and design of borehole and well-head area in recognition of these constraints.

Development of the operating plan in recognition of these constraints.

Success/ failures of similar schemes.

Social acceptance Thorough consultation through Public Participation Process

Level of ownership of the scheme by users. Accomplish with adequate capacity building and operator training.

Long-term economic viability

Development and implementation of business plan with necessary capital cost recovery.

Transparency and accountability in the collection of tariffs.

Implementation of sufficient accounting procedures.

Capacity Understanding of groundwater use constraints and opportunities in local, provincial and national decision makers.

Trained scheme operator on the ground.

Sufficient mechanisms for communication/ integration of understanding and decision making (water committees, catchment forum meetings, etc)

2.2.3 Equity

‘…Water is essentially a tool to transform society towards social and environmental justice and poverty eradication.’ Schreiner and van Koppen, 2001.

The historical and current distribution of resources in South Africa undoubtedly reflects previous inequitable access to land and water. Over 70% of the poor live in rural areas. 13% of the population owns 87% of the land. Over 80% of groundwater abstracted is used for irrigation and over 95% of this is used by large-scale farmers. Most current groundwater abstraction therefore is used to support historically advantaged commercial enterprise. The allocation of groundwater therefore has a vital role to play in redressing the imbalances of the past and alleviating poverty, particularly rural poverty, through increasing water and food security.



Emerging farmers

A large section of the South African population still live in rural areas. This represents the larger part of the 10 to 12 million South African that remain without access to clean drinking water. It is recognised that access to clean water represents an important component to national poverty eradication strategies. The supply of water to the rural poor not only serves for drinking supply, hygiene, and cooking, but also makes possible income generation through crop cultivation and livestock herding. The supply of water often also coincides with the establishment of village-based enterprises such as beer brewing, brick making, dairying and construction (Butterworth, et al., 2001).

The availability of land has limited the number of previously disadvantaged South Africans in agricultural practices. Where land is available to emerging farmers it is often marginal with poor water resources to support development. The problem of access to water is exacerbated by the fact that many river systems are already over utilised. This means that in many cases the development of groundwater resources, often from low yielding aquifers, reduced use in other sectors, and the transfer of water from outside the catchment is the only option available to meet the domestic and developmental needs of many rural communities.

There have been successful and unsuccessful experiences in using water allocation to uplift previously disadvantaged communities. An example of a successful experience is the Olifants-Doorn Water Management Area of the Western Cape where a groundwater allocation to (advantaged) commercial farmers was granted on condition that some of the water is used to help emerging farmers set up a commercial enterprise. The advantaged farmers were bound to support new farmers in their endeavours. The development proceeded over the course of three years with significant input and facilitation from water managers in the area.

Many social, economic and cultural factors influence the success of groundwater allocation to emerging farmers. However, the Groundwater coordinator can play an active positive role in ensuring sufficient understanding of the resource, managing expectations of delivery and return on investment and that water quality, irrigation practices, etc are appropriate for the local environment.

The United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID) and the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry have jointly formulated an extensive Water and Forestry Support Programme. One of the components in this programme is Water Resources Management with the following purpose:

“To support the establishment of processes and systems for water resources management under the National Water Act that ensure the participation of all stakeholders, with an emphasis on poor and marginalized groups.”

One of the outputs of the project will be the “Development of the Water Allocation Methodology” which will be in the form of a toolkit for water allocation planning. The main aim for the toolkit will be to provide capacity to pro-actively secure water for emerging users and would be a useful tool in the CMA.



Drought proofing subsistence livelihoods

Groundwater is particularly important when dealing with risk management. Poor people living a hand-to-mouth existence have little resilience for crises and droughts have a devastating impact. Groundwater, with its greater storage potential, is more ‘drought-proofed’ than surface water. These resources should be available to support basic needs at times of crisis and may require a ‘Reserve’ or ‘strategic’ allocation that differs from our current understanding of the NWA.

The current definition of the Reserve includes an allocation to meet basic human needs. However, a strategic reserve of groundwater may be required by the poor to sustain their livelihoods in times of drought.

Supply of Free Basic Water

As part of national government’s commitment to the alleviation of poverty, the supply of free basic water to all users has been implemented by DWAF. Within this policy, government has decided to ensure that poor households are given a basic supply of water free of charge. The present policy aims to provide 6 000 litres of safe water per household per month (Kasrils, 2001).

The motivation for the free supply of basic water is based on consideration of the benefits to public health and well-being; equity and welfare; and gender reasons (Kasrils, 2001).

The Free Basic Water implementation strategy (DWAF, 2001b) recognises that free basic water cannot be provided to communities where not even a basic supply of water exists. Acceleration in the delivery of water and sanitation services is therefore underway. It is generally accepted that the development of groundwater resources will play an important role in meeting the objectives of poverty alleviation and the supply of free basic water. In large parts of South Africa groundwater is the only viable water source available, while in other areas it offers a relatively inexpensive alternative to the construction of large dams and long distance distribution networks.

In summary, the Groundwater coordinator is often in a position to assist emerging farmers and previously disadvantaged communities to develop their local economies by allocating groundwater resources as a priority.

2.2.4 Efficiency

Water use efficiency ensures that water is consumed in a way that minimises wastage and losses. For this to happen it is necessary that water users have a full appreciation of the value of water and a desire to maximise their benefit from the water supplied to them.

One of the most obvious ways of ensuring a sense of value is to charge for water use. Other means to improve efficiency are to preferentially allocate water resources to users who demonstrate efficient use and to make efficiency either a prerequisite for allocation of a condition of a license for use.



Charging for water use is structured around many social, economic and resource factors. These include:

• Ability to pay. • Willingness to pay. • Willingness to collect payment. • Ability to collect payment. • Accountability of WSI. • Ability to measure use. • Implementation of an accepted method of costing.

Sliding tariff scales can be used to further increase efficiency. A successful example is the water tariffs introduced in Hermanus (see DWAF website).

The costing and valuation of water supply is the role of the resource economist and water service institutions. However, the Groundwater coordinator can contribute to the debate in outlining the goods and services provided by aquifers in the WMA. Groundwater services may be divided into two basic categories (National Research Council, USA 1997):

• Extractive services (abstraction for domestic, industrial, agricultural uses). • In situ services (drought buffering potential, ecological habitat, baseflow to rivers for

fish and recreational uses, etc).

Each of these categories of services is designated a value to give the Total Economic Value (TEV). The identification of goods and services provided by groundwater is a recommended step in the Classification of aquifers as it helps to define the importance of the aquifer (Xu et al, 2003). Treating environmental systems as economic assets that provide goods and services has become an established approach in environmental economics (National Research Council, 1997). The groundwater coordinator can provide a (usually semi-quantitative) conceptual model of the role of an aquifer, and this hydrogeological understanding will be given a quantified value using an accepted valuation method. (See “Water as an Economic Good: A solution or a problem.” Perry et al, 1997).

Trading rights to water use has been used in several countries as a way of improving efficiency of optimal water use (Australia, India, USA). Perry et al (1997) define a necessary and sequential set of preconditions for the beneficial introduction of market forces into the allocation of water. These are:

• The entitlements of all users under all levels of resource availability are defined and include specified assignments to social and environmental uses.

• Infrastructure is in place to deliver the defined entitlements. • Measurement standards are acceptable to the delivering agency and users • Effective recourse is available to those who do not receive their entitlements. • Reallocations of water can be measured and delivered, and third-party impacts (in

quality, quantity, time, and place) can be identified. • Effective recourse is available to third parties affected by changes in use. • Users must be legally obligated to pay defined user fees through effective legal and

policy procedures. • Large-scale transfers of water with and between sectors must be subject to approval

and relevant charges by regulatory agencies.


GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 41 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENATION

If these preconditions are met, WSIs or even WUAs may opt to trade water rights. This will have implications for the groundwater coordinators’ management of the resource. Limits to trading will have to be given. For instance, licences should be valid for single uses (ensuring the aims of optimal beneficiation are met) and for a single class of a groundwater management unit or aquifer.

Various numerical optimisation software packages are under development to take into account tradable groundwater allocations. These should assist the Groundwater coordinator.

Water Demand Management

Inefficient water use has been defined by DWAF as: Water used for a specific purpose over and above the acceptable and available best practices and benchmarks or water used for a purpose where very little benefit is derived from it. (Water Conservation and Water Demand Strategy for the Water Services Sector. DWAF. Draft 8 August 2001).

Water conservation and water demand management measures (WC/WDM) attempt to ensure efficiency of use and should be implemented for water service institutions (WSIs) and rural and urban end-users alike. A set of guidelines on WC/WDM has been produced as part of this project and gives details on the tools and measures for WC for urban WSIs. More broadly, WC/WDM measures include the Working for Water Programme, leakage detection and repair in bulk reticulation and household retrofitting of water saving devices like dual flush toilets.

RECOGNISING THE STRATEGIC BENEFITS AND VALUES OF GROUNDWATER


2.3 RECOGNISING THE STRATEGIC BENEFITS AND VALUES OF GROUNDWATER

Groundwater offers several strategic benefits as a source for supply. These need to be taken into account in its development.

Even in low yielding aquifers, groundwater is more widely distributed than surface water resources in South Africa. With the aid of appropriate drilling and abstraction technology, groundwater is therefore more widely available directly to users than surface water.

As a result of this wide distribution, local scale management of abstraction and use by communities or industry is possible. This means that large-scale infrastructure is not necessarily needed and encourages devolved management and responsibility. It does mean that education and protective controls are critically important to the sustainability of the resource. Centralised command and control measures are less effective for a resource with grass-roots management.

Groundwater resources typically represent the majority of stored water in a catchment (up to 95%) and the time that water is stored in an aquifer exceeds surface system storage by orders of magnitude (maybe thousands of years). The greater storage in aquifer systems means that they are buffered from the effects of short-term variations in rainfall and recharge. This means that groundwater can offer greater assurance of supply and is a more reliable source in drought years.

Groundwater is better protected from contaminating activities at the surface than surface water, with the unsaturated zone acting as a filter, which removes and/ or decreases the impacts of many contaminants. This is particularly true for microbiological contaminants, which often cannot survive in the unsaturated zone. However, special care needs to be taken at the well-head to prevent contamination of the borehole directly via the casing and handling bailers/ buckets.

In summary, groundwater can offer:

• Better quality. • More reliable supply. • Wider access. • Local control.

These characteristics mean that groundwater should be preferentially allocated to uses that require high assurance of supply, wide distribution, protection from pollution and local control. An obvious use is domestic use for basic human needs and small-scale irrigation.

In promoting these important uses of groundwater, it is important not to create the image that groundwater is only capable of supplying low yielding, local schemes. Significant groundwater resources are available in South Africa and these can be sustainably developed for cost-effective bulk water supply (e.g. the dolomites and the Table Mountain Group – Western Cape).

HOW TO PROVIDE THE TECHNICAL & SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION FOR STAKEHOLDERS


2.4 HOW TO PROVIDE THE TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION FOR STAKEHOLDERS TO ESTABLISH A FAIR AND EQUAL ALLOCATION PROCESS

The World Water Vision identified the inability of many stakeholders to conceptualise groundwater as an urgent challenge. This challenge will call on the communication skills of the Groundwater coordinator to transfer their understanding of groundwater conditions in the catchment to a diverse range of stakeholders and decision makers.

At the most fundamental level the Groundwater coordinator needs to help stakeholders (and other water scientists) to conceptualise the catchment in three dimensions to take into account the often-significant storage and flow regimes in aquifers. Diagrams and sketches are helpful here and there are several good sources on the internet (e.g. USGS).

A variety of tools are available to help the Groundwater coordinator communicate groundwater occurrence and characteristics to stakeholders. Physical models (sand tanks) and cartoons or schematic diagrams are useful to present a conceptual understanding, whilst quantified numerical model outputs may be necessary to inform technical decision makers. The most accurate tools available to determine the impacts of groundwater allocation are numerical models such as Modflow. More information on numerical models is given in Volume 2, Chapter 1.

Multi Criteria Decision Analysis

Decisions for IWRM (as with all decisions) are based on both implicit (hidden) and explicit knowledge.

Tools are needed to help:

• Make implicit knowledge explicit.

• Structure practical or decision-making knowledge.

• People make decisions.

There are paper-based tools (e.g. guidelines manuals, maps, flow charts and decision tables) as well as software tools based on algorithms, logic and mathematical equations (e.g. Expert Choice, I Think, Modflow). Software tools can be prepared from expert system shells (e.g. Level 5 Object, Acquire), programming languages (e.g. Visual Basic), database tools (e.g. MS Access) and Spreadsheets (e.g. Excel). For in-house development and use, spreadsheets and MS Access can be very useful, especially for aiding in multi-criteria decision-making.

A decision-aid is a tool that:

• Supplies information to help a decision-maker come to a reasoned decision. • Gives advice based on available information and directs the decision maker to other

sources of information and advice.

(Warning: A decision-aid is designed to aid the decision-maker, not make decisions on behalf of the decision-maker.)

HOW TO PROVIDE THE TECHNICAL & SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION FOR STAKEHOLDERS


A multi-criteria decision aid is a tool that does (or helps participants do) a relative comparison of options or alternatives, using a numerical assessment of the criteria applicable to each option or alternative. Options and alternatives (or scenarios) may relate to courses of action, policies, projects, sites, technologies and others. Options are usually ranked and may be presented with known pros and cons applicable to each option. Alternatives are often presented with a descriptive or qualitative evaluation, and may be presented with known pros and cons of each alternative.

Typical groundwater problems addressed using this tool include:

• The assessment of alternative sites for a landfill or sewage treatment works in an area spanning one or more catchments.

• Assessment of alternative options for sewage sludge treatment/disposal at a specific site.

• More generally, environmental impact assessments and associated specialist studies. • Assessment of the suitability of use of various water (re)sources in a catchment area,

considering more than one type of user.

In summary

The following steps in understanding groundwater resources are typically needed to help stakeholders make better-informed decisions about the management of their resource and have an appreciation of the role it plays in the catchment:

• 3D conceptual understanding of groundwater in the catchment through cartoons and schematic cross-sections, including recharge and discharge areas.

• A volumetric estimate of the catchment or aquifer water balance, including an approximation of current abstraction volumes.

• Groundwater quality and vulnerability maps and cross-sections. • A narrative and semi-quantitative comparison of different aquifers and surface water

resources with respect to: sustainable yield; quality; distribution; assurance of supply; uses by man and the environment; social and economic value.

• Possible negative and positive impacts of new allocations. • The potential of new groundwater uses within the context of the vision for

development within the Water Management Area.

HOW GROUNDWATER CAN BECOME PART OF THE MAINSTREAM WATER SERVICE


2.5 HOW GROUNDWATER CAN BECOME PART OF THE MAINSTREAM WATER SERVICE / WATER SUPPLY ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENT

The allocation of water resources within a WMA will/should result from the development of an allocation plan for the catchment. This plan will use the values derived during the situational assessment of available water resources and current and future demands for water resources. The processes of situational assessment and allocation planning should fully integrate groundwater and provide records of decision making for preferred sources for development.

2.5.1 Available groundwater resources.

A preliminary estimate of sustainable groundwater resources in the catchment will typically have a lower confidence than for surface water due to the inherent heterogeneity of aquifers (particularly fractured aquifers) and the need to invest more in a reliable delineation of aquifer properties. Groundwater has been cited as our hidden treasure, but its hidden nature means that more needs to be invested in finding it!

Volume 2, Chapter 1 of this document provides guidance on assessing available groundwater resources for the different aquifer types found in South Africa.

It is always important to record the confidence level of yield assessments. There is a wide range in annual recharge for South African aquifers, from > 200mm p.a. in the wetter eastern parts of the country to less than 5mm p.a. in the dry areas (Braune, 2000).

2.5.2 Allocatable Groundwater Resources

The amount available for licensed allocation can only be determined once the following has been carried out for groundwater:

However, for groundwater more than a simple catchment or aquifer based water balance is required. The location of groundwater necessary for priority uses is critical therefore a GIS based approach is recommended. The groundwater model MODOFC takes into account environmental and priority allocation requirements and recommends optimal abstractions regimes at abstraction points with minimum impact on these prerequisites (Ahlfeld and Riefler, 1999).

Allocation to the RDM and International Obligations

Once the total available groundwater has been determined from the average annual recharge figures, the amount of groundwater required to meet the requirements of the Reserve, the Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) and International Obligations needs to be determined. The level of confidence in the determination will vary depending on the estimated current stress placed on the resource. Therefore in highly stressed catchments a comprehensive groundwater Resource Directed Measures (RDM) assessment should be carried out (DWAF, 1999a).

Available Water

Water required for RQOs (incl. Reserve)

Water required for International Obligations

Water required for Schedule 1 uses, General Authorisations and existing lawful use

Water for licensed allocations



This is expected to require substantial investment. Volume 2, Chapter 3 of this document deals in more detail with the RDM process, which includes classification, the Reserve and RQOs (Xu et al, 2003; DWAF, 1999a).

Guidance on determining International Obligations for groundwater has not yet been given in detail. Essentially, local hydrogeological knowledge would be relied upon to indicate where groundwater outflow/inflow across international borders occurs. This may include baseflow to rivers, which form borders (Orange River), alluvial aquifers at ephemeral river borders (Limpopo), surficial (Kalahari) and deep (Karoo) trans-boundary aquifers. The issue of trans-boundary aquifer management is currently being addressed by the SADC Water Sector Coordination Unit and the International Association of Hydrogeologists.

Allocation to Schedule 1 uses.

Following from an estimation of the above priority uses for groundwater, an estimate should be made of the Schedule 1 consumption of groundwater. Schedule 1 is appended to the NWA and describes activities which are expected to have minimal impacts. They include uses such as:

a) water for reasonable domestic use in that person's household, taken directly from any water resource to which that person has lawful access;

b) water for use on land owned or occupied by that person, for -

(i) reasonable domestic use;

(ii) small gardening not for commercial purposes; and

(iii) the watering of animals (excluding feedlots) which graze on that land within the grazing capacity of that land;

c) store and use run-off water from a roof;

d) in emergency situations, take water from any water resource for human consumption or firefighting;

e) for recreational purposes to which that person has lawful access; or

f) discharge -

(i) waste or water containing waste;

(ii) or run-off water, including stormwater from any residential, recreational, commercial or industrial site, into a canal, sea outfall or other conduit controlled by another person authorised to undertake the purification, treatment or disposal of waste or water containing waste.

An entitlement under this Schedule does not override any other law, ordinance, bylaw or regulation, and is subject to any limitation or prohibition.

A hydrocensus would give reasonably accurate estimates of uses in this Schedule. If the resources are not available to carry this out, estimates from socio-economic data would probably give sufficient accuracy.



Allocation to General Authorisations and Existing Lawful Uses

General Authorisations have been issued in order to set a cut-off point below which strict regulatory control is not necessary (DWAF, 2000a). The General Authorisations have been set for different catchments and aquifers in South Africa.

Exclusions to the General Authorisations relevant to groundwater include:

• Irrigation with wastewater may only take place > 100 metres from a borehole which is used for drinking or stock watering.

• Irrigation with wastewater may not take place on land, which overlies a major aquifer. • Artificial recharge of groundwater may only take place with a licence.

These may be open to later debate, particularly wastewater irrigation on land overlying aquifers, as the exclusion follows the precautionary approach and takes no account of aquifer vulnerability.

The Groundwater coordinator should conduct a water balance of the WMA to account for the maximum limit of groundwater abstraction under General Authorisations and registered existing lawful uses.

Wentzel and Smart (2002), have drafted a revision of the groundwater component of the General Authorisations, and these revisions are soon to be gazetted. The revision proposes an increase in the number of zones from four to six, to ensure the General Authorisations will not exceed 80% of the Harvest Potential. It is also proposed that the General Authorisations be based on 50% of the difference between the Harvest Potential, Existing Use and a portion of the groundwater contribution to baseflow.

It is assumed that the basic human needs Reserve requirements are catered for in the Existing Use and the removal of a portion of the baseflow before allocation would ensure that the ecological Reserve is protected. This approach is significant in areas where groundwater is already heavily utilised. As in the current General Authorisations, it is proposed that the old Groundwater Control Areas be excluded from the General Authorisations. In order to be more consistent, all quaternary catchments that intersected control areas were by default downgraded to be excluded and the control areas are not listed separately as in the existing General Authorisations. In the revised General Authorisations report (Wentzel and Smart, 2002), a complete listing is provided of the groundwater abstractions permitted per quaternary catchment.

Existing lawful uses of groundwater are also included in the non-licensed water budget of a catchment. Section 32 of the National Water Act of 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) identifies water uses that were authorised under legislation, which was in force immediately before the date of commencement of the National Water Act of 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) as existing lawful water uses. Data on abstraction volumes and their locations have been captured in the registration process and are now in the WARMS database. More information on this database is given in Volume 2, Chapter 5.



Licensed Allocations

The final tier of groundwater allocation is licensed allocations. These may be either an individual application, possible in unstressed areas with an assessment by the applicant of likely impacts, or a compulsory application in a WMA that has been identified as water stressed. In water stressed areas even General Authorisations and Existing Lawful Uses need a compulsory license.

It is not clear at this stage whether compulsory licenses will be necessary for all water resources in a stressed area or only the resource that is known to be stressed. In areas with low levels of continuity between groundwater and surface water it is possible that one source may experience stress in isolation.

The water allocation plan of the CMS indicates the conditions and aims of licensed water use. These should be set in the context of sustainable development of the WMA and the strategic environmental opportunities and constraints inherent to the region. The development of water resources needs to be part of a larger integrated resource planning process and this may happen within a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) framework.

A definition adopted for “Integrated Resource Planning” is:

“ A way of analysing the change in demand and operation of water institutions that evaluates a variety of supply and demand factors to determine the optimal way of providing water services. A path is chosen that will ensure reliable services for the customers. This path must include: economic efficiency and stability, a reasonable return on investment for the institution, environmental protection and equity among ratepayers.”

The groundwater coordinator will need more than a simple water balance understanding of hydrological processes in the WMA in order to determine what and where groundwater resources are available for licensed allocations. The Classification process advises the development of an integrated conceptual model of surface and groundwater resources within the WMA and a full inventory of groundwater uses. These uses should include inherent environmental uses such as groundwater fed baseflow and supporting vegetation during dry periods. An inventory of uses should be followed by a valuation of those uses, or goods and services provided, by the catchment stakeholders. Important uses/services will require a higher level of protection. This is afforded by the RQOs, which should be articulated to protect key attributes of the aquifer (e.g. – water levels for basic human needs from shallow wells). The RQOs along with other monitoring requirements will then form the basis for license conditions.

A format for recording decisions made as part of the authorisation process, including a checklist of issues, is given in the process guidelines (DWAF, 2000a). The process to submit and receive an application for licensed use in unstressed catchments (individual authorisation) consists of the following stages:



Stage 1

– Legal validation of the need for a license.

Stage 2 – Pre-assessment to determine the need for water use.

Stage 3

– Determine the scope for investigations necessary to reach a decision on the license application.

Stage 4 – Conduct investigations, including Reserve determination.

Stage 5 – Submit a summarised integrated application including a report of the investigations.

Stage 6

– Final decision on granting the license.

The division of roles and responsibilities between applicants, CMAs and DWAF is currently being documented (Haupt, in prep.). This should give valuable guidance to groundwater coordinators within the WMAs.

A seven-step procedure for licence processing has been developed by DWAF and a summary table, including tools recommended for each step, is given (DWAF 2000a).

The information needed to determine a water balance for groundwater within a catchment is often insufficient for a high (or even moderate) degree of confidence in the amount of water available to be allocated. For this reason it is advisable to follow a precautionary and phased approach to allocation. This will minimise the risk of unacceptable impacts occurring as a result of groundwater abstraction and minimise the financial risk of investing in infrastructure for use beyond the limits of confident assessment.

REFERENCES


2.6 REFERENCES

Ahlfeld, D. P. and Riefler, R G. Documentation for MODOFC: a program for Solving Optimal Flow Control Problems based on MODFLOW Simulation. Version 2.11, pp. 1-11. November 15, 1999.

Braune in Groundwater: Past Achievements and Future Challenges. Proceedings of the XXX IAH Congress on Groundwater: Past Achievements and Future Challenges, Cape Town, South Africa, 27/11-1/12 2000. Edited by Oliver Sililo et al, The Water Programme, Environmentek CSIR, South Africa, pp. 1144.

Brundtland, G. M., 1987. Our common future. World Commission on Environment Report. Oxford University Press.

Butterworth, J., Mogkope, K., and Pollard, S., 2001, Water resources and water supply for rural communities in the Sand River Catchment, South Africa, 2ndWARFSA/WaterNet Symposium: Integrated Water Resources Management: Theory, Practice, Cases: Cape Town. 30 – 31 October 2001, University of the Western Cape, pp 14 – 19.

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 2001b, Free Basic Water - Implementation Strategy Version 1, May 2001, Pretoria.

DWAF, 2000a. Water Use Authorisation Process for Individual Applications. Edition 1: Final draft fro implementation and use. National Water Act, Act 36 of 1998.

DWAF, 1999a. Water Resources Protection Policy Implementation – Resource Directed Measures for Protection of Water Resources – Integrated Manual. Report No. N/28/99, pp. 1-45. Senior Author: H M MacKay.

Haupt, C.J., in preparation. The Role Of Geohydrology In The Water Use Authorisation Process Licensing.

Kasrils, R., 2001: Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry, Debate on the President’s State of the Nation Address, 14 February 2001, Parliament, Cape Town.

National Research Council. 1997. Valuing Ground Water. National Academy Press.

Perry, C.J., Rock, M., Seckler, D. Water as an Economic Good: A Solution or a Problem? Research Report 14. International Irrigation Management Institute, 1997.

Shah, T. 1999. Integrating water markets in sustainable water resource management. Anand, India: Policy School. 41p.

Schreiner, B and Van Koppen, B. Catchment Management Agencies for poverty eradication in South Africa. Reprinted from 2nd WARFSA/WaterNet Symposium: Integrated Water Resources Management: Theory, Practice, Cases; Cape Town, 30-31 October 2001, pp. 394-403.

REFERENCES


Wentzel, J. and Smart, M., 2002. Revision of the General Authorisations No 1191 as set out Government Gazette No 20526, 8 October 1999 – Groundwater Component. DWAF, Pretoria.

Xu, Y., Colvin, C., van Tonder, G., Hughes, S., le Maitre D., Zhang J., Mafanya T., Braune E., 2003. Towards the Resource Directed Measures: Groundwater Component (Version 1.1). Final report prepared for the Water Research Commission on Projects K5/1090, 1091 & 1092. WRC Report No. 1090-2/1/03.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


CHAPTER 3

GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION APPROACHES

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Context

This chapter outlines existing strategies for groundwater quantity and quality management in South Africa. These strategies exist at varying levels of detail, but should all be realised with the implementation of IWRM at a catchment level. Groundwater quality protection strategies are outlined in the document Policy and strategy for groundwater quality management in South Africa (DWAF, 2000).

The National Water Act gave rise to:

• Resource Directed Measures (Classification, the Reserve, Resource Quality Objectives)

• Source Directed Controls

• Remediation Strategies.

The three core strategies of water quality management are supported by cross-cutting strategies of public participation and capacity building. The CMA must play a role in educating communities to protect their own groundwater resources by the implementation of initiatives such as wellhead protection programmes.

This chapter gives guidance on existing best practices and step by step methodologies which may be used to realise the goals of protection strategies and an extensive list of sources of additional information.

The role of the groundwater coordinator

In order to realise the effective protection of groundwater resources, the groundwater coordinator within a CMA will need to have a broad understanding of:

• Aquifer importance

• Aquifer vulnerability

• The role of groundwater in the broader environment

• Potentially polluting activities.

• Aquifer protection

A differentiated approach will be needed to make best use of available resources and ensure that least risk is posed to the most important aquifers. The groundwater coordinator will need to understand where groundwater resources are most vulnerable in the catchment, and liase with land-use planners to ensure that contamination threats are minimised.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


Risk assessment and impact assessment provide important tools for prioritising actions where human and financial resources are limited. The effectiveness of these measures in protecting groundwater resources must be measured by appropriate monitoring and assessment, which is used to refine protection programmes.

Effective communication with groundwater users, industry, farmers and other catchment managers will be the key to protecting aquifers. Punitive measures alone will not bring about the desired levels of protection. It will be necessary that a range of important stakeholders in the catchment have an appreciation of groundwater value and vulnerability.

Key recommendations.

In addition to the roles prescribed by the Act and DWAF guidelines, it is envisaged that the following critical areas will need to be addressed in order to achieve groundwater protection.

• The provision of educational material for learners, stakeholders and other catchment managers. It is often difficult for non-geohydrologists to visualise groundwater therefore it is particularly necessary to ensure that educational material is available to facilitate discussions on the importance and vulnerability of aquifers.

• Established links to integrated development and land-use planning at national, catchment and local levels. This is particularly important for groundwater resources as aquifer impacts typically cumulate over extensive recharge areas. The NWA makes provision for land-use controls, but specific guidance has yet to be defined. This may be pioneered in the first CMAs as ‘learning by doing’!

INTRODUCTION


3.1 INTRODUCTION Historically emphasis was placed on the protection of the quality of South Africa’s surface and marine water resources, while policies and strategies to deal with groundwater pollution were scarce. Under the National Water Act, the status of groundwater has now been changed from private water to public water and new efforts are being made to afford groundwater the same protection enjoyed by surface water resources.

Policies and strategies for groundwater quality management in South Africa are now being developed by DWAF with the stated mission:

“To manage groundwater quality in an integrated and sustainable manner within the context of the National Water Resource Strategy1 and thereby to provide an adequate level of protection to groundwater resources and secure the supply of water of acceptable quality.”

The protection of water quality in South Africa is to be achieved by the combination of three core strategies:

• Resource-directed strategies (chapter 3 of NWA)

• Source-directed strategies (mainly chapter 4 of NWA)

• Remediation strategies (chapter 3 of NWA)

The relationship between these strategies is illustrated in Figure 6.

Resource-directed strategies are aimed at understanding the inherent characteristics and current and potential future use of the water resource itself. These are then used to determine the required level of protection. The measures implemented under this strategy are directed at managing such impacts as do inevitably occur in such a manner as to protect the reserve and ensure suitability for the beneficial uses of the resource. Examples of resource-directed measures include:

• Resource classification.

• Determination of resource management classes.

• Reserve determination.

• Setting of resource quality objectives.

1 Section 5 of NWA (1998) requires the progressive development, by the Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry, after consultation, of a National Water Resource Strategy for South Africa.

INTRODUCTION


Source-directed strategies are aimed at minimising, or preventing at source wherever possible, the impact of developments or activities on groundwater quality. Source directed controls have, in the past, been principally targeted at point sources of pollution to surface waters and coastal marine waters. Examples of source-directed controls include:

• Licences and general authorisations.

• Standards to regulate the quality of waste discharges.

• Minimum requirements for on-site management practices.

• Requirements for minimising water use impacts.

• Requirements for remediation of polluted water resources.

Remediation strategies are aimed at remediating historical groundwater pollution, where practicable, to protect the reserve and ensure at least fitness for the purpose served by the remediation. Under Chapter 4 of NWA, the clean up of contaminated groundwater is the responsibility of the polluter, who must also bear the costs of remediation. In the case where the responsible person(s) cannot be identified or has failed to comply with the law, remedial action may be undertaken directly by the CMA. Remedial measures for which the CMA is accountable include:

• Setting and evaluating priorities for remedial action

• Clean-up of abandoned sites

• Emergency action plans or procedures for accidental spills

Groundwater QualityManagement Strategy

Source-directedStrategies

Resource-directedStrategies

RemediationStrategies

•Mining sector•Industrial sector•Waste•Sewage treatment•Mining waste•Agriculture

Sectoral•Abstraction control•Impact permitting•Aquifermanagement•Impact management (diffuse sources)

Groundwater

•Dischargepermitting•Nationalmonitoring•Water quality guidelines

SurfaceWater •Abandoned mines

•Mine closure•Mine liquidation•Aquifer cleanups•Abandoned disposal sites

•Disposal site closure

Resource specific

Integrated Strategies

•Monitoring•Research•Water quality studies•Catchment management•Auditing

FIGURE 6: INTEGRATED STRATEGIES TO MANAGE GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN SOUTH AFRICA (FROM DWAF, 2000 - POLICIES AND STRATEGIES FOR GROUNDWATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT).

INTRODUCTION


Recognising that groundwater management will have limited resources; actions taken by the groundwater coordinator to implement groundwater protection need to be prioritised according to:

• The value of the groundwater resource

• The vulnerability of the resource and

• The risk of adverse impacts on human health and ecosystems

The implementation of the three core strategies requires the proactive participation of DWAF and CMAs in cross-cutting strategies for:

Land use planning and control, including the regulation, prohibition or control of

• Land-based activities

o activities which might affect groundwater quality and quantity

• Mitigation measures

o which lessen the effects of polluting activities

• Cumulative impacts

Research and education, including establishing an understanding of the:

• Importance and vulnerability of groundwater resources.

• Relationship between pollution sources and effects in the groundwater

o i.e. the origin of pollutants, the pathways which they follow and their ultimate fate in the environment.

These activities of influencing land use and capacity building are reflected in the functions of the CMAs as stipulated in the NWA (Section 80). The initial functions of a CMA are:

a) to investigate and advise interested persons on the protection, use, development, conservation, management and control of the water resources in its water management area

b) to develop a catchment management strategy

c) to coordinate the related activities of water users and of the water management institutions within its water management area

d) to promote the coordination of its implementation with the implementation of any applicable development plan established in terms of the Water Services Act and

e) to promote community participation in the protection, use, development, conservation, management and control of the water resources in its water management area.

INTRODUCTION


In addition to these general functions, specific responsibilities of the CMAs in implementing groundwater quality management strategies are advocated in DWAF’s Policy and Strategy for Groundwater Quality Management document. These include, among others:

• Resource monitoring and dissemination of groundwater data

• Preparation of groundwater resource status reports

• Development and maintenance of memoranda of understanding with other authorities responsible for land-use allocation and source controls

• Evaluation of applications and issuing of licences

• Implementation of remedial action for sites where the responsible person cannot be identified or has failed to take the necessary action

• Co-operation with the authorities responsible for source-based control to impede the introduction of contaminants into aquifers

• Control of groundwater abstraction to provide for sustainable utilisation and to prevent or minimise the migration or intrusion of poor quality groundwater

• Defining source areas and implementing the national wellhead protection programme

• Public education and assistance and dissemination of public information.

PRINCIPLES OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA


3.2 PRINCIPLES OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA

Water resources in South Africa are managed according to the principles that underpin the National Water Act2. The principles outlined below are the fundamental tenets of water management in this country. The legislation aims to ensure the enactment and implementation of these principles.

3.2.1 Principles Underlying Water Resources Management

Integrated management

In a relatively arid country such as South Africa, it is necessary to recognise the unity of the water cycle and the interdependence of its elements, where evaporation, clouds and rainfall are linked to underground water, rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries and the sea.

Water quality and quantity are interdependent and should be managed in an integrated manner, which is consistent with broader environmental management approaches.

Water resource development and supply activities should be managed in a manner, which is consistent with broader environmental management approaches.

While the provision of water services is an activity distinct from the development and management of water resources, water services should be provided in a manner consistent with the goals of water resource management.

Managing uncertainty

The variable, uneven and unpredictable distribution of water in the water cycle should be acknowledged.

National asset All water, wherever it occurs in the water cycle, is a resource common to all, the use of which should be subject to national control. All water should have a consistent status in law, irrespective of where it occurs.

There shall be no ownership of water but only a right to use it.

The national government is the custodian of the nation’s water resources, as an indivisible national asset, and has ultimate responsibility for, and authority over, water resource management, the equitable allocation and usage of water, the transfer of water between catchments and international water matters.

Sustainability The objective of managing the quantity, quality and reliability of the nation’s water resources is to achieve optimum long-term social and economic benefit for society from their use, recognising that water allocations may have to change over time.

The development and management of water resources should be carried out in a manner, which limits to an acceptable level the danger to life and property due to natural or man-made disasters.

2 DWAF, 1996. Discussion Document. Water Law Principles.



The Reserve The water required to meet peoples’ basic domestic needs should be reserved.

The quantity, quality and reliability of water required to maintain the ecological functions on which humans depend should be reserved so that the human use of water does not individually or cumulatively compromise the long-term sustainability of aquatic and associated ecosystems.

The water required to meet peoples’ basic domestic needs and the needs of the environment should be identified as “the Reserve” and should enjoy priority of use.

Neighbourliness International water resources, specifically shared river systems, should be managed in a manner that will optimise the benefits for all parties in a spirit of mutual cooperation. Those allocations agreed to for downstream countries should be respected.

Equity In as far as it is physically possible, water resources should be developed, apportioned and managed in such a manner as to enable all user sectors to gain equitable access to the desired quantity, quality and reliability of water, using conservation and other measures to manage demand where this is required.

The right of all citizens to have access to basic water services (the provision of potable water supply and the removal and disposal of human excreta and waste water) necessary to afford them a healthy environment on an equitable and economically and environmentally sustainable basis should be supported.

The location of the water resource in relation to land should not in itself confer preferential rights to usage.

Polluter pays Water quality management options should include the use of economic incentives and penalties to reduce pollution, and the possible irretrievable environmental degradation as a result of pollution, should be prevented.

Since many land-uses have a significant impact upon the water cycle, the regulation of land-use should, where appropriate, be used as an instrument to manage water resources.

Transparency and accountability

Rights to the use of water should be allocated in good time and in a manner, which is clear, secure and predictable in respect of the assurance of availability, extent and duration of use. The purpose for which the water may be used should not be arbitrarily restricted.

The conditions subject to which water rights are allocated should take into consideration the investment made by the user in developing infrastructure to be enable the use of the water.

Where water services are provided in a monopoly situation, the interests of the individual consumer and the wider public must be protected and the broad goals of public policy promoted.



The institutional framework for water management should, as far as possible, be simple, pragmatic and understandable. It should be self-driven, minimise the necessity for state intervention, and should provide for a right of appeal to or review by an independent tribunal in respect of any disputed decision made under the water law.

Catchment level & Public participation

Responsibility for the development, apportionment and management of available water resources should, where possible, be delegated to a catchment or regional level in such a manner as to enable interested parties to participate and reach consensus.

User pays Beneficiaries of the water management system should contribute to the cost of its establishment and maintenance.

Lawful existing water rights should be protected, subject to the public interest requirement to provide for the Reserve. Where existing rights are reduced or taken away, compensation should be paid wherever such compensation is necessary to strike an equitable balance between the interests of the affected person and the public. An existing right should not include a right, which remains unquantified and unexercised at the time of the first publication of these principles.

In summary…. The development, apportionment and management of water resources should be carried out using the criteria of public interest, sustainability, equity and efficiency of use in a manner, which reflects the value of water to society while ensuring that basic domestic needs, the requirements of the environment and international obligations are met.

In addition to the principles identified by DWAF during the development of the new legislation, other important principles are currently being adopted in resources management in South Africa. These are outlined below and should be used to effect integrated catchment management.

3.2.2 Resource Management principles

Cooperative governance

Cooperative governance is a constitutional imperative. The Constitution requires that all spheres of government and all organs of state must observe the principles of cooperative government. (s41(1) of the Constitution). This recognises that effective and efficient governance in a capacity and resource scarce country such as this can only be achieved through a high level of cooperation between government departments.

Strategic adaptive management (SAM)

This approach aims to achieve management goals in a flexible way without detailed prescriptive planning – i.e. learn by doing. It promotes the practice of ‘form follows function’, to avoid inflexible institutional structuring, and relies on consensus building between scientists, managers and stakeholders (Rogers, et al., 2000).

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

This approach applies the principle of understanding the environment and identifying inherent opportunities and constraints. These should influence the choice of development options to improve sustainability. SEAs represent an important decision support tool in that it involves stakeholder participation and provides appropriate information for planning and decision-making, and should be a part of the situation assessment.



Risk-based prioritisation

CMAs will not be in a position to address all the water resource issues in their areas. A way to prioritise the issues for attention is to assess the risk of adverse consequences. Risk assessment considers the probability of an adverse event happening (for e.g. an infant consuming water with 50 mg/L nitrate-nitrogen) and the consequences of the event. Situations that present a high risk (high probability of occurrence and/or severe consequences) should be prioritised for attention.

Appropriate technologies

South Africa has a high degree of diversity and therefore very varied needs for appropriate technology. Technologies should be sourced and developed to improve efficiency and sustainability of supply. They should be selected taking into account cultural preferences, cost and sustainability.

Goal oriented management

An effective way to achieve consensus between all stakeholders on the goals of water resource management is through developing future scenarios – a vision of the catchment in 5 or 10 years time. The scenarios need to be ‘unpacked’ into a set of resource and supply goals (Resource quality objective, levels of efficiency, supply volumes and quality). Once the goals have been established, current and future obstacles are identified as intermediate objectives. These objectives (or constraints) should be met (or overcome) in order to achieve the goals. This is also known as Theory of Constraints (ToC).

Multi-tier tariffs

This has been successfully applied – a pioneering community in South Africa was Hermanus in the Western Cape – and can be used to improve efficiency of use. (See the document on Water Conservation/Water Demand management produced as part of this DWAF/DANIDA project.)

IMPLEMENTATION OF RESOURCE DIRECTED MEASURES


3.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF RESOURCE DIRECTED MEASURES

GOAL

CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT AGENCIES SHOULD SEEK TO DEVELOP A GOOD UNDERSTANDING OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY STATUS, THREATS TO GROUNDWATER QUALITY AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CAUSES OF GROUNDWATER DAMAGE AND THE EFFECT ON THE RESOURCE.

The following resource-directed measures are specified in the NWA (Section 13):

• A national classification system for water resources including groundwater.

• Determination of a management class for each resource.

• Determination of the “Reserve” which includes the basic human needs reserve (water for drinking, food preparation and personal hygiene) and the ecological reserve, which must be determined for all parts of any significant water resource such as rivers, streams, wetlands, lakes, estuaries as well as groundwater.

• Setting resource quality objectives, which represent the desired level of protection of a water resource.

A method for implementing these resource directed measures has been developed specifically for groundwater by Braune et al (2000). The method involves seven steps, based on the integrated methodology developed by DWAF in 1999, which are summarised on the following pages.

Toolbox Reserve has a program to enable the Desktop Reserve Determination or refer to Parsons, RP (2004) Groundwater Resource Directed Measures Training Manual.



STEP 1: START THE DETERMINATION OF RESOURCE DIRECTED MEASURES

Who Hydrologist, hydrogeologist, groundwater coordinator, ecologist.

What Initiate the RDM study 1. Delineate geographical boundaries i.e. where? 2. Select level of detail of RDM study & components i.e. what?

• Desktop: Basic human needs and ecology unimportant

• Rapid: for small impacts in low sensitivity, unstressed catchment where a low confidence level is sufficient.

• Intermediate: for unstressed catchment. • Comprehensive: for large impacts, or important

resources or stressed catchments where higher confidence is needed.

3. Establish study team i.e. whom?

How 1. Expert knowledge of the area and potential impacts. 2. Expert local scientific and management understanding of the

catchment:

Outputs Study approval. 1. 3-D conceptual model of the area, boundaries 2. Study levels defined. 3. Team appointed.

STEP 2: DELINEATE THE RESOURCE UNITS (Geohydrological Regions)

Who Hydrogeologist, groundwater coordinator, ecologist

What 1. Determine groundwater regions. 2. Determine groundwater response units, based on

hydrogeological characteristics. 3. Determine groundwater management units, based on use of

groundwater. 4. Select sites for RDM study∗(relatively homogenous units for

which the reserve can be determined and protection criteria established)

How 1. Expert consideration and GIS overlay of climatic zones, geology, ecoregions, geomorphology. Vegter’s geohydrological regions. 1: 500 000 hydrogeological maps.

2. Local expert consideration and analysis of drilling and pump testing data (reports, Open-NGDB), borehole prospects map, hydrogeochemical data (TDS/ EC), hydrogeological maps and detailed geological maps.

∗ Items in italics are only required for a comprehensive RDM study.



3. Expert assessment of direct and indirect uses of groundwater by man and the environment in the catchment from maps, known land-uses and licences. Hydrocensus of important areas of use. Environmental auditing of major impacting activities. Ecohydrological investigations of groundwater dependent ecosystems.

4. Scientific and management expertise to select sites which are typical (representative) of the response units and uses of groundwater in the area. Also those sites which will aid understanding of boundary conditions.

Outputs 1. Catchment scale groundwater region classification, mapped in GIS.

2. Local scale groundwater response units, based on similar hydrogeological characteristics, mapped in GIS.

3. Inventory of potentially impacting activities and uses of groundwater with quantification of some direct and indirect uses with respect to quality and quantity.

4. Geographical position of sampling sites selected. Depth to be sampled and optimal monitoring borehole design selected. (Parameters to be sampled may be determined after RQOs are set).

STEP 3: DETERMINE THE REFERENCE CONDITIONS (Natural, unimpacted conditions)

Who Hydrogeologist (ecologist, hydrologist), groundwater coordinator.

What Determine groundwater reference conditions

How Conceptually re-establish natural (un-impacted) conditions (e.g. subtract abstractions, reconstructing recharge areas, etc.) On water quantity, quality, aquifer structure (sinkholes etc), ecological aspects (vegetation dependant on groundwater) Analyse historical and time series data for impacts. Extrapolate information from similar groundwater response units in an unaffected area. Use numerical modelling, e.g. MODFLOW to reconstruct natural groundwater conditions without human impacts (e.g. subtract abstractions, reconstruct recharge areas, etc). Extrapolate data from monitored control areas at the study sites.

Outputs 3D model of natural groundwater response units and their boundaries. Typical response unit hydrographs under natural conditions. Typical range of hydrochemistry under natural conditions.



STEP 4: DETERMINE THE PRESENT STATUS, IMPORTANCE AND VULNERABILITY OF GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT UNITS

Who Hydrogeologist, ecologist, groundwater coordinator.

What 1. Determine present status of resource units: Ecological status & resource quality; Water uses; Land uses.

2. Determine importance of resource units: Ecological importance; Social importance; Economic importance.

3. Determine vulnerability of groundwater response units in terms of aquifer integrity and water level resilience and risk of contamination or saline intrusion.

How 1. Status: Expert knowledge, Open-NGDB, WMS, Local hydrochemical databases. Data from dedicated hydrocensus. 1: 500 000 hydrogeological map series.

2. Importance: Discussion with catchment manager, water services providers and local ecologist(s).

• Consultation with wider stakeholder groups in open forum discussions.

• Resource economic modelling of groundwater resource values.

3. Vulnerability: Expert knowledge of aquifer integrity, drought resilience, potential saline intrusion, protective impermeable layers, transport velocities, adsorption capacity, natural decontamination processes. DRASTIC map. Estimation of land-use and potential hazards.

• Local hydrochemical databases.

• DRASTIC assessment of representative sites (Aller et al., 1987).

• Expert knowledge and sample testing of aquifer integrity.

• Monitoring data – water level responses to recharge, contaminant concentrations.

• Hazard mapping of important groundwater management units.

Outputs 3D and GIS delineation of present status of groundwater management units. Categorization of groundwater management units in terms of importance. GIS map of groundwater response unit vulnerability to contamination, salinisation, subsidence and water level declines.



IMPACT CLASSES FOR PRESENT STATUS: A B C D E F Natural Slightly

modified Moderate modification

High modification

Severe modification

Critical modification

STEP 5: SET THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT CLASS

Who Groundwater coordinator, hydrogeologist, stakeholders.

What Set the management classes for each groundwater management unit. This will determine the level of protection, which should be given to the resource. Refer to Parsons, RP (2004) Groundwater Resource Directed Measures Training Manual,

How Take into account the needs for: Ecosystem protection, basic human needs protection, water users’ protection. Base the Class on the importance and sensitivity of the resource and achievability of improvement Qualitative risk-based analysis of GIS overlay of importance and vulnerability of groundwater management units. Expert judgement on the achievability and impact of setting different management classes. Qualitative or quantitative risk-based analysis using GIS overlay of importance and vulnerability of groundwater management units. Numerical modelling of scenarios for different management classes – MODFLOW, MODOFC.

Outputs Management classes (A – C) for groundwater management units. Associated rules for setting the Reserve, RQOs and Source Directed Controls.

MANAGEMENT CLASSES: A B C Protected – minimal change from reference conditions

Good – slightly altered from reference conditions

Fair - significantly altered from reference conditions



FIGURE 7: THE CATCHMENT IN THREE DIMENSIONS: AN IMPORTANT CONCEPT FOR INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

STEP 6: SET THE RESERVE AND THE RESOURCE QUALITY OBJECTIVES

Who Hydrogeologist, ecologist (aquatic), catchment manager (basic human needs).

What 1. Determine the quantity and Quality of Water required to satisfy basic human needs and ecological reserve at the selected management class

2. Set RQOs for each resource unit using rules for selected classes: habitat, biota, water uses, land based activities.

How 1. Reserve: Delineate areas where groundwater is providing baseflow to aquatic ecosystems and is or will be used to support Basic Human Needs. Determine groundwater-fed baseflow by hydrograph separation (Smaktin/ Herold methods) (Braune et al, 2000) and Darcy’s LawDetermine the quality and quantity of groundwater required for these uses in terms of water levels to maintain supply, water balance or water availability, fitness for use/ receiving environment using local expert knowledge. Determine groundwater-fed baseflow through chemical investigations, numerical modelling of links (PM Win and MODFLOW with MT3D, MODOFC, AQUAMOD)

2. RQOs: From the uses of groundwater identified in Steps 2 and 4, select key measurable indicators as RQOs to protect these uses (e.g. water levels, TDS, fecal coliforms, nitrates etc) and the level at which they should be maintained (natural, slightly modified, etc) (Colvin et al., in prep.).


GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 68 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

What are the direct uses of groundwater

in the catchment?

What are the indirect uses of groundwater

in the catchment?

What is the importance of these uses?

What key indicatorsmeasure that thesefunctions are being

fulfilled?

According to themanagement class, to what level should

these functions be safeguarded?

Importanceof uses

List of uses

Key indicators

Goals for management of the resource andimpacting activities

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STEP

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FIGURE 8: RESOURCE DIRECTED MEASURES: THE PROCESS TOWARDS SETTING MANAGEMENT GOALS (BRAUNE ET AL., 2000)



Outputs GIS-based map with necessary attributes for protection of different groundwater management units. List and range of RQOs to guide management and monitoring activities.Water balance for the catchment with volumes of groundwater allocated to the Reserve and other important uses. Numerical model with optimal allocations. It should be noted that the DWAF policy with regard to Step 6 is still in a formulation stage and reference should be made to the latest DWAF RDM publications. Reference should be made to the Groundwater Resource Directed Measures Training Manual (DWAF, 2004).

STEP 7: MONITORING STRATEGY

Who Hydrogeologist, groundwater coordinator.

What Design appropriate resource monitoring programme (See Chapter 4)

How Set up monitoring systems to ensure that the Reserve and RQOs are being sufficiently maintained for the important uses of groundwater in the catchment.

Outputs Design of monitoring network including position and depth of boreholes, target groundwater management units, target parameters, borehole design, frequency of monitoring, acceptable sampling, analytical and reporting procedures.

PRIORITISATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SOURCE DIRECTED CONTROLS


3.4 PRIORITISATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SOURCE DIRECTED CONTROLS

GOAL

CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT AGENCIES SHOULD SEEK TO CONTROL, EITHER DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY, THOSE ACTIVITIES, WHICH THREATEN THE QUALITY OF GROUNDWATER IN THE CATCHMENT.

In the time, that it takes you to read this sentence, three people will die because they do not have ready access to a safe and reliable supply of drinking water. (From Price, 1985 based on WHO figures).

In South Africa, groundwater occurrence and use is widespread, but highly localised. It is iimpossible to protect all groundwater resources to the same degree. The NWA does not aim to prevent impacts to the water environment at all costs.

A differentiated protection approach is necessary, based on the vulnerability -of regional, as well as local, importance - of aquifers. Preventing all impacts on groundwater quality, would also not allow for much needed social and economic development. Source-directed controls must therefore be implemented on a differentiated basis, which takes into account the vulnerability and the importance of the affected groundwater. For each catchment management area, some level of resource directed measure determination has to be completed as a prerequisite for the implementation of source directed controls.

Implementing source directed controls

The following steps need to be taken to implement source directed controls:



STEP 1: COLLECT INFORMATION FROM RESOURCE DIRECTED MEASURES

Who Groundwater coordinator, hydrogeologist

What Collect information specifying the desired level of groundwater protection

How Select relevant outputs from RDM procedure. Summarise information on groundwater occurrence, use and vulnerability.

Outputs Key outputs from RDM process: ▪ Direct and indirect uses of groundwater ▪ Where recharge areas are located and where they are

vulnerable ▪ Importance of groundwater use ▪ Present status of groundwater resources ▪ Level of acceptable risk e.g. Management Class of groundwater

response units ▪ RQOs needed to measure and maintain the status of the

groundwater system

STEP 2: IDENTIFICATION OF SOURCES

Who Groundwater coordinator, water quality manager, hydrogeologist

What Collect information on the location and activities of existing potential polluters and planned developments within sensitive groundwater management class areas (e.g. classes A – C).

How Checklist of controlled activities (Section 37 of NWA. See end of chapter) Checklist of other activities that potentially threaten groundwater quality (See end of chapter) Land-use information from maps, known land uses, local authorities, business development agencies, local communities, national census Licence applications for controlled water uses which pose a threat to groundwater e.g. wastewater irrigation Field surveys, hydrocensus information

Outputs Inventory of potentially impacting activities and responsible persons



STEP 3: RISK-BASED RANKING OF IMPACTING ACTIVITIES

Who Groundwater coordinator, hydrogeologist, risk assessment expert

What Risk-based prioritisation of potentially impacting activities identified in Step 2

How Compare concentrations with pre-selected intervention levels/ screening levels (e.g. Netherlands guidelines) and only conduct the following if levels are succeeded:

• Identify contaminants and hazards from sources • Identify pathways and travel times for contaminant transport • Identify potential receptors of contaminated groundwater • Perform qualitative or quantitative human health risk

assessment and/or ecological risk assessment

Outputs Priority list of sources which pose the greatest risk of harm to groundwater users or groundwater-dependent ecosystems

FIGURE 9: RISK-BASED APPROACH – CONSIDERING GROUNDWATER AS ONE OF THE PATHWAYS FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE TO CONTAMINANTS

(Source: US EPA, http://www.epa.gov/region09/waste/sfund/prg/index.htm)



STEP 4: REVIEW OF CURRENT STATUS AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Who Groundwater coordinator, hydrogeologist, local government pollution control officer, environmental officer at facility

What Assessment of existing impacts and mitigating measures for high risk sources identified in Step 3.

How Solicit information from responsible person regarding management practices and monitoring at the source Solicit information from responsible person on existing levels of contamination Site inspection of management and monitoring practices Independent assessment of contamination levels

Outputs Status reports detailing impact of each high risk activity on groundwater quality

Note:

Steps 3 and 4 may be swapped around or they may be used iteratively, depending on the level of detail required. Quantitative risk assessment (Step 3) cannot be conducted before the levels of contamination (Step 4) are known, but it is expensive to collect data on all potential contaminants. Experience and common sense or a rapid qualitative risk assessment could be used to filter out the less urgent sites.

STEP 5: SELECT SOURCES FOR INTERVENTION OR REMEDIAL ACTION

Who Groundwater coordinator, pollution control officer

What Identify sources requiring urgent action to stop ongoing pollution of groundwater Identify sources requiring urgent action to remedy past pollution impacts

How Combine results from Steps 3 and 4 Select sources which pose the highest existing risk to human health for first priority for action Select sources which pose the highest existing risk to ecological functioning as next priority for action Identify sources where there is no responsible person (or where responsible person has not taken appropriate action to prevent or remedy impacts) for remedial action in cooperation with DWAF (See Section 6.4)



Outputs Priority list of sources requiring action to protect groundwater quality List of sites requiring CMA intervention to enforce action by responsible person(s) List of abandoned sites requiring remediation List of sources requiring control by alternative measures e.g. local ordinance or change of land-use zoning

STEP 6: SELECT AND APPLY INSTRUMENTS FOR SOURCE CONTROL

Who Groundwater coordinator, legal advisor

What Matching appropriate source directed controls to priority activities Communication and cooperation with - or litigation against – polluters

How Hierarchical approach to intervention. Increasing severity of controls to combat lack of action. Equitable application of control measures, while taking into account the need for redressing past discrimination and for economic and social development.

Outputs Implementation of direct statutory controls Setting of licence conditions or minimum requirements for land-based activities Incentive programmes Supportive programmes Development and dissemination of Best Practice guidelines

Hierarchy of source-directed controls

DWAF advocates various levels of intervention for protection of groundwater quality by source directed controls. The intervention levels are ranked in order of preference for application, so that enforcement of statutory regulations should only be adopted in cases where self-regulation and permit conditions issued under other Government Departments fail to produce the desired pollution prevention.

1. Encouragement of self-imposed discipline

2. Ensuring that Best Practice and direct controls implemented by other organs of state such as the Department of Minerals and Energy and the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism satisfy the requirements of NWA

3. Regulatory control in terms of NWA and the regulations promulgated under this act

4. Development of Best Practice guidelines, which in instances may become a condition of water-use licences.



Instruments for source-directed controls:

The desired level of control may be achieved by one or more of the following means:

• Direct statutory controls and intervention e.g. conditions imposed through permits and authorisations

• Incentive programmes e.g. waste discharge charges

• Supportive programmes e.g. the development of best practice guidelines

Direct statutory controls:

Direct intervention uses a command-and-control approach to elicit certain behaviour or performance from the regulated community. Examples of statutory control instruments are:

• National Water Act (Chapters 3 & 4)

o controlled activities (Section 37)

o general authorisations (Section 36 & Govt. Notice 1191)

o compulsory licences (Section 43)

o water use licences (Chapter 4)

o pollution remediation (Section 19)

o emergency action (Section 20)

• Regulations promulgated under NWA

o e.g. Regulation 704 regarding use of water for mining

• Conditions imposed through permits and authorisations

o licence conditions

o minimum requirements (for on-site management practices)

o permits issued by other authorities (e.g. mining)

o standards to regulate the quality of discharges

• Other acts:

o Water Services Act (Section 12 – submission of development plans),

o Environmental Conservation Act (Section 20 + regulations – waste disposal),

o Minerals Act (Section 39 – requiring approval of an Environmental Management Programme)

• Other policy documents

o White paper on integrated pollution and waste management for South Africa. Government Notice 227, 17 March 2000.

These instruments put the water management authority in a position to pre-empt the need for reactive measures. The above and other control instruments will need to be implemented within the context of procedural and technical guidelines.



Incentive programmes:

Incentives programmes give the regulated community some flexibility, but within a framework of prescribed objectives. DWAF supports self-imposed discipline and will continue to do so whenever possible. Charges for water resources management in the catchment may be used by the CMA as an instrument to encourage appropriate behaviour. Incentive approaches include:

• encouragement of self-imposed discipline

• charges for water resource management

• charges for waste discharge

Where the regulated community can mobilise itself to develop norms and standards for a specific sector e.g. for agriculture, mining or industry, DWAF will actively participate in the process. The CMA should also be aware of opportunities for involvement in the setting of sectoral norms and standards.

Supportive programmes:

Advising interested persons on the protection of water resources in the WMA and the promotion of community involvement in water resource protection are among the important initial CMA functions stipulated in the NWA (Section 80). Protection of groundwater in rural and peri-urban areas, for example, would be difficult to achieve through the usual direct intervention or incentive-based instruments (DWAF, 2000). DWAF, in partnership with the CMAs, will seek to influence sectors that cannot be controlled by direct intervention or incentives through the use of supportive programmes such as:

• education and capacity building, including:

o research and development to build capacity, to advance knowledge and understanding and to develop new and better ways of improving groundwater quality

o educational initiatives to raise the level of awareness and develop skills needed to empower communities to protect their groundwater supplies

• best practice guidelines to educate and build the capacity of the community to regulate itself

• extension services to advise and assist communities to implement groundwater protection programmes

GUIDELINES FOR WELLHEAD PROTECTION


3.5 GUIDELINES FOR WELLHEAD PROTECTION

GOAL

CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT AGENCIES SHOULD SEEK TO ENSURE THAT ALL POINTS FROM WHICH GROUNDWATER IS, OR MAY BE ABSTRACTED, ARE ADEQUATELY PROTECTED AGAINST POTENTIAL POLLUTION THREATS.

DWAF has proposed that the implementation of a wellhead protection programme should be a priority for groundwater quality management in South Africa. The framework for such a programme has, however, not yet been formulated. Several actions are needed before such a programme can be put into place in the Catchment Management Areas, including consultation with interested and affected parties, firming up of zoning rules and training of officials to assist communities with on-site implementation. The communities that rely on groundwater sources must play a central role in implementing their own wellhead protection plans.

Approaches to the protection of the area around a borehole or spring have been developed extensively worldwide. The specific objective of these programmes is to prevent contaminants from entering the groundwater supply boreholes by managing activities on the land that contributes water to the boreholes. This is achieved by delineating a buffer zone around the borehole or well field in which potentially polluting activities are controlled. Wellhead protection has considerable economic benefits in safeguarding present and future water supplies from contamination, which could be extremely costly to remedy.

Two tools are used to facilitate wellhead protection:

• Minimum borehole construction standards – to prevent contamination entering from the surface at individual boreholes.

• Wellhead protection zones – to control potentially polluting activities on the surface and subsurface areas through which contaminants are likely to pass before reaching a borehole or well field.

3.5.1 Minimum borehole construction standards

Minimum borehole construction requirements have been proposed by DWAF, which are suitable for all production boreholes ranging from hand pumps to production boreholes in well fields. For the protection of individual boreholes, attention should be paid to (included in Level 4 documentation):

• Proper borehole siting

• Proper borehole construction and

• Proper borehole operation and maintenance

• Proper decommissioning and sealing of abandoned boreholes



3.5.2 Wellhead protection zones

CMAs need to be proactive in the protection of groundwater against polluters and against land uses, which pose a potential threat to groundwater, rather than simply implementing source-directed controls after pollution incidents have already occurred. Wellhead zoning can be a simple and effective means of protecting groundwater sources. Zoning defines an area around the borehole or wellfield in which certain activities are controlled or prohibited. Minimum distances should ideally be determined on the basis of travel times for the pollutants of concern.

Pollutant separation distances

There are no legal requirements in South Africa for the separation of potential pollutant sources from groundwater abstraction points. Recommendations have been made by Xu and Braune (1995). The following rules of thumb may be useful for the protection of individual boreholes. These are rough generalisations, based on local and international sources (DWAF, 1997; Tyson, 1993) and do not take into account the properties of the aquifer or the contaminant. It should be noted that the determination of correct pollution separation distances should be done by a hydrogeologist, especially in fractured rock terrains

A Protection Zone Program was also developed by Van Tonder, 2000 to allow the efficient protection of Rural Groundwater Boreholes. The attached Protection Zone Toolbox explains the program.

Protection zone I: Fencing

For protection zone I (i.e. the immediate fenced area around the borehole), it is proposed that the distance of the fence around the borehole must be at least 5 m. For a borehole that is supplying water to less than say 20 persons, a well-constructed sanitary seal is regarded as enough. Quality monitoring is, however, very important.

Protection zone II: Microbial and nitrate pollution

A second protection zone around the borehole is proposed. The idea with this zone is to protect the drinking water from microbial (bacteria and viruses) and nitrate pollution. Many case studies have shown that bacteria usually die within 30 days after being introduced into the soil. For the delineation of this zone, in the report by Xu and Braune (1995) proposed an absolute minimum distance of 50 m between a pitlatrine and a borehole. However, in many cases in fractured aquifers, this will not be adequate. The program BPZone can be used to calculate the actual distances.

Protection zone III: Hazardous elements

If persistent hazardous non-degradable elements are present, the whole catchment area of the borehole must be protected. Because of the use of the word “hazardous”, some consideration must be given to its implications. Therefore the importance of risk assessment must be considered.

The attached Toolbox program BP Zone should be used to calculate the protection zone.

In primary or homogenous unfractured aquifers, boreholes should not be constructed within:



• 50 m of an on-site sanitation system

• 75 m of a high loading sanitation system (e.g. school, clinic etc.)

• 50 m of an animal burial pit or cemetery

• 50 m of an animal or fowl enclosure

• 50 m of chemical, fertilizer or pesticide storage, mixing or loading facilities

• 50 m of an above ground petroleum storage tank

• 100 m of an underground storage tank

• 50 m of a major road or high tension cable

Only activities directly associated with collecting water should be allowed within 30 m of a drinking water supply borehole.

In fractured rock aquifers, travel times may be rapid and the direction of migration unpredictable, making it difficult to apply such general rules. In such cases, it is recommended that an expert hydrogeologist undertake a site-specific investigation.

Wellhead Protection Plans

In the United States, a federal Wellhead Protection Programme has been established under the amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act (1986) to protect the quality of groundwater used in public supply systems. Under this programme, the preparation of wellhead protection plans has become a legal requirement. The US Environmental Protection Agency and several state environmental agencies and educational institutions have developed guidance for local communities on the preparation of Wellhead Protection Plans. Extensive documentation of recommended tools and procedures for the design and implementation of wellhead protection plans is available from these sources on the Internet. Wellhead protection is generally required for boreholes or wellfields that are used for public water supply (e.g. where water is supplied 25 or more people). As discussed previously the attached Program BP Zone can also be used for determining wellhead protection plans.

Implementing wellhead protection

The following six-step method has been synthesized from the available information:



STEP 1: GATHER INFORMATION / SET UP PLANNING COMMITTEE

Who Groundwater coordinator, hydrogeologist, Water Service Provider, Water User Associations, local water users

What Collect information from RDM (e.g. aquifer management classes) Collect information on water supply boreholes and wellfields (e.g. locations, drilling logs, construction details, abstraction permits) Collect available hydrogeological information – reports, maps, conceptual models

How Work with Water Service Providers and Water Service Authorities Hold public meetings to get stakeholder support

Outputs Inventory of potential contaminants, status report on aquifer resources

STEP 2: DEFINE WELLHEAD PROTECTION AREA

Who Groundwater coordinator, hydrogeologist, Water Service Provider, Water User Associations, local water users

What Delineate protection areas for control of potentially polluting activities around boreholes and wellfields (see delineation process at end of chapter) Define zones for varying degrees of protection

How Methods for delineating protection areas are described below: ▪ distance from borehole ▪ drawdown ▪ flow boundaries ▪ travel time ▪ assimilative capacity

Outputs Maps with boundaries around wellhead protection areas Physical markers for protection areas e.g. fences, public notification signboards, etc.



STEP 3: POTENTIAL CONTAMINANT SOURCE INVENTORY

Who Wellhead protection committee, groundwater coordinator, water quality manager, hydrogeologist

What Compile inventory of potential groundwater contamination sources in wellhead protection zones Include on-going sources, past (abandoned) sources and expected sources from projected land use Rank sources based on risks posed to groundwater

How Map past, existing and planned land use in protection zones: ▪ topographical maps – general land use information ▪ street maps and aerial photographs – more details on location of

cemeteries, waste sites, water treatment works, etc. ▪ local government – planning information ▪ petroleum companies – location of underground storage tanks ▪ Make an inventory of chemical and wastewater storage and disposal

practices in the area: ▪ permit applications for waste sites, wastewater discharge, etc. ▪ local government/water service providers – information on water and

wastewater treatment works, sludge sales to farmers, municipal waste disposal sites

▪ industries and mines – information from environmental officer, environmental management plans

▪ audits at chemical and agrichemical industries, dry cleaners, paint production industries, panelbeaters, scrapyards, metal refineries, medical institutions, power stations, etc.

Rank sources by risk considering: ▪ affected receptors (e.g. number and demographic profile of water

users supplied by a particular borehole/wellfield) ▪ toxicity of the contaminants of concern ▪ proximity of the source to the borehole, potential migration pathways

and mobility and persistence of the contaminants of concern Use available data on sources – from Step 2 of Source directed controls and source checklist Update inventory every two years

Outputs Detailed land-use maps for wellhead protection areas Lists of potential impacts for wellhead protection areas Risk-based ranking of potential impacts



STEP 4: MANAGING SOURCES TO PREVENT CONTAMINATION

Who Groundwater coordinator, pollution control officer, with input from wellhead protection committee

What Apply regulatory and non-regulatory source-directed controls to manage the threat of groundwater contamination

How ▪ Review available source control instruments for existing sources: e.g. direct prosecution of polluters, pollution mitigating measures as conditions of licence approval, incentive schemes, best practices etc.

▪ Investigate and implement options for changing land use and influencing future land use planning with local government e.g. changing zoning and subdivision ordinances, review of environmental impact assessments for planned developments, source prohibitions.

▪ For the highest level of protection, investigate options for public purchase of the recharge area to prevent development, if land is still undeveloped.

▪ Investigate remediation needs for abandoned sources and implement remediation.

▪ Public education and participation in household waste management and maintenance of sanitation systems

▪ See end of chapter for principles to guide source management

STEP 5: MONITOR EMERGENCY/CONTINGENCY/SPILL RESPONSE PLANNING

Who Catchment manager, with input from local government / water service providers, water managers in neighbouring areas

What Planning to assist with the provision of alternative water supplies in the case of long term borehole failure, a toxic spill or other damage to the groundwater resource. (Water provision in the case of short term failure of the abstraction equipment is the responsibility of the local Water Service Provider)

How Identify alternative water sources within and outside the Catchment Management Area that may be used if the groundwater supply fails. Check that water service providers have adequate emergency water supply plans, including the necessary budget and infrastructure, in case of failure of their groundwater supply systems. Check that industries, transport companies, and government emergency services are informed about groundwater protection and have plans for handling chemical spills which take aquifers into account.

Output Resource loss contingency plan



FIGURE 10: “THE BEST LAID PLANS OF MICE AND MEN…..”

CONTINGENCY PLANNING IS A VITAL COMPONENT OF CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT

STEP 6: UPDATING THE WELLHEAD PROTECTION PLAN

Who Catchment manager, wellhead protection committee

What Update source inventory and protection plan

How Update data on sources at least every two years Update emergency contingency plan every five years Maintain ongoing management of wellhead protection areas

REMEDIATION STRATEGIES


3.6 REMEDIATION STRATEGIES Remediation is aimed at achieving the holistic and sustainable long-term restoration of a degraded groundwater resource to a state where it is suitable for an intended future use. Financial and technical constraints prohibit the restoration of all water resources to pristine condition. For this reason, remediation strategies make use of a risk-analysis approach to rank remediation priorities.

The US EPA has developed a decision-support framework for choosing sites for clean-up and setting remediation goals, which takes into account the potential harm to human health. Many of the principles and procedures of this framework, known as Risk-Based Corrective Action (RBCA or Rebeca) many be applicable for contaminated sites in South Africa.

For abandoned sites in the USA, a preliminary assessment is conducted to distinguish between sites that pose little or no threat to human health and the environment and sites that may pose a threat and require further investigation. If further investigation is required, samples will be collected and analyzed to determine the risk of contamination being transported through the air or water. From these results, a hazardous ranking is then established. This ranking will determine whether the site is included on the United States National Priorities List and made eligible for Superfund cleanup, a programme which provides government funding for remediation (US EPA: www.epa.gov).

Remedial measures for which the CMA is expected to be accountable include:

• Setting and evaluating priorities for remedial action;

• Clean-up of abandoned sites; and

• Emergency action plans or procedures for accidental spills within the catchment management area.

A generic process for the remediation of contaminated land areas and deteriorated water resources is being developed by DWAF to assist those planning and embarking on remediation exercises in South Africa (Hinsch et al., in prep.). (The process had not been finalised at the time of writing and the information in this section will be viewed as provisional). The CMA will need to follow DWAF’s adopted approach to remediation, once this has been formally established.

The groundwater coordinator in the CMA will be involved in identifying and motivating cases where groundwater contamination requires remedial action. The need for remediation will have to be assessed on a case-by-case basis depending on:

• the relative risks posed by the groundwater contamination to human health and the receiving environment;

• the actual and expected uses of the groundwater requiring remediation; and

• the social and economic value of the groundwater resource established through stakeholder consultation.

A clear distinction is made in the legislation (NWA) between instances of contamination where (a) responsible person(s) can be identified and those where no responsible person can be identified or where the responsible person has failed to comply with the provisions of the law.


GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 85 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTAITON

• Source-directed controls are used to control instances where a responsible party is identified.

o In these instances remediation (also referred to as clean-up, restoration, rehabilitation, mitigation or stabilisation) must be paid for by the party causing deterioration of the resource (Polluter Pays Principle).

o Applicable legal controls for this form of remediation include:

⇒ a formal letter in terms of section 19(1), for polluting activities or 20(1) for emergency incidents of the NWA

⇒ licences in terms of section 21 of the NWA

⇒ permits in terms of section 20(1) of the ECA.

• Intervention in the form of remedial action is required when there is no responsible party.

o These instances become the responsibility of the state and fall under the auspices of DWAF, because of its mandate as custodian of South Africa’s water resources.

o Remediation initiated by DWAF will be financed from funds voted by Parliament for the specified purpose, or in extreme cases after tabling of a White Paper (Viljoen et al., in prep.).

o In instances where the CMA (or DWAF) initiates remedial action in the interests of affected third parties, the NWA makes provision for the costs to be recovered later from the responsible party (Section 19(4,5)).

Irrespective of the instrument of legal control, the remediation process should follow five basic steps when conducting an investigation to determine reasonable measures for the remediation of contaminated land and deteriorated water resources. These steps are taken directly from the interim 5-stage generic process for remediation, currently in development by DWAF (Hinsch et al., in prep.).



Implementation of remediation process

STEP 1: INDICATE INTENTION TO EMBARK ON REMEDIATION PROCESS

Who Groundwater coordinator

What Notify affected parties of intention to investigate remediation and expected timeframe

How Consultation with DWAF Water Quality Management Consultation with third parties affected by the pollution Consultation with other authorities e.g. Provincial Department of Environmental Affairs Indication of approximate timeframes for the execution of each stage

Outputs Consensus on the initiation of remediation investigations Agreed investigation outline and time schedule

STEP 2: CURRENT STATUS AND REMEDIATION OBJECTIVES

Who Groundwater coordinator, hydrogeologist, geochemist, health risk specialist, ecologist

What Determine current status of the site/situation Set remediation objectives in accordance with the confirmed future use of the area or resource Obtain approval for remediation objectives from DWAF and affected community

How Undertake complete characterisation of the contaminated area Establish current and potential future use of the land or the resource Formulate non-value based remediation objectives in consultation with I&APs for each affected component Submit information to DWAF for evaluation

Outputs Report summarising current status (see end of chapter) Outline of remediation objectives (see end of chapter) Written confirmation of objectives from DWAF



STEP 3: ALTERNATIVE OPTIONS TO MEET FUTURE USE OBJECTIVES

Who Groundwater coordinator, hydrogeological and engineering specialists

What Investigate alternative options to ensure that future use and objectives are achieved after remediation

How Identify technologies that can achieve the clean-up objectives – e.g. by literature review, comparative risk assessment Develop and screen alternatives for remediation Detailed analysis (including Risk Assessment) of remedial alternatives Preparation of action plan

Outputs Preferred remediation alternative and back-up option (see end of chapter) Motivation submitted to DWAF with reasons why the technology has been chosen Action plan for short-, medium and long-term implementation of preferred option

STEP 4: LEGAL AND IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Who Groundwater coordinator, legal advisor, environmental assessment specialist

What Investigation of legalities and impacts associated with implementation of the preferred remediation alternative

How Identify residual impacts following remediation Screen to ensure compliance with EIA regulations Identify long-term legal responsibilities and liabilities e.g. change in land-ownership or land use Submit outcomes (and proof of EIA compliance, if applicable) to DWAF.

Outputs Summary of legal issues and possible residual impacts

DWAF will confirm with the applicant whether remediation will be authorised under the NWA (i.e. a formal letter in terms of section 19(1) or section 20(1), a water use licence in terms of section 21) or the ECA (section 20 permit) as part of the next and final stage.



STEP 5: APPLICATION FOR AUTHORISATION

Who Groundwater coordinator

What Apply for DWAF (or DEAT) authorisation to begin remediation

How Submit appropriate application forms for authorisation Submit summary report containing information by the authorising Department

Outputs Issue of authorisation (permit/licence/s19/20 letter)

The information requested in the summary report could include:

• A summary of the outcome of the site investigation, including geohydrological conclusions, stating approved remediation objectives;

• Public participation details relating to the confirmation of rehabilitation objectives;

• Implementation plan of accepted preferred option, including timeframes;

• Environmental Impact Assessment of such implementation;

• Detailed design plans of accepted remedial option;

• Operational plans;

• Maintenance plans;

• Water management and monitoring plans;

• Final rehabilitation plans; etc

WATER QUALITY STANDARDS


3.7 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS Water quality standards are defined limits for dissolved constituents. The water quality limit is determined by the intended use of the water and the known toxic and/or detrimental effects.

3.7.1 Variations In Quality

Acceptable standards vary from country to country depending on economic prosperity, experience, climate, and geographic position. The standards tend to change with time as medical information becomes available. Sets of standards can only be considered as a guide and they are rarely legally binding.

3.7.2 Levels of Standard

Water quality standards are frequently set at two or more levels:

� Guideline levels, the ideal concentration that should not be exceeded, and

� Maximum acceptable level, a concentration at which prevention, clean-up or use regulation action must be introduced

3.7.3 The reasons for assessing water quality standards

Hydrochemical studies is a necessity and should be done for the following reasons:

• Hydrochemical studies are done to determine the quality of the water for its intended use.

• Thesesare also done for water type mapping, classification and evaluation of the transport of contaminants. The evaluation of monitoring data, from potential polluting situations, has become an important part of hydrochemical studies.

• Water quality standards are also used as a basis for comparison.

• The toxic effects of most inorganic constituents are fairly well documented, however little is known about the effects of many of the dissolved organic contaminants. Over 1200 organic contaminants have been discovered in groundwater and yet only about 26 standards have had standards set

• The standards may change as more medical or other evidence is discovered relating to the harmful effects of a particular substance

Standards are necessary

� To determine the usefulness of a particular water

� As a comparison to determine if water quality is degrading

� As a comparison in the evaluation of contaminant spreading

� In defining pollution

(Adapted from Usher, 2001)

WATER QUALITY STANDARDS


3.7.4 South African Water Quality Standards

Water Quality Standards have been defined for all aspects of water use in South Africa. Guidelines exist for the following:

� Domestic Water Use

� Recreational Water Use

� Industrial Water Use

� Agricultural Water Use: Irrigation

� Agricultural Water Use: Livestock Watering

� Aquatic Ecosystems

(After Usher, 2001)

South African Water Quality Guidelines can be accessed using the Guidelines Toolbox Hyperlink

3.7.5 Natural Groundwater Qualities

The natural quality of groundwater varies from area to area in South Africa. It can range from TDS contents of less than 100mg/l to 10000mg/l for brines found in some deep lying aquifers. It should be remembered that even some of the naturally occurring groundwaters can be unfit for use due to poor natural water quality. Figure 6 shows the variance in the chemical composition of natural unpolluted groundwater for different types of geology. The variance is due to the leaching of minerals from the surrounding rocks as groundwater passes through its water cycle.

FIGURE 11: THE VARIANCE IN THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NATURAL UNPOLLUTED GROUNDWATER FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOLOGY

Rhyolite Granite Gabbro Sandstone Shale Limestone Dolomite SchistSiO 2 49 32 41 23 26 12.8 14.9 23.1Al 0.62 0.18 0.2 0.1 3.6 0.09 0.13 0.1Fe 0.32 0.29 0.62 0.74 1.7 0.4 1.1 0.5Mn 0 0.02 0.06 0.06 3.1 0.0 6 0.07 0.08Cu 0 0 0 0 0.04 0 0 0Zn 0.07 0.06 0.03 0 0.09 0.01 0 0.03Ca 8.4 38.1 25.7 53.2 114.4 71.3 62 40.4Mg 2.2 8 26.3 20.8 53.7 19.1 43.7 15.2Na 20.7 51.2 14.3 51.1 194.3 12.9 27.4 22.4K 2.3 3.7 9.1 4.3 5.3 2.2 1.8 3.1HCO 3 77 175 196 252 330 228 272 166CO 3 0 0 0 2.1 3 0 0.7 0SO 4 6.9 65.4 17.1 69 358.4 60.7 138.2 37.5Cl 5.1 53.7 22.5 37.3 219 19.7 6.9 23.1Fe 0.3 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.6NO 3 2.6 7.6 6.5 4.5 17.2 8.9 6.3 4.4PO 4 0.1 0.07 0.03 0.02 0 0.09 0 0.01TDS 175.61 436.52 359.64 518.62 1330.43 436.55 575.8 336.52pH 7.2 7.1 7.5 7.5 7.2 7.5 7.7 7.1

APPENDIX A


APPENDIX A

IMPLEMENTING SOURCE DIRECTED CONTROLS

The following detail needs to be read in conjunction with Step 2 in this method:

The NWA prioritises two activities that may affect groundwater quality, by assigning them the status of controlled activities. These activities both involve wastewater disposal, namely by irrigation or artificial recharge. Section 38 of the NWA grants the Minister authority to declare other controlled activities by Government Notice. Other activities which DWAF aims to target for control (DWAF, 2000) are also listed below:

Existing controlled activities: (Under section 37 of NWA)

• Irrigation of any land with waste or water containing waste generated through any industrial activity or by a waterwork (including water treatment and wastewater treatment facilities)

• Intentional recharging of an aquifer with any waste or water containing waste.

Activities targeted for control: (Policy and strategy for groundwater quality management, DWAF, 2000):

• Groundwater abstraction de-watering and recharge

• Disturbance and damage to aquifers by mining and industrial activities

• Waste disposal and storage

• Diffuse sources of pollution associated with urban and rural development

• Underground storage tanks

Internationally, various activities have been identified which can have a negative impact on groundwater quality. The following sector-based checklist provides examples for the CMAs of the most common activities, which might require control to protect groundwater quality within sensitive groundwater response units.

APPENDIX A


Checklist of land-based activities that may threaten groundwater quality:

Industrial sector

• Production, storage and use of hazardous chemicals (A list of hazardous substances is given in the Hazardous Substances Act 15 of 1973 – See box)

• Accidental spills of hazardous chemicals during use or transport

• Transport of chemicals or waste via underground pipelines

• Storage and disposal of solid and liquid wastes

• Underground storage of petroleum and other chemical products

• Disposal of waste ash from power generation

• Hazardous waste disposal by landfill

• Radioactive waste disposal

• Uncontrolled dumping

• Disturbance or damage to aquifers during construction

• Activities which alter recharge (e.g. hardening of surfaces by construction)

Urban settlements

• Underground transport of wastewater (sewer pipes)

• Wastewater treatment works and maturation ponds

• Stormwater collection and disposal

• Grey water (sullage water) disposal

• General solid waste disposal by landfill


• Cemeteries

• Underground storage of petroleum products

• Disturbance or damage to aquifers during construction

• Activities which alter recharge (e.g. hardening of surfaces by construction)

• Excessive or uncontrolled groundwater abstraction

Rural/peri-urban settlements

• On-site sanitation (septic tanks, soakaways, pit latrines)

• Grey water disposal

• General solid waste disposal by landfill


• Cemeteries

APPENDIX A


Agricultural sector

• Land application of sewage sludge

• Above ground storage of petroleum products

• Intensive animal feedlots

• Inefficient use, accidental spillage or disposal of fertilizers

• Inefficient use, accidental spillage of pesticides, herbicides and fungicides

• Irrigation with poor quality water or leaching of salts during irrigation

• Excessive or uncontrolled groundwater abstraction


• Activities which alter recharge (e.g. irrigation, dam building, land drainage)

Mining sector

• Disturbance or damage to aquifers by quarrying, opencast or underground mining

• Mine de-watering

• Activities which alter recharge (e.g. land drainage, tunnelling)

• Disposal of mining and mineral processing wastes (e.g. tailings, slimes)

• Disposal of waste in unused or abandoned mines


General sources

• Induced intrusion of saline or contaminated groundwater into an otherwise uncontaminated aquifer

• Wastewater recharge to aquifers by irrigation, infiltration or injection

APPENDIX A


Examples of Group I Hazardous Chemicals (Hazardous Substances Act, 1973)

Inorganic chemicals Organic agrichemicals Aluminium phosphide; arsenic and its salts;

antimony potassium tartrate; antimony sodium tartrate; barium and its salts except barium sulphate; cantharidin; cyanides of potassium and sodium; hydrocyanic acid other poisonous cyanide substances fluoroacetic acid (mono), its salts and derivatives; hydrocyanic acid; lead acetate; mercuric ammonium chloride;

phosphorus, yellow; strychnine; thallium; zinc phosphide; and any mixture containing any such substance

Aldicarb Azimphos-ethyl Azinphos-methyl Chlordane Chlorfenvinphos Chlorophacinone Chloropicrin Coumachlor Coumatetralyl Cyclohexamide Demeton-S-methyl Dialifor Dicrotophos Dieldrin Dioxathion Diphacinone Disulfoton DNOC Endosulfan

HHDN Mecarbam Methamidophos Methidathion Methomyl Methyl bromide Methyl formate Mevinphos Monocrotophos Nendrin Omethoate Oxamyl Parathion Phenamiphos Phorate Phosphamidon Pindone Warfarin



Delineation of the wellhead protection area

There are several methods for delineating the protection area ranging from simply drawing a circle of defined radius around the boreholes to the use of complex contaminant transport modelling techniques. Where sufficient resources are available, protection areas should be defined on the scientifically defensible basis of travel times for contaminants to reach the borehole. The use of a defined distance is, however, more easily implementable and should offer adequate protection for aquifers of lower vulnerability, provided the precautionary principle is applied. In special cases, such as Class A Water Management Units, a higher level of protection is necessary and site-specific considerations may be required. Other considerations are also important, including existing land use, local goals for groundwater protection and the regulatory framework for controlling pollution sources.

A wellhead protection area can also be divided into zones to allow for varying degrees of management, relative to the sensitivity of each zone to groundwater contamination. The outer boundaries may be drawn to encompass the zone of contribution, which includes all areas contributing recharge to a particular borehole. Within the outer boundaries, inner zones can be delineated using various criteria.

APPENDIX A

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 95 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION I

The zone requiring the most restrictive management in an unconfined aquifer could be designated as the area immediately surrounding the borehole or the area from which groundwater is expected to reach the borehole within a short time.

Suggested criteria for delineating wellhead protection areas are:

Distance from the borehole: The simplest method of delineating an area for wellhead protection involves drawing a circle around the borehole, with the idea that the land area closest to the borehole is in greatest need of protection. The radius of such a circle typically extends up to several hundred metres from a borehole. The area need, not necessarily be circular. Sometimes it makes sense to use easily recognisable landmarks such as roads or railways to define a wellhead protection zone boundary. An ellipse aligned with the flow direction, may be a more suitable shape for a protection zone. The zone may also be offset to provide a greater proportion of the protection area on the upgradient side where pollutants are more likely to travel to the borehole.

Depending on the properties of the borehole and the contributing aquifer, the land immediately surrounding a borehole may or may not be part of the area from which the borehole's recharge is derived. Even in the case of a distant recharge area, however, protection of the land surrounding a borehole can help prevent borehole water contamination. If borehole casings are not properly sealed, for example, contaminants introduced at the land surface could leak into the aquifer along the borehole casing. This is a very common problem.

Drawdown of the water table: A slightly more sophisticated approach to protecting the land surrounding a borehole is to delineate the zone of influence, or the land area under which the water table is lowered by borehole pumping.

FIGURE 12: DIAGRAM OF WATER TABLE DRAWDOWN DURING

ABSTRACTION

Although protection of the area immediately surrounding a borehole will help prevent contamination from bacteria and viruses, it is unlikely to provide complete protection from chemical contaminants. Since many chemicals can be transported long distances underground without being filtered out or degraded, keeping them out of borehole water requires keeping them out of any recharge water that will eventually reach the borehole.

Delineation of wellhead protection areas based on distance from the borehole or on drawdown of the water table is most appropriate for shallow boreholes in unconfined aquifers.

APPENDIX A

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCESMANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 96 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

For artesian boreholes or boreholes tapping deep aquifers, a different approach is required, because the recharge areas may extend far from the borehole location. Even in such cases, however, protection of the land surrounding the borehole may help prevent problems such as the penetration of contaminants down the borehole casing.

Flow Boundaries: For the most thorough protection of a particular borehole, the wellhead protection area should encompass all the land from which recharge water is derived (the zone of contribution). All water recharging the aquifer within the zone of contribution is eventually drawn to the borehole by pumping. If the rate or duration of pumping changes, then the size of the zone of contribution changes as well. Weather conditions also may affect the zone of contribution. During a drought, for example, the rate of recharge diminishes, so the area drawn upon by a borehole increases.

In some cases the wellhead protection area is expanded to include land areas that are not directly within the recharge area of a borehole, but which send overland runoff into the recharge area. Some of this runoff may seep into the ground in the recharge area, along with any contaminants that have been carried along.

Travel time: Another approach to designating wellhead protection areas is to base the boundaries on the estimated time of travel of groundwater or contaminants to the borehole. For example, a line can be drawn around the area from which groundwater is expected to reach the borehole within a month, a year, or any other chosen period. Since the rate of contaminant travel is likely to be equal to or lower than that of groundwater, using groundwater travel times provides a conservative estimate of contaminant travel times as well. As a rule of thumb, protection zones should encompass that portion of the recharge zone that contributes water within a five year travel time.

Three methods can be used to determine the travel times. The simplest, and least accurate, is the calculated fixed radius method (CFR), which is based on the aquifer porosity and pumping rate. The radius of the circular zone for a chosen time of travel (e.g. 5 years), r, is given by the equation:

nHQtrπ

=

Where Q= pumping rate of borehole (in m3/year), t =travel time (in years), n = aquifer porosity (e.g. 0.2, if unknown), H = open interval of borehole or height of screen (in metres). Analytical and numerical software models are increasingly more accurate methods of estimating travel times, but require far more data and should be used by a professional hydrogeological modeller.

Assimilative Capacity: Wellhead protection areas can also be designated based on assimilative capacity, the degree to which contaminants are degraded or diluted as they travel to and through groundwater. The idea is to protect a sufficiently large area around a borehole so that any contaminants entering with recharge water will be diminished to acceptable concentrations by the time the groundwater reaches the borehole. An example of borehole protection based on assimilative capacity is the use of density criteria for planning houses with septic systems.

APPENDIX A


Because the rate at which groundwater contaminant concentrations will diminish depends on the contaminant, the soil type, and groundwater flow conditions; assimilative capacity must depend both on the specific site conditions and on the properties of the specified contaminants. This approach therefore has limited use, confined to areas in which relevant data are available.

Aquifer protection. All the above methods delineate wellhead protection areas based on providing protection to specific identified boreholes. A broader definition of wellhead protection areas may also be used which ensures groundwater meets drinking water standards whether or not the groundwater is currently in use. These wellhead protection areas encompass entire aquifers or aquifer management units, rather than recharge areas for specific boreholes. In this way, protection also is provided for future, as yet undetermined, boreholes and wellfield sites. Within these broadly defined wellhead protection areas, smaller areas are delineated for extra protection of individual boreholes.



Guiding principles

Two principles should be used to guide source management:

• Sources with the greatest potential for groundwater degradation should be subject to the most stringent controls

• Geographic areas where groundwater is the most important water resource or where groundwater is vulnerable to contamination should be managed more restrictively than areas of lower risk.

Differentiated approach

Different sources may be treated with differing degrees of control depending on travel times to the borehole. An example of this approach is to set protection zones:

• Sanitary control zone (30 m around individual boreholes): only activities related to water abstraction allowed. No chemical or fuel storage or use. Fenced area or locked pumphouse.

• One year travel zone: aggressively manage bacterial and viral contamination sources, No wastewater irrigation or disposal, no on-site sanitation, no animal activities.

• Five year travel zone: actively manage all chemical contamination sources.

• Ten year travel zone: actively manage persistent/high risk contamination sources.

APPENDIX A


Implementing remediation process


The report on the current status should summarise the conditions at the site in terms of:

• infrastructure;

• reasons for the contamination;

• volume, extent and type of contamination (including all possible constituents based on a full inorganic and organic analysis of contaminated soils and water, as well as of the original source of contamination); and

• any existing and predicted future impacts of the situation or activity on all affected environmental components including:

o surface water (including stormwater);

o groundwater (which must be based on a geohydrological investigation, and a 3 dimensional numerical model indicating the extent of the pollution plume with regard to both organic and inorganic contaminants must be used for predictions);

o air quality; and

o any other environmental aspects, e.g. soils, etc.;

• other relevant on- and off-site issues such as stability and phreatic levels; or impacts on aspects such as ecosystems, flora and fauna, etc;

• emergency actions that had been taken to prevent immediate risk to human safety and health; and

• actions that had been taken to prevent a recurrence of similar incidents of contamination.

Remediation objectives should:

• be formulated in consultation with the affected community

• be drafted for each affected environmental aspect or component

• ensure that the impact will be managed or mitigated in accordance with current or expected use of the resource

• correspond with specific RQOs determined in accordance with the specific CMS

APPENDIX A


Implementing remediation process The following detail needs to be read in conjunction with Step 3 in this method:

The preferred remediation alternative should be selected using the criteria:

• Ability to meet remedial objectives identified in Step 1.

• Ability to meet regulatory and community standards

• Environmental, engineering and economic criteria (Best practical environmental option)

• Timeframes of implementation

• Cost implications

• Ability to facilitate future use

• Different technologies may need to be combined over different timescales to achieve the objectives. Differences between options for the short-, medium and long term must be highlighted in the action plan, for example:

Short term: investigations followed by engineering intervention;

Medium term: maintenance and monitoring;

Long term: continued monitoring until a predicted steady state has been achieved.

Back-up options for engineering interventions (belts and braces) must also be indicated and included in the action plan for possible implementation in the event that monitoring results indicate the need for further intervention.

REFERENCES


3.8 REFERENCES

Aller, L., Bennet, T., Lehr, J.H. and Petty, R.J., 1987. DRASTIC - a standardised system for evaluating groundwater pollution potential using hydrogeological setting, US EPA Report EPA/600/2-87/035, United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Braune, E., Xu, Y., Conrad, J., Van der Voort, I., Colvin, C., Le Maitre, D., Van Tonder, G., Chiang, W., Zhang, J., Hughes, S. and Pietersen, K., 2000. Comprehensive determination of the Resource Directed Measures: Groundwater component (Version 1.0). Water Research Commission Programme K5/1090 – 1092.

Carl Bro International, 2001. Guidelines for stakeholder participation in integrated water resources management in water management areas in South Africa. Ref. J. No. 123/138-0154.

Colvin, C. et al., 2002. Setting the Resource Quality Objectives for groundwater. Water Research Commission Report.

Driscoll, F.G., 1986. Groundwater and wells. Second edition. Published by Johnson Filtration Systems Inc., St Paul, Minnesota. 1089 p.

DWAF, 2000. Policy and Strategy for Groundwater Quality Management in South Africa. Number W1.0, First Edition. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.

DWAF, 2001. Generic public participation guidelines. Third draft. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Durban.

Hinsch, M. et al., in preparation. Interim generic process for the remediation of contaminated land areas and deteriorated water resources. Directorate Water Quality Management. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.

LWVUS, 1994. Protecting Your Groundwater : Educating for Action. League of Women Voters of the United States Education Fund, Publication No. #980, Washington, DC. Internet publication: http://www.cpn.org/cpn/sections/tools/

Tyson, A.W., 1993. Wellhead protection for farm wells. Water quality in Georgia. Circular 819-13. The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Internet publication: http://www.engr.uga.edu/service/ extension/publications/c819-13c.html

Vegter, J.R., 1995. An explanation of a set of national groundwater maps. Report TT 74/95. Water Research Commission, Pretoria.

Viljoen, P. et al., in preparation. National water quality management framework policy. Directorate Water Quality Management. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.

Xu, Y. and Braune, E., 1995. Minimum distance as an important concept for borehole source protection in South Africa. In: Proceedings Ground water ’95. Ground water recharge and rural water supply. Midrand, 26 – 28 September 1995. Paper No. 6.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


CHAPTER 4

GROUNDWATER MONITORING AND INTEGRATED MONITORING NETWORKS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Context

Effective management of all water resources depends on decisions being based on facts rather than beliefs and assumptions. For this reason, monitoring and information systems are critical for successful resource management. Efficient and sustainable use of a catchment’s groundwater resources cannot take place without adequate monitoring. Especially in the case of groundwater, where impacts are not immediately obvious, monitoring is required to quantify the effects of water and land use management decisions and to make adjustments where these are necessary.

Groundwater in South Africa is now a public resource and water resource management is being decentralised to a catchment level, with the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) principle as the cornerstone of future management. As a direct consequence of this, all national water monitoring networks should be operated in a co-ordinated manner.

Roles of the groundwater coordinator

Under the National Water Act of 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) (NWA) it is the responsibility of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) to implement national monitoring systems, to co-ordinate with other institutions on national level and to establish guidelines for catchment level monitoring networks.

The responsibility for the actual collection of water samples and data will be devolved to the regional and local level.

The decentralisation means that stakeholders will be consulted when establishing the national monitoring systems, and water users may be involved in the collection of field data. This local participation will secure a feeling of ownership to the collected data, which also should be readily available to all stakeholders.

CMA responsibilities

One of the objectives of the NWA, and many of the other recent laws in South Africa, is the decentralisation of authority so that resources can be controlled from within the areas where they are used. The same goes for water resources information, which needs to be collected, captured, stored and managed within the Catchment Management Agency (CMA), where it is most relevant. This allows the people in the catchment management areas to take ownership of their own data, so that they can make informed decisions about issues that affect their water resources.

Catchment Management Agencies should establish strategies and systems for the effective collection of useful information about groundwater resources in the catchment.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


Under the provisions of the NWA and DWAFs current understanding of monitoring roles, CMAs may be required to:

• assist DWAF (National) with the collection of data for national monitoring;

• design networks and carry out all the activities associated with catchment monitoring;

• oversee and assess information collected by water users for local monitoring; and

• supply available information for the purposes of the National Monitoring Systems.

The NWA (Schedule 3) also gives the CMAs:

• the authority to require that a water user install a device to monitor the abstraction or use of water;

• the authority to establish links with any relevant water monitoring or management system;

• the authority to request records on abstraction volumes and use of water; and

• the power to undertake the necessary installations on behalf of any water user, and recover any reasonable cost from the user, if she or he has failed to comply with a request from the CMA in this regard.

The CMA may also request that a registered water user (>10 m3/day):

• measure the quantity abstracted and record the total abstraction;

• calculate volumes of irrigation water;

• ensure establishment of additional monitoring programmes; and

• appoint a competent person to assess water use measurements and submit the findings to the CMA.

Written records of groundwater abstraction must be submitted for database management and kept for at least five years and must be available to the CMA.

Catchment Management Strategy

Finally monitoring strategies should be included as a component of the overall Catchment Management Strategy (CMS). A set of guiding principles should be followed through the planning and implementation of water resource monitoring networks. Monitoring must provide the necessary information to support other CMA functions such as resource assessment, resource allocation and resource protection.

Important principles that should be incorporated into the CMS are:

• Each component of the monitoring strategy should have a clearly defined purpose.

• Data collected should be relevant to the decisions that need to be taken.

• Monitoring should be physically and financially feasible.

• Data collected should be compatible with the models that use them.

• Monitoring should make use of the best available technologies and resources, without entailing unnecessary costs.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


• The components of monitoring programmes should be updated periodically to take into account changing management problems, resource availability and decision-making models.

It is important for the CMA to recognise that the resources available for water resource monitoring are likely to be limited, and the monitoring strategies should aim to make the best use of available resources. This requires efforts to prioritise those activities that provide the most critical information and promote cooperation and alignment with existing programmes to avoid duplication. Mobilising local water users for practical support and making use of appropriate technologies may also overcome the financial constraints.

Cost-effective monitoring strategies should be formulated using a risk-based approach. Risk assessment tools may be used to identify those activities that pose the highest risk of harm to human health and ecosystems, or to select areas that are most vulnerable to adverse impacts for detailed monitoring, and eliminate the “over-collection” of data for low risk sites. In this way, unnecessary expense can be controlled. By assessing the implication of not having access to the data, the water resource manager can eliminate those data which may be “nice to have” but whose impact is insignificant, and concentrate on collecting the most critical data.

MONITORING

Groundwater-monitoring networks in South Africa will be classified in four types.

Different elements of groundwater monitoring (- collection, - storage, - interpretation, - analysis, - use) will involve different institutions, and it is imperative that good linkages is established, and that all relevant role players are involved. Only via this way, can you secure motivation of the role players and sustainability of the network.

Natural/Reference monitoring: Type 1

This level includes collection and analysis of groundwater data on a national scale to provide a reference / background for other measurements. The monitoring points will be selected to represent ambient groundwater conditions that are not impacted by short-term fluctuations caused by human activity. This level of monitoring will measure the natural response of aquifers to conditions over the long term and will be used for resource planning and management purposes.

The physical measurements should be done by the CMAs, but the collected data must be stored and managed by the central authority. This will ensure linkage to and compliance with other national or catchment scale monitoring of hydrological systems. There also needs to be feedback to the CMAs from the national system and buy-in from the CMAs to a shared monitoring goal to ensure the collection of quality data.

DWAF Head Office should provide financial support for national monitoring.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


Regulatory Monitoring: Type 2

This Type focuses on impacted or regional conditions specifically on control management of the functions and uses of the resource. A special subset of this level will comply to local regulatory specifically covering the initiation and later delegation of compliance monitoring for well field and production borehole surveillance.

Type 2 monitoring should include both quantity- and quality monitoring. CMAs (or DWAF Regional offices, where CMAs have not yet been established) will be expected to play the lead role in catchment monitoring initiatives.

Each CMA must develop and implement a regional monitoring system of the important aquifers in the catchment, which should be integrated with other relevant types of water resource monitoring, allowing for rationalisation of monitoring activities.

The funding for catchment level monitoring should be budgeted for and provided by the CMAs.

Specific Purpose Monitoring: Type 3

Specific aspects/issues/functions of groundwater and it’s link to the surface water environment and its’ components are monitored. Issues like groundwater recharge and water balance are also addresses under this monitroing type.

The CMA will remain responsible for the implementation and management of the data, while the water user or land owner, or a person appointed by the user, shall undertake the actual data collection. DWAF, as the central authority, will provide guidance regarding monitoring protocols and requirements, as well as audit monitoring undertaken at a local scale.

Early Warning and Surveillance monitoring: Type 4

This type of monitoring programmes address point source type impacts and will have a short life time.This Type will most probably be a conjunctive effort between the CMA and DWAF Head Office and will vary from WMA to the next.

INTRODUCTION: ROLE PLAYERS IN GROUNDWATER MONITORING


4.1. INTRODUCTION: ROLE PLAYERS IN GROUNDWATER MONITORING

Monitoring is the critical first step in the effective management of water resources and is important for achieving the objects of the National Water Act of 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) (NWA). Legal requirements for monitoring, assessment and information are addressed in Chapter 14 of the NWA.

4.1.1 DWAF responsibilities

The Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry is required by the NWA to establish national monitoring systems on water resources. These systems must provide for the collection of appropriate data and information necessary to assess, among other matters:

� the quantity of water in the various water resources � the quality of the water resources � the use of the water resources � the rehabilitation of water resources � compliance with resource quality objectives (RQOs) � the health of aquatic ecosystems, and � atmospheric conditions which may influence water resources.

The data that will be collected will therefore relate to all aspects of the hydrological cycle.

The Minister is also required to establish national information systems regarding water resources where the monitoring data will be stored, assessed and made available to the public in an appropriate manner. Groundwater information systems will be addressed in Volume 2, Chapter 5 of this document.

4.1.2 A tiered approach to monitoring – other stakeholder responsibilities

It is the responsibility of DWAF to establish national monitoring systems, including the development of mechanisms and procedures to coordinate the monitoring of water resources. The responsibility for the actual collection of water samples and data as well as data capture will, in all likelihood be devolved to the regional and local level. The national monitoring system will, therefore, incorporate information collected by:

� water users � water management institutions (Water Boards, Water Services Providers (WSPs),

Water Service Authorities (WSAs), Water User Associations(WUAs)) � CMAs � DWAF (regional offices) � DWAF (national office), and � other state organisations.

Figure 13 shows the responsibilities of these different stakeholders. These stakeholders will be consulted when establishing the national monitoring systems. Provision is made in the NWA for DWAF to obtain any data, information, documents, samples or materials reasonably required for the purposes of the national monitoring network from any person at the written request of the Minister.



Minister &DWAF

(National)

DWAF Regional

CatchmentManagement

Agencies

Water UsersWSAs/WSPs

National Monitoring (ambient/reference)

RegionalMonitoring (resources)

Support National

Monitoring

RegionalMonitoring (resources)

Support National

Monitoring

OverseeLocal

Monitoring

Local ComplianceMonitoring

CatchmentInformationSystems

Compliance ReportingSystems

NationalInformationSystems

NGISWRMAIS

WSAMWMS

HIS/HydSysWARMS

FIGURE 13: DIAGRAM OF GROUNDWATER MONITORING AND DATA MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBILITIES

Monitoring of groundwater comprises several aspects such as:

- identification of monitoring objectives - identification of measuring sites - collection of raw field data - analysis of information including quality control - interpretation/evaluation of data - use of information.

Different institutions and individual will be involved in the different aspects of monitoring. The motivation of the involved role players and the sustainability of the monitoring is highly dependant of establishment of excellent communication between these.

For the role players at local level it is extremely important that feedback is received from the more centralised institutions so that every one understands and agrees to the objectives and need for the monitoring.



Natural/Reference monitoring: Type 1

Collection and analysis of groundwater data on a national scale. The monitoring points will be chosen based on conceptual models of major aquifers and selected to represent ambient groundwater conditions, not impacted by short term fluctuations caused by human activity. National monitoring will measure the natural response of aquifers to atmospheric conditions over the long term and will be used for resource planning and management purposes.

Synonyms: ambient -, reference - or background monitoring

Regulatory Monitoring: Type 2

Groundwater levels and water quality monitoring of water resources on a catchment or regional scale. In relation to groundwater abstraction, this monitoring will assess the groundwater response within the area of influence (its functions and uses), but not at the point of abstraction (Murray and Ravenscroft, 2002) Collection of appropriate data for the effective management of groundwater management units and to ensure compliance with resource quality objectives (RQOs). This monitoring type includes the Local Regulatory Type 2b (wellfield abstraction).Catchment monitoring may further include:

� quality monitoring • impact monitoring of non-point sources in the catchment • seasonal changes (variability) • impact monitoring • compliance monitoring • wellhead protection zone monitoring (precautionary measures)

� quantity monitoring • impact monitoring of abstraction over an area • compulsory recording of abstraction volumes • impact monitoring of water level drawdown • rainfall interaction • compliance monitoring (where set as a condition of the abstraction

licence)

Synonyms: regional-, resource - or aquifer management monitoring

Specific Purpose Monitoring: Type 3

Project- specific and site-specific monitoring of potential human impacts on groundwater in the areas close to abstraction or potential contamination sources. Examples of Type 3 groundwater monitoring include:

� quality monitoring • detection monitoring (effectiveness of mitigation measures) • remediation monitoring (effectiveness of clean-up) • specific license conditions (eg. upcoming of saline water or sea interface)



A step-by-step approach to setting up monitoring systems suitable for catchment monitoring is given in Section 4.4.

The groundwater coordinator in the CMA should play both an advisory and a motivating role in the implementation of local groundwater monitoring by water users. The monitoring requirements for each licensed user need to be clearly understood and agreed between the user and the CMA and may be stipulated in the conditions of the water-use licence. The density of sampling sites, frequency of data collection and type of measurements will be site-specific and will need to be appropriate to the value and vulnerability of the water resource and the threat posed by the water use (e.g. groundwater abstraction, waste disposal, irrigation, etc.).

Schedule 3 of the NWA assigns power and duties to the CMAs, among which are powers that may assist in carrying out the function of controlling local groundwater monitoring.

These include:

� The authority to require that a water user • installs a recording or monitoring device to monitor storing, abstraction or use

of water • establishes links with any monitoring or management system to monitor the

storing, abstraction or use of water, and • keeps records on the storing, abstraction and use of water and submits the

records to the CMA � The power to undertake the installation or establishment of such links as required

on behalf of any water user, if the user has failed to comply with a written request from the CMA.

� The power to recover any reasonable cost from the water user for such installation.

General authorisations for water use (Government Notice 1191) require that a person who plans to abstract groundwater, registers the use with DWAF before commencing with abstraction of more than 10 m3 of groundwater on any given day. Registered water users are required to:

� measure the quantity abstracted and record the total abstraction as at the last day of each month, or

� calculate volumes of water irrigated using an approved method, in the case where no meter or gauge is used.

The CMA, as Responsible Authority, may also request in writing that a registered water user:

� ensures establishment of additional monitoring programmes, and � appoints a competent person to assess water use measurements and submit the

findings to the CMA.

Written records of groundwater abstraction will most likely be necessary for long term trend analysees and should therefore be submitted to the CMA for data maangement.



� quantity monitoring at individual production boreholes or wellfields

• recharge and discharge characterisation • artificial recharge impacts on the environment • quantification of groundwater-surface water interaction

Level 3 monitoring is the users responsibility. It will be defined in the license or water use authorisation.

Synonyms: user -, impact -, facility - or compliance monitoring

Early Warning and Surveillance monitoring: Type 4

Addressing point source type impacts on groundwater. Examples may include:

� quality monitoring at point sources of pollution • detection of pollution mitigation • detection of spillage

� quantity monitoring

• impacts at artificial recharge sites

• impacts of canals, dams, other structures on the resource

4.1.3 CMA responsibilities

Under the provisions of the NWA and DWAFs current understanding of monitoring roles, CMAs may be required to:

� assist DWAF (National) with the collection of data for national monitoring; � design monitoring networks and carry out all the activities associated with catchment

monitoring; � oversee and assess information collected by water users for local monitoring; and � supply the necessary information collected at all or any of these levels for the

purposes of the National Monitoring Systems.

The CMA will play a lead role in catchment monitoring in the water management area and will be responsible for:

� the design, installation, operation, maintenance and updating of monitoring systems; � data collection, data capture and storage functions; � the assessment and interpretation of the monitoring data; and � the dissemination of monitoring information to stakeholders and the general public.

Groundwater monitoring systems will need to be established for the important groundwater management units in the catchment to collect groundwater quantity and quality data with the aim of:

� classifying groundwater resources � assessing the status of aquifer systems e.g. checking compliance with RQOs, and � determining the response to natural and anthropogenic influences.


GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATERRESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 110 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

Financial support for national monitoring should be provided by DWAF Head Office. Local monitoring will, in most cases, be a prescribed condition of water use registration or licences and will have to be included in the budget of the WSP or individual water user. The funding for resource level monitoring should be budgeted for by the CMAs through CMA levies.

The national groundwater-monitoring network and data collection activities will be designed and managed from DWAF in Pretoria. Participation by the CMA in activities related to national monitoring will have to be negotiated between the Head Office of DWAF and the CMA in question.

RISK-BASED, COST-EFFECTIVE MONITORING STRATEGIES

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCESMANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 111 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

4.2 RISK-BASED, COST-EFFECTIVE MONITORING STRATEGIES

GOAL

CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT AGENCIES SHOULD ESTABLISH STRATEGIES AND SYSTEMS FOR THE EFFECTIVE COLLECTION

OF USEFUL INFORMATION ABOUT GROUNDWATER RESOURCES IN THE CATCHMENT.

4.2.1 Guiding principles

A set of guiding principles should be followed through all levels of the planning and implementation phases for groundwater monitoring networks. Examples of principles that should be incorporated into the strategy are:

� Planning should proceed from a general policy level downwards to a specific detailed design of each component.

� Each component of the monitoring strategy should have a clearly defined purpose. � Data collected should be relevant to the decisions that need to be taken. � Data collected should be compatible with the models that use them. � Monitoring should be physically and financially feasible. � Monitoring should make use of the best available technologies and resources, without

entailing unnecessary costs. � All components of monitoring programmes should be updated periodically to take into

account changing management problems, resource availability and decision-making models.

(Modified from DWAF, in prep).

Monitoring strategies should be included as a component of the overall Catchment Management Strategy, which must be prepared by the CMA.

4.2.2 Monitoring objectives (The Need for Groundwater Monitoring)

When developing a monitoring strategy, it is important that the purpose of monitoring be well defined and communicated to the stakeholders who need to support the monitoring efforts. It is critical that monitoring needs are established at the outset and that all participants in groundwater monitoring, from the monitoring system designer to the sampling technicians and data capturers understand the monitoring needs. No data should be collected simply for the sake of populating databases. Monitoring can be an expensive exercise and can only be valuable if the information generated is useful for purposes such as:

� The protection of an aquifer from damage. Over pumping causes long-term depletion of groundwater and can damage the aquifer. Water quality can decline due to over pumping. Quality monitoring will determine if the aquifer is being contaminated from sources such as pit latrines, kraals, industry, mining, waste sites, etc.

� Understanding aquifer flow dynamics (i.e. recharge quantification, natural flow patterns and residence times of groundwater).



� The protection of the quality and quantity of water required satisfying the basic human

need component of the Reserve. � The protection of groundwater dependant ecosystems as part of the ecological

Reserve. � Quantifying the effectiveness of pollution prevention measures. � Quantifying the effectiveness of remediation measures. � Acting as an early warning system to avoid unnecessary future remediation.

The information can be used for various purposes, e.g. being incorporated in water balance calculations or models used to prepare graphic presentations that communicate useful information to politicians or communities, producing practical resource operational tools for risk management or as justification for management decisions.

One of the most important goals of catchment scale monitoring will be system characterisation and resource quantification i.e. to characterise the extent and functioning of groundwater resources in the catchment.

Groundwater monitoring data should be used to support decisions for taking actions that might lead to the improvement of resource protection and management. Information collected through groundwater monitoring programmes may also be useful in refining resource classification, delineating future protection zones or updating RQOs.

Monitoring data is most useful when it is collected to answer specific questions, such as:

� Is the current level of abstraction from this aquifer sustainable? Must it be decreased or can it possibly be increased?

⇒ Monitor: abstraction volumes, water levels and total dissolved solids

� Are the RQOs being met and if not, what are the possible causes?

⇒ Monitor: parameters set for resource quality objectives

� Is the water quality suitable for the current or intended use of the groundwater resource?

⇒ Monitor: use-based variables e.g. Table 3.

� Is the water quality in a particular area deteriorating or improving as a result of human activities or intervention?

⇒ Monitor: site-specific or area specific indicator variables e.g. nitrate in agricultural areas, microbiology in areas with on-site sanitation, water levels and pumping volumes in wellfields.

The groundwater coordinator will be expected to answer questions related to the status of the groundwater resource and the availability of water for allocation and monitoring data will be needed to support the answers.

Monitoring should not been seen as a “stand-alone” function of the CMA, but rather as an integral part of the cycle of resource utilisation, resource assessment, and resource protection activities which enable continual improvement in the management of the water resource.



4.2.3 Risk-based approach

Risk assessment is the process or method of determining if an activity (man-made or natural) will impact negatively on human health or the environment. Risk assessment is gaining popularity worldwide as a decision-making tool for prioritising actions, reducing expenditure and setting management targets for environmental protection.

In its simplest form, risk assessment involves (sometimes qualitative or subjective) decisions on:

� The probability of an adverse effect occurring as a result of an activity; and � The severity of the consequences if an adverse effect does occur.

This combines both the likelihood that an event will take place (e.g. a spill of some toxic chemical in a recharge area and the chemical dissolving in the groundwater) and the likelihood that it will cause harm if it does take place (e.g. people drinking the water become ill).

Cost-effective monitoring strategies may be formulated following a risk-based approach. In this way unnecessary expense can be controlled. The selection of monitoring stations, indicator parameters and data collection frequencies should all be guided by risk-based principles i.e. by considering what will be sufficient to know to manage the resource effectively. By answering the question:

“What is the implication of not having this data?”

The groundwater coordinator in the CMA can eliminate those data which are “nice to have” but whose impact is negligible or insignificant and concentrate on collecting the data most relevant to decision-making.

Risk-based approaches must take into account:

� The source(s) of risk, e.g.: • large-scale groundwater abstraction near a saline water body • manufacture, storage or application of chemical substances

� The nature of the receptor(s), e.g.: • communities (including their demographic profile and socio-economic status) • groundwater-dependent vegetation or aquatic ecosystems

� The probability of occurrence, e.g. the combined probability of • a polluting event occurring e.g. a leak or a spill • the contaminant reaching the groundwater and being transported to the point

of abstraction; and • the contaminant being ingested by an individual from a sensitive sub-

population; and � The severity of the impact, should the event occur.

Risk assessment may be used to select parameters for groundwater quality monitoring, based on the intended use of the water. Different dissolved chemicals may be harmful to human health, crops and soil or aquatic ecosystems, for example. Harmful solutes that have a potential source within the recharge area should receive priority. These may include natural sources, such as high nitrate or radioactivity, as well as contamination caused by human activity.



For drinking water purposes, variables that affect health, which have a potential source in the area, may be of greater concern than the commonly tested major inorganic ions. Examples include microbiological pathogens (e.g. bacteria, viruses, parasites), toxic species (e.g. heavy metals, fluoride, nitrate), carcinogenic compounds (e.g. benzene, PAHs), or radioactivity.

By deciding what is sufficient to know to meet the specific monitoring objectives, the groundwater coordinator can eliminate the taking of unnecessary measurements and reduce the costs of monitoring. This applies not only to the variables which pose a low risk to human health and ecosystems, but also to the tools used in data interpretation e.g. computerised models. Monitoring needs to take cognisance that most tools have limited accuracy and it is a waste of time and resources to collect more data than can be interpreted meaningfully.



4.2.4 Iterative approach

Monitoring system design is not a once-off activity, but something which requires regular updating and refinement to make sure that the data collection procedures are still valid and still providing valuable information to meet the monitoring objectives. The data collection and capture to information systems must be followed by a phase of data analysis and interpretation. During this assessment phase, data gaps should be identified and the successes as well as shortcomings highlighted for feedback into the next cycle of monitoring system design as shown in Figure14.

FIGURE 14: MONITORING FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCE PROTECTION: THE FEEDBACK OF DATA COLLECTION INTO DECISION MAKING AND MORE FOCUSSED

Information System

State of the groundwater

resource

Decision making

Quality assured Georeferenced

Accessible

Risk based Cost effective Goal

orientated

Conceptual & qualitative

understanding “What if..?” scenarios

Compliance assurance

Monitoring



4.2.5 Overcoming resource limitations

The groundwater coordinator needs to accept that the resources available for monitoring will always be limited. Acknowledging these limitations, monitoring strategies should aim to make the best use of available resources, both within and outside the CMA. This requires proactive efforts to:

� prioritise monitoring activities which provide the most critical information; � promote cooperation and coordination with other monitoring activities e.g. surface

water, meteorology; � align and refine existing programmes to avoid unnecessary effort or duplication of

effort; � streamline monitoring procedures to reduce man hours and travel times wherever

possible; � make the best use of existing infrastructure, especially existing boreholes; � make use of local water users for financial and/or logistical support; � make use of appropriate technologies; and � conduct cost-benefit analyses for the monitoring network design e.g.:

• greater initial capital outlay (e.g. installing data loggers/telemetry systems) may be offset by future savings in the cost of collecting data, or

• job creation by employing local community members for monitoring tasks may provide greater benefits than the installation of expensive remote systems which are vulnerable to vandalism.

On the other hand, water resource managers need to be made aware of true costs of effective monitoring and to make adequate allowance for monitoring in water resource management budgets. Water use and waste disposal charges for uses other than basic human needs must also take into account not only the costs of infrastructure and water service delivery, but the cost of managing the resource, which includes monitoring costs, often treated as externalities in water supply. Public education is important in fostering a willingness among users to pay for water resource management as well as delivery.

4.2.6 Designing a catchment Regulatory monitoring system

This level focuses on groundwater resources that have been affected by human interference, but not the point of interference. In relation to groundwater abstraction, this monitoring will assess the groundwater response within the area of influence, but not at the point of abstraction (Murray and Ravenscroft, 2003). This should inlcude the “functions and uses” of the aquifer system.

The development of a conceptual model of the groundwater resource is an essential prerequisite for the design of a groundwater observation network. Without some conceptual understanding of how the system works (e.g. where groundwater is recharged, what direction it flows in, relative rates of flow, etc.), the monitoring network is bound to be haphazard. As a first approach, the system designer needs to have at least some background knowledge on how the aquifer system is hydraulically connected to the regional hydrological cycle in the catchment.

A step-by-step programme for designing a groundwater monitoring system for this monitoring is given on the following pages. The conceptual model forms part of Step 4 where the network is designed.



STEP 1: SET MONITORING GOALS

Who Groundwater coordinator, monitoring team

What Decide on monitoring objectives

How Establish current and potential groundwater use in the catchment

Establish requirements for the Reserve and Resource Quality Objectives (from RDM)

Establish requirements for Source Directed Measures

Establish areas and requirements for non-point source pollution monitoring

Outputs Statement of monitoring goals

STEP 2: ESTABLISH MONITORING STATUS QUO


What Collect information on existing systems and available financial/human resources

How Collect information from DWAF, Local government, Water Users

Consider:

� What data is currently collected?

� Will this be continued?

� What infrastructure is in place and in what condition?

� What historical data is available?

� What are the available resources and capabilities in terms of manpower, vehicles, analytical facilities, etc.

� Where can additional resources be obtained?

Outputs Status of existing monitoring efforts in the catchment



� Develop standardised protocols for sampling, data capture, retrieval and analysis for consistency across the catchment management area (use government regulated guidance if this exists)

� A checklist of activities that may need consideration for the monitoring programme appears in the box below.

Outputs Record of decisions on monitoring network and sampling requirements

Box 1: Checklist of monitoring activities to be considered in monitoring programme design.

MONITORING ACTIVITIES

Network Design Sampling station location

Variable selection Sampling frequency

Representivity

Sample Collection Sampling technique Field measurement

Sample preservation Sampling point

Sample transportation Real time monitoring

Data Handling Data reception

Laboratory Outside sources

Screening and verification Storage and retrieval

Reporting Dissemination

Data Analysis

Basic summary statistics Regression analysis Water quality indices

Quality control interpretation Time series analysis Water quality models

Information Utilisation

Information needs Reporting formats

Operational procedures Utilisation evaluation

(After Sanders et al., 1987)



STEP 5: ADDRESS SUPPORT SERVICES AND TRAINING REQUIREMENTS

Who Groundwater coordinator, IWRM manager

What Establish opportunities and gaps in support for monitoring programme implementation

How Identify analytical service requirements:

� what analyses are needed?

� what facilities are available for analysing these

� can they be done in-house or contracted out?

Identify information support requirements:

� who will handle data capture, database maintenance, data retrieval

� how will this be structured?

� see Volume 2 Chapter 5 on Information Systems

Identify staff and training requirements:

� do field staff & data management staff have the necessary skills?

� can experienced personnel be appointed / technical staff be trained to undertake

� new monitoring functions?

Organise training sessions to meet skills requirements:

� where possible, train staff to take a variety of samples e.g. groundwater, biological,

weather measurements for collaborative monitoring efforts

Outputs Network of supporting services for the monitoring programme

STEP 6: SET UP QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES

Who Groundwater coordinator, monitoring team, risk expert

What Put procedures in place to ensure high quality data

How � Ensure that staff collecting samples are trained to take good quality, representative samples.

� Ensure that sub-contractors are qualified and experienced, laboratories are accredited and both have adequate quality control procedures in place.

� Design quality control measures into the monitoring programme, e.g. use of duplicate samples, blanks, certified standards, etc.

� Design data checking routines into data capture procedures.

Outputs QA/QC guidelines and procedures for various aspects of monitoring



STEP 7: DRAW UP PLANNING DOCUMENT


What Draw up a detailed planning document covering all monitoring activities

How Include:

� Appropriate information from steps 1 - 6

� Framework of time and place for activities

� Role-players and responsibilities

� Opportunities for linking/support with other individuals and organisations

� Budget (allowing contingencies)

� Guidelines for subcontractors or support staff tasked with specific activities

Outputs Groundwater monitoring strategy document for the catchment management area

STEP 8: IMPLEMENT & UPDATE GROUNDWATER MONITORING PROGRAMME AND FEEDBACK TO DWAF

Who Groundwater coordinator, monitoring team, field & data management staff

What Commence monitoring and review success, feedback to DWAF office

How Commence planned activities once network and supporting structures are in place

Refine the strategy by conducting regular updates as more information becomes available e.g. work on a five-year cycle of information-gathering, plan development, implementation of monitoring, assessment of data, prioritisation of key areas (Figure 3). Feedback in the form of short monitoring report which gives overview of groundwater resource status and trends.

Outputs Catchment groundwater monitoring programme and feedback to DWAF Regional Office



Gather information

Monitor

Assess data

Prioritisekey areas

Develop plan

Implement CYCLE OFMONITORINGSYSTEMDEVELOPMENT

FIGURE 15: STEPS IN THE ON-GOING REFINEMENT OF THE GROUNDWATER MONITORING SYSTEM

4.2.7 Designing a local regulatory monitoring network:

This level involves monitoring of point (site) specific sources, which could be affect groundwater by over abstraction or polluting activities (i.e. quality and quantity monitoring of groundwater).

Generally the user will do this level of 3 monitoring as a condition attached to the license or water authorisation. The CMA will be responsible for establishing these license requirements, as the agreement will be between them and the water user.

STEP 1: SET MONITORING GOALS

Who Groundwater coordinator, monitoring task team

What Decide on monitoring objectives i.e. compliance to licensing or water authorisation conditions for quality and quantity of water

How Establish system to collect and analyse data available for each abstraction borehole

Establish requirements for the Reserve and Resource Quality Objectives (from RDM)

Establish annual total abstraction and daily abstraction per source

Establish ground water levels records and borehole water qualities on a time series basis

Outputs Statement of monitoring goals



STEP 2: ESTABLISH MONITORING STATUS QUO

Who Groundwater coordinator, monitoring team, local user

What Collect information on local borehole/aquifer system

How Collect information from DWAF, Local government, Water Users

Consider:

� What data are available for each abstraction borehole?

� What data is currently collected?

� What infrastructure is in place and in what condition?

� What historical data is available?

Outputs Status of existing monitoring and sources in the local aquifer area

STEP 3: DESIGN MONITORING PROGRAMME

Who Groundwater coordinator, local user, water quality expert

What Decide on requirements, sampling and data collection protocols to achieve monitoring goals

How � Water level monitoring should be done on a daily, weekly or monthly basis depending on the importance and vulnerability of the resource and based on the water use authorisation or licensing regulations

� Volumes of water abstracted should be recorded at a predetermined interval. Water level records should also be kept at the same or higher frequency. It is recommended that monthly records of abstraction values be kept for future reference and auditing.

� Initial water quality sampling should be done once to establish a background analysis. Murray and Ravenscroft (2003) also recommend sampling should occur before and after the rainfall season to establish seasonal trends.

� Water quality sampling frequency should occur based on two facets: If there is a potential polluting source nearby or if contamination already occurs in the borehole or aquifer. The water quality expert should then decide the sampling frequency (See Box 2).

Outputs Record of decisions on monitoring and sampling requirements and input into licensing conditions.


GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 123 VOLUME 2: IMPLEMENATATION

STEP 4: SUPPORT AND TRAINING FOR WATER USERS

Who Groundwater coordinator, IWRM manager

What Establish support for water users monitoring programme implementation

How Identify information support requirements fro water users

Identify water users training requirements

� Do water users have the necessary skills?

Organise training /information sessions to meet skills requirements:

Outputs Network of supporting services for the water users monitoring programme

STEP 5: IMPLEMENT & UPDATE GROUNDWATER MONITORING PROGRAMME

Who Groundwater coordinator, field & data management staff, water user

What Commence support for water users, gather information, incorporate into regional (catchment) monitoring and review success

How Commence planned activities once supporting structures are in place

Update local groundwater information and incorporate into Catchment monitoring

Outputs Local groundwater monitoring programme

STEP 6: REPORTING FEEDBACK TO DWAF REGIONAL OFFICE

Who Groundwater coordinator, monitoring team, field & data management staff

What Commence review on Catchment and Regional Scale

How Refine the usage and allocation strategy by conducting regular updates as more information becomes available e.g. work on a five-year cycle of information-gathering, plan development, implementation of monitoring, assessment of data, prioritisation of key areas.

Outputs Catchment and Regional groundwater monitoring programme



4.2.8 Monitoring groundwater use

A major aspect of groundwater monitoring will be groundwater use. For any resource to be optimally managed, the current levels of utilisation as well as the maximum available quantity need to be known. Without monitoring, the resource manager has no support for decisions on whether the resource is over-utilised and measures are needed to limit use, or whether it is under utilised and use can be promoted.

A recent investigation into groundwater use in South Africa (Seward and Baron, 2001) found that groundwater use data was a major uncertainty in water balance calculations and recommended that:

“…{DWAF} increase awareness of the importance of collecting groundwater use data. The monitoring of use should be on a par with any other aspect of groundwater monitoring. Under the {NWA}, registration of water use greater than 10 m3/day is required. This amount is highly unlikely to be exceeded by boreholes for private use, but which collectively could constitute a considerable volume.”

Obtaining information on how much groundwater is being abstracted is always difficult, as groundwater abstraction volumes are often not measured. The installation of flow meters and the reading thereof should be strongly encouraged within catchments where groundwater plays a critical role in supporting economic activities and environmental functioning. The NWA gives the CMA the authority to compel water users to install devices to record abstraction (Schedule 3, Section 4(1)a) and water use licence conditions may also be used to enforce compulsory abstraction recording.

There must also be efficient systems in place to ensure such recording devices are actually installed and maintained and to collect the information from the water users. The WARMS information system (See Volume 2, Chapter 5) is designed to store information on registered water users and will be a useful tool in this regard.

The abstraction volumes measured will have to be checked against license conditions, to refine understanding of the water balance within a catchment and to assess the status of groundwater allocation. It will also provide a means of checking that licensed volumes are being adhered to.

Flow meters are not always the ideal option and other innovative measures to calculate and/or estimate groundwater abstraction should be considered. Some approaches that have been attempted in the past include calculation from power consumption records or mapping irrigated land areas and calculating water use from expected crop requirements. If there is sufficient motivation for an accurate water use assessment, a detailed hydrocensus of individual users may need to be undertaken.

SELECTION OF MONITORING SITES AND DATA COLLECTION


4.3 SELECTION OF MONITORING SITES AND DATA COLLECTION

GOAL

A MONITORING PROGRAMME SHOULD SEEK TO SELECT OR CONSTRUCT REPRESENTATIVE SITES FROM WHICH TO COLLECT SAMPLES AND TO GATHER ACCURATE, RELEVANT AND USEFUL DATA THAT WILL MEET THE GOALS OF THE PARTICULAR PROGRAMME.

4.3.1 Monitoring networks

Sites used for the collection of groundwater data will mostly be boreholes or wellpoints1

although springs, pits, dug wells, auger holes, piezometers2 and surface water bodies may also be included in the network.

Depending on the monitoring goals and available resources, the sampling sites may be chosen from existing boreholes or specifically constructed for the individual monitoring programme. National and catchment monitoring will make wide use of existing boreholes, while local monitoring will generally require the installation of dedicated monitoring boreholes or wellpoints. While the use of existing boreholes may save time and money in the establishment of a groundwater monitoring network, this may have to be traded off against poorer reliability of the data, especially where information on the borehole construction is not available.

National networks

A summary is given below of the national groundwater quality monitroing network activities as an example of a national network. Other national networks include, amongst others:

• The National Microbial Monitroing Programme,

• The Hydrological Monitoring Programme,

• The River Health Programme.

These networks are designed by the Head Office of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in conjunction with the DWAF:Regional offices and the data acquisition and data management are their responsibility. 1 Boreholes are generally constructed by drilling and are usually deeper and of wider diameter than wellpoints, which are often constructed by jetting or driving casing into an unconsolidated shallow aquifer. 2 Piezometers are generally narrow diameter tubes used for the measurement of groundwater pressure levels (piezometric head) in confined or semi-confined conditions. Several piezometer tubes may be installed in a single borehole to monitor multiple piezometric levels in a layered aquifer.



Figure 16: Location of sampling points in the current DWAF National Groundwater Quality Monitoring Programme: (Source: http://www-dwaf.pwv.gov.za/Geohydrology/qtmonit.htm)

Planning catchment scale networks

The network designer may choose one or more of the following criteria on which to base the inclusion or exclusion of monitoring points:

� Sites representative of geographic distribution � Sites representative of predominant land uses or changes in land use � Sites representative of differing geologies and flow regimes � Sites representative of main aquifer units (e.g. not perched water) � Sites in close proximity to other monitoring sites e.g. surface water stations � Sites representative of the use of groundwater (preference given to drinking water

sources) or changes in resource development

Consideration also needs to be given to factors such as:

� The hydrogeological value and representivity � Ease of access and permission from owner � The age, type and condition of the installation (borehole, gauging station, etc.) � Quality of existing site information (e.g. construction, survey coordinates, etc.) For identifying and characterising groundwater resources, site selection needs to take into account the functioning of the groundwater component in the water resource as a whole. Monitoring should be focussed at the interface areas where groundwater enters or leaves the aquifer i.e. recharge and discharge (or abstraction) zones. Water balance calculations on stream flow may be useful in identifying where groundwater is a major contributor to surface water systems (and vice versa) as well as areas where little value would be gained from detailed groundwater monitoring.

1:500 000 map outlines



Planning local networks

Existing production boreholes are generally not suited for local monitoring networks, which usually have a very specific goal. For detection monitoring or impact monitoring at a facility which poses a threat of groundwater contamination, the monitoring network should be designed and constructed with due consideration of (see Figure 17 for an example):

� Past and present activities at the site • Including the location of potential pollution sources, loading rates, etc.

� Site-specific aquifer characteristics and geometry • Primary or secondary aquifer? • Confined or unconfined? – Poorly constructed monitoring boreholes can provide a

pathway for contaminants to reach a confined aquifer. • Location of structures that may act as flow barriers. • Location of major fractures which may allow preferential flow (These may require

a geophysical survey). • Flow rates and attenuation capacity

� Risk assessment • Human health risk and ecological risk. • Location of the nearest potential receptors. • Hazardous nature of the pollutants. • Travel times to reach receptors. • Attenuation capacity of the aquifer for specific contaminants.

� Reference conditions • At least one monitoring point should be located up gradient of the potential source

to monitor the condition of groundwater entering the facility � Area extent of pollution plume(s)

• Down gradient monitoring points should be aligned both parallel and perpendicular to the dominant flow direction to allow for plume delineation and investigation of migration and attenuation rates.

• The network should be expanded as the plume migrates and should extend beyond the edges of the plume.

� Vertical stratification • Multilevel sampling may be needed for layered aquifer systems • Best practice is to construct clusters of boreholes at each monitoring point with an

individual borehole for each major aquifer unit. Other units intersected by the borehole should be sealed off with bentonite.



FIGURE 17: EXAMPLE OF A LOCAL GROUNDWATER MONITORING NETWORK AT A WASTE DISPOSAL SITE.

4.3.2 Monitoring borehole design and construction

A competent hydrogeologist should do monitoring borehole design and construction. The design will vary based on the use of the monitoring borehole. Fetter (1993) and Driscoll (1986) provide a number of references for efficient monitoring borehole design. In Level 4 monitoring borehole design and construction are explained.

4.3.3 Monitoring point density

The density of monitoring points depends on financial resources and the desired level of precision. Local monitoring networks will need to be designed around local goals and priorities. Several approaches may be taken for the selection of minimum monitoring point density for national and catchment monitoring (DWAF, in prep, 2004) including:

� Selection based on geographical coverage, to provide a guideline for investment and planning according to • aquifer units (or surface water sub catchments); • aquifer flow patterns including recharge and discharge areas; • aquifer area; • volume of water abstracted; or • regional priorities and RQOs

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� Some catchment and national monitoring points may be combined to provide better coverage, while avoiding duplication of effort. Factors to be considered are: • the distance over which significant variation is expected; • compatibility with current monitoring practices and densities; and • the combined density of surface water and other monitoring in conjunction

with groundwater monitoring � Selection based on aquifer importance, including issues such as

• Main water users (basic human needs, bulk water supply, mine dewatering, irrigation, stock watering)

• Abstraction rates vs. water allocations • Aquifer potential and sustainability

Following a differentiated approach, monitoring densities will be high for aquifers of high importance and low for minor aquifers.

� Statistical selection based on observed aquifer behaviour • Representative monitoring points are selected based on the statistical

correlation of their attributes with those measured across the aquifer on a larger scale. Eliminating those points that are not required to achieve the desired level of accuracy optimises network density. For example, a mathematical surface may be fitted through all observed water level values in an aquifer unit and then individual boreholes selected for representivity, based on the mean square error of the regression of the overall water level trends against the water levels of the specific boreholes.

Limitations of this approach include:

• Considerable amounts of data are required before unnecessary points can be eliminated.

• The reduced set of monitoring boreholes may not be adequate to monitor departures from normal aquifer behaviour due to local influences.

• Variations in local geology and the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer, specifically in South Africa’s complex fractured rock aquifers, may severely limit the applications of the technique.

For the initial development of a groundwater monitoring network, the following recommendations are made: � Three observation points (each with a particular set of sensors) should be located in

the recharge zone, according to the conceptual understanding of the aquifer. � Three to four observation points should be located in the intermediate flow zone

between recharge and discharge areas. This could be a complex issue in secondary aquifers due to preferential flow paths and natural barriers such as dykes and non-permeable zones. Additional monitoring points may be needed before these are established.

� Monitoring in the discharge zone should cover all major natural outflows (baseflow to surface drainage systems, springs, wetlands, evaporation zones, etc.)

� All anthropogenic discharges e.g. abstraction and mine dewatering should also be monitored.

Monitoring networks for Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries range in density from over 900 water level monitoring stations (100 with autographic recorders) in Namibia and 500 stations in Botswana, both of which are strongly groundwater-dependent, to countries where no official groundwater monitoring occurs.



4.3.4 Frequency of measurement

Selection of monitoring frequency depends on:

� Intended use of the data � Rate of response of the aquifer to transient events

Water use monitoring

Abstraction monitoring is measured by flow meter, which generally operates on a continuous basis. The total volume abstracted is then accumulated for a selected time period e.g. hourly, daily, weekly or monthly. The recording interval will depend on the intended use, e.g. monthly abstraction records are sufficient to determine seasonal groundwater use patterns in an area, while hourly records will provide detailed information on daily pumping cycles. Annual abstraction totals are generally a minimum requirement for water balance calculations, although it is recommended that more frequent recording take place.

Water level monitoring

Continuous water level recording using automatic recorders, for example, show that some boreholes may respond rapidly to recharge events over a time scale of a few hours, while other boreholes may only show long-term seasonal fluctuations. A short pulse of contamination in a fast flowing aquifer may be missed completely if samples are only collected once annually during the dry season. However, if the purpose of monitoring is to measure long-term trends in catchment water levels, then biannual monitoring may be enough.

For long intervals between measurements in a fluctuating system, not only the frequency, but also the timing of the measurements becomes important.

Box 2: Recommended frequencies for water level monitoring to fit the aims and resources of national, catchment and local monitoring

NATIONAL MONITORING

(eg. Basic/Reference Type)

Aim: Assessment of groundwater resource characteristics and short and long-term responses to climatic influences on a national scale.

Resources: National funding, regional support from DWAF & CMAs, dataloggers and automatic recording and sampling devices.

Intended frequency:

� Daily readings (data loggers) or

� Continuous readings (automatic recorders)

� Data collection interval will depend on storage capacity of recording devices

� Regular, on-going recording



CATCHMENT MONITORING

(eg. Regulatory monitoring)

Aim: Assessment of groundwater resource quality on a catchment/aquifer scale. Monitoring responses to human activities e.g. abstraction and contamination.

Resources: CMA funding, mainly from water use- and waste discharge charges. May have some support from DWAF Regions. Water sampling by hand. May have access to waterlevel recording devices.

Recommended frequency:

� Six times per year on average

� Higher frequency for boreholes with pronounced fluctuations

� Lower frequency for confined primary aquifer systems

� Regular monitoring for observing long-term trends

� Irregular monitoring for observing impact of sporadic events e.g. floods/ land use change

� Continuous recording of water levels over the first full hydrological cycle is recommended. This allows characteristic behaviour of the borehole to be established and informs the selection of a suitable long-term measuring frequency.

LOCAL MONITORING

(eg. Specific Puropse, Early Warning&Surveillance)

Aim: Assessment of groundwater impacts on a local, site-specific scale

Resources: Local user funding. Public funding for municipal wellfields (Municipal rates and taxes). Industry funded for compliance monitoring by potential polluters. Monitoring may be contracted out to consultants. Resources will largely depend on local socio-economic conditions

Recommended frequency:

� Will depend on the use of the data and local flow conditions

� Water level measurement and sampling frequencies for waste site groundwater monitoring are recommended according to site classification in the Minimum Requirements for Water Monitoring at Waste Disposal Sites (DWAF, 1998)

� Water level measurements should be taken before pumping each time groundwater quality samples are collected at local pollution source monitoring networks

� Monthly records of abstraction volumes are a legal requirement for registered groundwater users. Water level records should also be kept at the same or higher frequency.

To form a functional part of any monitoring network, the minimum frequency of observation of water levels in boreholes should be two times per year, ideally timed to coincide with annual peaks and troughs according to seasonal climatic changes (DWAF, in prep 2003.).



TABLE 3: RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY OF WATER LEVEL MEASUREMENTS BASED ON SOUTH AFRICAN AQUIFER TYPES (AFTER DWAF, IN PREP, 2004.)

AQUIFER CATEGORY Low storativity aquifers

e.g. Karoo sedimentary, Younger granites, Granite-gneiss complexes

High storativity aquifers e.g. dolomites, TMG, Primary/coastal, Kalahari Group, Deep aquifer systems, Archean granites

Minor aquifers

NATIONAL MONITORING Daily Weekly None

CATCHMENT MONITORING

Monthly Bimonthly Six monthly

LOCAL MONITORING Daily, depending on the impact of abstraction, population and climate condition

Weekly/monthly Monthly

Groundwater quality monitoring

Groundwater is a slow-moving medium and dramatic changes in the groundwater quality are not normally encountered within hours or days as is found in surface water. The frequency at which groundwater samples are collected for quality analysis will depend on the sampling objectives and the aquifer behaviour.

Water quality monitoring is generally conducted at a lower frequency than water level (quantity) monitoring, chiefly because of the time and costs involved in sample collection and analysis. National groundwater quality monitoring is very limited in other Southern African states and samples are usually analysed only when new boreholes are drilled.

National or catchment monitoring of resource quality away from potential sources of pollution, it is suggested that samples should be collected twice per year. For an aquifer that responds to seasonal rainfall patterns, these should correspond to the peaks and troughs of the water level measurements.

Local monitoring intervals should be more frequent, usually monthly or quarterly, depending on the type of impact anticipated and the rate of migration or decay of contaminants. The document Minimum requirements for water monitoring at waste management facilities (DWAF, 1998) gives the following advice for groundwater sampling frequency, which is considered valid for local monitoring at other potential pollution sources:

“Initial sampling should be done at a frequency high enough to obtain statistically valid background information. For any long-term monitoring facility, three initial sampling exercises, all within 90 days, but not less than 14 days apart are suggested. Depending on the variation amongst these values, future sampling may be planned. A three monthly sampling frequency will in most instances be sufficient.”

Boreholes used for public drinking water supply should be sampled weekly or even daily, if possible.



4.3.5 Data to be collected

The types of data collected during groundwater monitoring can usually be distinguished as:

� Data related to quantity • Water levels, flow rates, pumping rates, rainfall and abstraction volumes

� Data related to quality • Physical measurements (e.g. temperature, electrical conductivity) • Chemical measurement (e.g. pH, alkalinity, species concentrations) • Specialised measurements (e.g. stable isotope ratios)

The selection of which data to collect, particularly in the case of chemical variables, where hundreds of different species could be analysed, can be:

� Use-based • Select determinants which affect the fitness of the water for a particular

use � Source-based

• Select determinants or indicators which reflect the impact of known point and non-point sources in the area

• Use risk-based prioritisation to select determinants which have the greatest risk of damaging human or ecosystem health

� Resource-based • Select determinants which help to quantify various aspects of the

behaviour of the aquifer and the relationship between them.

Monitoring programmes need to collect and store once-off data, relating to the aquifer and the monitoring network and data that vary in time or space, relating to the conditions of the groundwater system. A list of the different types of data that may be collected is given in the box below.

Chemical and microbiological variables (also referred to as parameters, analytes or determinands) should be selected before sampling as the ability to analyse a sample and the accuracy of the result may be affected by the sampling practice, sample volume, container type and method of storage or preservation.



TYPES OF GROUNDWATER MONITORING DATA

Site constants

Once-off data pertinent to the construction and geometry of the groundwater monitoring network

� Coordinates of monitoring points (X, Y, Z) and method of measurement and accuracy of coordinates

� Coordinates of point sources and sinks of water (production boreholes, springs, etc.)

� Geometry of the aquifer system (lateral boundaries, aquifer outcrops, surface water bodies)

� Elevation of datum (usually the top of the borehole casing, used for water level measurements)

� Elevation of ground surface

� Elevation of top and bottom of aquifers and aquitards

� Elevation of top and bottom of perforated sections of borehole casing

� Diameters and depths of boreholes

� Geology and lithology

Variable parameters

Dynamic data representing the status of the system at a particular point in time3

� Piezometric head (groundwater level)

� Pumping rate/ injection rate

� Spring flow rate

� Abstraction volume

� Surface water level (for water bodies in hydraulic connection with aquifers)

� Precipitation depth over an area

� Rate of water abstraction from overlying aquifers

� Rate of application of irrigation water or liquid effluents

� Temperature

� Electrical conductivity

� pH

� Concentrations of chemical elements, ions and compounds (macro and trace elements)

� Stable and radioactive isotope concentrations

� Microbiological variables

Constant parameters

Slowly varying and slowly accumulating data describing the characteristics of the hydrogeological system.

� Hydraulic parameters used in groundwater flow models e.g. hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, storage coefficients

� Attenuation and retardation factors used in mass transport models e.g. dispersivities, partition coefficients

User information

� Owners details, access information, abstraction equipment

� Relative location of potential pollution sources

� Licence information

� Water allocated volumes

The following lists of suggested water quality parameters may be useful in selecting variables to be measured for groundwater quality monitoring programmes:

3 Variables, particularly water quality variables, can also represent a particular point in space in the case of vertical logging down the borehole.



Use-based selection of variables

The South African Drinking Water Quality Guidelines (DWAF, 1996) provide detailed information on the variables that affect the quality of water for a range of end uses. Guidelines are available for:

Volume 1: Domestic use

Volume 2: Recreational use

Volume 3: Industrial use

Volume 4: Agricultural use: irrigation

Volume 5: Agricultural use: livestock watering

Volume 6: Agricultural use: aquaculture and

Volume 7: Aquatic ecosystems.

Toolbox South African Water Quality Guidelines has links to the above information.

Drinking water is also covered in a South African Bureau of Standards specification, SABS 241: 2001, which may, in future, become enforced for drinking water quality testing by regulation under the Water Services Act.

TABLE 4: USE BASED SELECTION OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY MONITORING VARIABLES

Use Domestic Livestock Irrigation Industry Minimum variables Should be included every sampling run

pH EC TDS (calculated) Microbiology

pH EC TDS (calculated) Microbiology

pH EC TDS (calculated)

pH EC TDS (calculated)Alkalinity

Additional variables Should be included for initial sampling (to establish background conditions) and may be included selectively or less frequently on later runs

Major ions Nutrients Trace elements Fluoride Iron DOC Cyanide Viruses and parasites Taste Odour Colour Hardness Scaling/corrosion Turbidity (SABS 241:2001*)

Major ions Fluoride Nitrate & nitrite Arsenic Copper Molybdenum Selenium Boron Iron

Major ions Scaling/corrosion SAR (calculated) Aluminium Beryllium Boron Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluoride Lithium Iron Manganese Nickel Selenium Zinc

Hardness Scaling/corrosion Chloride Iron Manganese Silica Sulphate Suspended solids COD



Use Domestic Livestock Irrigation Industry Conditional variables Should be included every run if sources are present or problems expected

Nitrate Fluoride Iron Arsenic Uranium Sulphide Cyanide Phenols VOC Pesticides Radioactivity

Trace elements Pesticides

Food crops: Cadmium Lead Faecal coliforms Leaching risk: Inorganic nitrogen (nitrate & nitrite, ammonium)

Depends on requirements for each industrial process

* Requirements for monitoring may be set by Government regulations in future.

Source-based selection of variables for groundwater protection monitoring

The following lists give some general suggestions for variables to be analysed when undertaking local monitoring near potential sources of contamination. A site-specific and source-specific approach, which considers both the content and volume of the waste and the mobility of the contaminants, is recommended when selecting appropriate variables for monitoring. Indicator variables are recommended here as an inexpensive option for regular monitoring and pollution tracking, while the more extensive variable list need only be considered for comprehensive studies or infrequent pollution characterisation. It is best to perform a comprehensive analysis before commencing a potentially polluting activity to provide baseline data for existing concentrations in the aquifer.

TABLE 5: SOURCE-BASED SELECTION OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY MONITORING VARIABLES Source/ activity

Sewage works and on-site sanitation/ sludge

application

Cemeteries Petrochemical processing/ fuel storage

tanks Indicators pH, EC, potassium,

nitrate ammonium, coliforms

pH, EC, potassium, coliforms

pH, EC, DOC

Variables pH EC Nitrate & nitrite Ammonium TKN Phosphate DOC COD Microbiology – faecal coliforms, parasites, viruses Potassium (Nitrogen isotopes) Industrial wastewater: Trace elements e.g. Fe, Mn, Al, Zn, Cu, Cd, Ni, Pb

pH EC Nitrate & nitrite Ammonium TKN Phosphate DOC Microbiology Potassium

pH EC Alkalinity DOC BTEX or VOC Trace elements: Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn, V Specific compounds in storage + degradation products



Source/ activity

Agriculture – fertilizer application

Agriculture – intensive animal

feedlots

Agriculture – pesticide application

Indicators pH, EC, nitrate pH, EC, coliforms Specific pesticides Variables pH

EC Alkalinity Nitrate & nitrite Ammonium Potassium Sulphate (Nitrogen isotopes)

pH EC Alkalinity Nutrients Microbiology – faecal coliforms Potassium (Nitrogen isotopes)

VOC Pesticides known to be in common use in the catchment. (Atrazine is the most studied & the only one mentioned in the SA water quality guidelines)

Source/ activity

Mining activities /acid mine drainage

Waste disposal sites Industry – food processing

Indicators pH, EC, sulphate pH, EC, chloride, DOC pH, EC Variables pH

EC Acidity or Alkalinity Sulphate Trace metals (depend on type of ore & processing): e.g. Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cr, Ni, Cd, Co, V U, Radioactivity Hg, As, cyanide

General: pH EC Acidity or Alkalinity Major ions Nutrients Boron Hazardous: include TOX/VOX PAH Phenols VOC Toxic trace elements

Specific to the industrial process. pH EC Major ions Nutrients Microbiology Trace metals: Se, Ag, Zn

Source/ activity

Industry – chemical Industry – pulp & paper

Industry – metal works and plating

Indicators Specific to the product & industrial process.

pH, EC, DOC pH, EC, sodium

Variables Specific to the product & industrial process. pH, EC, Alkalinity Inorganic &/or organic contaminants

pH EC Alkalinity COD DOC Trace elements: Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni, Zn

pH EC Trace metals: Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, Fe, Ni, Pb, Hg, Ag, Se, Sn, Zn Cyanide or other specific complexing agents Fluoride (Al production)

Source/ activity

Industry – textiles & tanneries

Industry – Coal-fired power

stations

Commercial – dry cleaning

Indicators pH, EC, DOC pH, EC, sodium, sulphate

pH, EC, DOC

Variables pH EC Colour COD DOC Trace metals: Cr

pH EC Major ions, particularly sodium and sulphate Trace elements: Cr, Zn, As

pH EC Tetrachloroethene (PCE) and breakdown products Trichloroethene (TCE) Dichloroethene (1,2-DCE) Vinyl chloride (VC)



Box 4: Definitions of grouped water quality variables

Resource-based groundwater monitoring variables

Regular monitoring of groundwater quantity on a catchment and national scale will involve measurement of groundwater levels (piezometric head) in the boreholes, wellpoints, wells and piezometers that comprise the water level monitoring network and the measurement of groundwater use within an area. Measurements of spring flow or seepage rates and stream flow or lake levels may also be included, particularly where surface- and groundwater bodies are known to be linked. It is envisaged that rainfall volumes and EC, chloride, oxygen-18 and deuterium in both groundwater and rainwater may become part of national groundwater monitoring initiatives, because of their usefulness in recharge calculations.

Groundwater level fluctuations are the most important source of information for analysing aquifer dynamics and for diagnosing the influence of environmental change (De Vries, 2000). Valuable information on the recharge characteristics of an aquifer can be obtained from simple measurements of groundwater level behaviour and rainfall volumes and these variables should be included as standard in catchment monitoring programmes. Groundwater abstraction volumes need to be measured in conjunction with groundwater levels to quantify the impact of pumping.

Catchment groundwater quality monitoring programmes generally include pH, EC, and major ions. Temperature, nutrients and selected minor and trace species are also sometimes included. Nitrate and fluoride, in particular, are commonly measured because of their potential to affect human health if present in high concentrations in drinking water. Iron and manganese are useful for tracking potential clogging and staining problems and silica for geochemical modelling. Minor species and trace elements may be selected for monitoring based on the results of initial baseline screening of a wide range of variables at the start of the monitoring programme.

Major ions = Major cations and anions commonly found in natural waters, including

sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulphate andbicarbonate (often measured as alkalinity).

Minor species = Minor ions and elements commonly occurring water, including lithium,

fluoride, silica, iron, bromide, barium, strontium, sulphide, cyanide Trace elements

= Aluminium, antimony, arsenic, cadmium, chromium (total andhexavalent), cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel,selenium, vanadium and zinc are the most commonly analysed traceelements

Heavy metals = Cadmium, chromium (total and hexavalent), cobalt, copper, lead,

manganese, nickel, vanadium and zinc i.e. trace elements excludingaluminium and non-metals or metalloids.

Nutrients = Various forms of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon e.g. nitrate

(and nitrite), ammonium, organic nitrogen (measured as total kjeldahl nitrogen), (ortho) phosphate, dissolved organic carbon, chemical



Selection may also be based on their suspected occurrence related to either the local geology or activities in the catchment. The impact of non-point sources of groundwater pollution is measured on a regional rather than a local scale and potential non-point sources should be taken into account when designing catchment groundwater monitoring programmes. Microbiology is seldom included in catchment groundwater monitoring, often because of the logistical problems of sample contamination and the short time span allowed between sampling and analysis.

Hydrological and hydro chemical tools are available that may help elucidate the dynamics of groundwater systems, including recharge and discharge patterns, surface water interactions, groundwater age and flow paths, depths of circulation, etc. These tools often require specific data, which will generally be collected and analysed during a short-term study of the aquifer behaviour. In some cases, it may be beneficial to incorporate a few of these variables into long-term catchment monitoring programmes. These can then be used for resource evaluation or as indicators of changes in the dynamics of the aquifer as a result of human impacts.

Examples of tools for resource evaluation and their data requirements:

� Water balance - used to determine recharge volumes, aquifer storage, sustainable yields, etc.

• Volumes of rainfall, evapotranspiration, abstraction, discharge to sea

or surface water, stream flow gains and losses, changes in water levels, soil moisture content

• Example = cumulative rainfall departure (CRD method) – used to calculate recharge using rainfall, abstraction and discharge volumes and groundwater levels

� Hydrograph separation – used to determine baseflow component of surface

runoff which is groundwater-fed • Stream flow volumes as a function of time (hydrographs) • Oxygen-18 and deuterium isotope data may improve confidence.

� Chloride balance – used to calculate the percentage of rainfall that contributes to groundwater recharge, if no chloride is contributed by the soil/aquifer

• Rainwater and groundwater chloride concentrations

� Stable isotopes - used for tracing recharge and pollution sources, surface water/groundwater interaction, flow paths, reactions with minerals

• Oxygen-18 (δ18O) and deuterium (δD) in rainwater, surface water and groundwater

• Carbon-13 (δ13C) – for tracing inorganic/organic carbon sources and correcting 14C age data

• Nitrogen –15 (δ15N) – for differentiating nitrate sources e.g. fertilizer, natural nitrogen fixing or animal waste.

� Age dating – used to trace flow paths and determine sustainable yields

• Radioactive isotopes e.g. 14C, tritium or chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)



� Geochemical diagrams - (e.g. Piper, Durov) - used to trace flow paths and mixing

of water sources • Major ions, EC or TDS

� Chemical mass balance – used to trace flow paths, mixing of waters and reaction with soil and aquifer minerals

• Major ions, minor species, stable isotopes, soil and aquifer mineralogy, water temperatures

� Geothermometers – used to trace groundwater temperature maximum and

depth of flow • Water temperatures, silica, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium,

lithium, sulphur isotopes.

A STEP BY STEP APPROACH TO GROUNDWATER SAMPLING AND MONITORING


4.4 A STEP BY STEP APPROACH TO GROUNDWATER SAMPLING AND MONITORING

At present, there are no prescribed monitoring procedures for groundwater in South Africa, but the National Water Act makes provision for the Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry to make future regulations regarding:

� Guidelines, procedures, standards and methods for monitoring, and � The nature, type, time period and format of data to be submitted for the national

information systems.

Any new regulations made will be published in the Government Gazette.

South African guidelines covering various aspects of water quality sampling have been published by the South African Bureau of Standards as the SABS ISO 5667 series. These include:

� Part 1: Guidance on the design of sampling programmes (1980) � Part 2: Guidance on sampling techniques (1991) � Part 3: Guidance on the preservation and handling of samples (1994) � Part 11: Guidance on sampling of groundwaters (1993)

The most easy-to-follow and comprehensive sampling guide available in South Africa at present is a manual published by Weaver, J. (1992). This manual covers aspects such as:

� Planning a sampling run � Determinant selection � Field determinants � Quality assurance � Preparation of a monitoring programme guide � Sample records and chain of custody � Sample containers and sample preservation � Water-level measurement � Sample collecting devices � Purging the borehole � Filtering devices � Flow-through cell � Multiple level sampling � Protective clothing � Decontamination � Sampling of springs, wells and seeps.

Additional sources of information on groundwater sampling, including sampling for specialised variables, such as isotopes, are given in the reference list (see detail in Level 4).

INTEGRATION OF GROUNDWATER MONITORING WITH OTHER MONITORING NETWORKS


4.5 INTEGRATION OF GROUNDWATER MONITORING WITH OTHER MONITORING NETWORKS, ESPECIALLY SURFACE WATER AND HYDRO- METEOROLOGICAL MONITORING

Integration of groundwater monitoring with other monitoring activities in the catchment should be approached proactively and incorporated into the design of monitoring programmes at an early stage. Provision is made for the integration of other media in the early information gathering and coordination steps of the method set out in Section 2.6.

Monitoring activities need to be coordinated at a high level in the CMA so that the data sets are consistent and complementary. Groundwater monitoring must be part of a suite of monitoring activities, which can then feed valuable information into the other CMA functions, such as resource assessment, water use allocation or the selection of best alterative water supply options.

Figure 18 illustrates various main components that should be included in an integrated monitoring system for a catchment.

A

B

B

C

B

C D

A = Meterological:precipitation and temperature

B = Microclimatic:evapotranspiration, soil moisture

C = Groundwater:water levels and quality

D = Surface water: river flow & quality, including baseflow

FIGURE 18: MONITORING COMPONENTS FOR INTEGRATED CATCHMENT MONITORING SYSTEMS. (MODIFIED FROM SCOTT AND LE MAITRE, 1998)

In order to understand the role of groundwater in the full water system of the catchment, the groundwater coordinator needs to balance groundwater inflows and outflows with other components of the water cycle. This requires an understanding and quantification of those various components, and means that much of the monitoring focus will be placed on the interface areas of recharge and discharge in the catchment. Raw data for surface water systems is available, but in most cases a better understanding will be reached through working side-by-side with catchment hydrologists.

Currently, hydrological data are available from the DWAF Directorate Hydrological Services. These data reside in the Hydrological Information System (HYDSYS) described in Volume 2, Chapter 5. Information and access to this data is available on the website http://www-dwaf.pwv.gov.za/directorate /hydrology.



Flow is measured on a continuous basis at more than 800 stream flow stations and at approximately 220 flow meters on pipes. Water levels are monitored at about 250 dams and inflows for about 200 of these dams are calculated. Rainfall data is collected at more than 360 sites and evaporation at about 350 sites. Water quality samples are also taken at almost 2000 sites.

Groundwater levels in the lower regions of the catchment need to be monitored in conjunction with streamflow. This can then yield important information on the groundwater contribution to river baseflow or recharge of aquifers from surface water systems.

Precipitation

Precipitation (snow and rainfall) is the principle input of sustainably available (renewable) water in a catchment. Rainfall is by far the dominant factor in South Africa, but on high ground, snow may also be an important source of precipitation. Monitoring throughout the catchment is essential, but the density of rain gauges should change according to the terrain and variability of rainfall.

High lying ground should have a denser network of rain gauges than the outlet to the water management area. This tends often not to be the case in South Africa because of the difficulty of access to the monitoring site. Orthographic effects on rainfall quantity are strong in South Africa, and variability in rainfall is also strongly influenced by sharp changes in altitude. Rain-shadows, a result of the interaction of high relief with the prevailing winds, also cause significant changes in rainfall quantity at similar altitudes.

Rain gauges need not be monitored on more than a daily basis. Where snow could be a significant component of precipitation, special snow gauges should be installed.

Information such as short and medium term weather forecasts, 24 hour rainfall, meteosat images, radar images and synoptic maps are available from the South African Weather Service.

Rainfall is the most important source of natural groundwater recharge and groundwater level measurements in the upper reaches of the catchment should be coordinated with measurements of rainfall volumes where the monitoring focus is on recharge.

DWAF Head Office has started to include rainfall monitoring in conjunction with groundwater level monitoring at quite a few sites around the country. These data resides in Hydrological Information. Rainfall samples are also used for micro-chemistry analysis and isotopic signature analysis.

Evaporation and Evapotranspiration

Between 50 and 90% of rainfall evaporates back to the atmosphere in South Africa. This takes place through evaporation from open water bodies, as well as through interception and transpiration from vegetation. In the case of phreatophyte vegetation, water is transpired directly from the water table.

There are various ways of monitoring the demand for water by the atmosphere. For reservoirs and lakes, the quantity is usually estimated using pan evaporation (the Symon’s tank), and for agricultural crops, the American Class-A pan is used (the WMO standard). An evaporation pan or tank should therefore be placed near every significant reservoir or lake in each water management area.



Farm dams need not be monitored, but the rate of evaporative water losses from these should be related to other meteorological data, such as temperature and saturation vapour deficit.

Above vegetated areas, the situation is more complex. When the soil is saturated (between field capacity and porosity), vegetation can supply water at potential rate (i.e. atmospheric demand) and excess water can percolate to groundwater. When the soil is at less than saturation point (between field capacity and wilting point) transpiration takes place at less than potential rate, water is lost to the atmosphere but does not percolate to groundwater. For groundwater budgeting purposes, therefore, it is important to monitor those other variables which will enable one to calculate how much evapotranspiration is taking place.

Calculations of evapotranspiration require measurements of solar radiation (solarimeter), vapour pressure deficit (wet and dry bulb thermometers or hygrometers) and windspeed. Much of the modern instrumentation is automated and can be located on a single automatic weather station. The density of monitoring stations required is approximately one every 500 km2, but this is a subjective estimate. Figure 19 is a map showing the distribution of stations where evapotranspiration data are available for South Africa.

FIGURE 19. MAP SHOWING NATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF REFERENCE EVAPOTRANSPIRATION DATA STATIONS USED IN THE SAPWAT MODEL (FROM DWAF, 2000 – DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT PLANS)

Runoff

The remainder of rainfall minus recharge to groundwater, evaporation and transpiration, in the long run, is runoff. This contains a mixture of baseflow (often groundwater-fed) and storm and quick flow. Runoff is monitored at weirs. Their locations depend on the importance of water in that catchment.



Today flow is measured at more than 800 river flow gauging stations and at more than 200 dams by the DWAF Directorate Hydrological Services. Methods such as velocity measurements, backwater calculations and slope-area are used to calibrate these stations for high flows. There are also a number of natural river sections calibrated specifically to measure floods.

Inter-catchment transfer schemes

Inter-catchment transfer schemes bring water into a catchment, or remove it. These quantities need to be measured if a proper account is to be given of groundwater in the context of a large catchment. These data will be available from WSAM. (See Volume 2:Chapter 5.)

Irrigation Return Flow

Not all irrigation water is consumed through transpiration. Some of it returns to the river, via either overland flow, interflow or groundwater flow. The effects of irrigation return flows need to be taken into account in the catchment water budget.

In future, the various monitoring networks will have to be planned and operated together from the start to collect meaningful, complementary data for integrated water resource management.

A 5-YEAR RESOURCE QUALITY MONITORING PLAN


4.6 A 5-YEAR RESOURCE QUALITY MONITORING PLAN

A task team within in DWAF Head Office has been established with the objective to develop a 5-year plan to achieve integration of all water resource monitoring. The scope of this plan is to give direction how to move away from a “data-rich but information-poor” syndrome and rather “delivering its users the management required for IWRM”. This would include integration of the following monitoring networks:

• Hydrological (including dams, flood surveys )

• Groundwater monitoring (including water levels, aquifer characteristics)

• Water quality (including inorganic, eutrophication, organic, microbial for groundwater and surface water)

• Evaporation,

• Hydrographical surveys (including reservoir dimensions, sediment yield),

• Rainfall,

• Other emerging monitoring programmes, e.g. River Health Programme, Toxicity Programme, Disaster Management Programme.

The plan will be finalised by April 2004 and roll-out of the strategies and implementation will then follow with dedicated budget allocated to the functions. The Directorate: Information Programme Management is responsible for the development of the plan, which will also addresses issues like responsibilities and roles regarding monitoring at national and regional (CMA) level as well as provision of funding for the monitoring porgrammes to ensure sustainability.

REFERENCES


4.7 REFERENCES

Bredenkamp, D.B. 2000. Groundwater Monitoring: A critical evaluation of groundwater monitoring in water resources evaluation and management. Water Research Commission Report number 838/1/00.

De Vries, J.J. 2000. Groundwater level fluctuations – the pulse of the aquifer. In: Netherlands National Committee for IAH. Evaluation and protection of groundwater resources – from vision to action. Conference proceedings, Wageningen, September 2000. 27 – 43.

Driscoll, F.G. 1986. Groundwater and wells. Second edition. Published by Johnson Filtration Systems Inc., St Paul, Minnesota. 1089 p.

Fetter, C.W. 1993. Contaminant hydrogeology. Macmillan publishing company. New York. 458 p.

DWAF, 1996. South African Water Quality Guideline Series. Second edition. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.

DWAF, 1998. Waste Management Series. Minimum requirements for water monitoring at waste management facilities. Second edition. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.

DWAF, 2000. Implementation guidelines for water conservation and demand management in agriculture. Development of irrigation water management plans. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.

Meyer, R. 2002. Guidelines for the monitoring and management of groundwater resources in rural water supply schemes. Water Research Commission report number 861/1/02a

Murray, R. and Ravenscroft, P. 2003. A framework for groundwater management of community water supplies – Draft for Comment, CSIR Environmentek. Stellenbosch

SABS 241: 2001. Standard Specifications for Drinking water

Sanders, T.G., Ward, R.C., Loftis, J.C., Steele, T.D., Adrian, D.D. and Yeyjevich, V. 1987. Design of networks for monitoring water quality. Water Resources Publications, Colorado.

Scott, D.F. and Le Maitre, D.C. 1998. The interaction between vegetation and groundwater: research priorities for South Africa. Report No. 730/1/98, Water Research Commission, Pretoria.

Seward, P. and Baron, J. 2001. An investigation into the groundwater use in South Africa. Technical Report No. 3917, Directorate Geohydrology, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.

REFERENCES


Van Wyk, E. In preparation. Towards the establishment and implementation of groundwater quantity and quality monitor networks in DWAF regions. Directorate Geohydrology, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.

Weaver, J.M.C. 1992. Groundwater sampling. Report No. TT 54/92, Water Research Commission, Pretoria

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


CHAPTER 5

GROUNDWATER INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR IWRM

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Availability of timely, adequate, relevant and valid hydrogeological information will be crucial for the future management of South Africa’s groundwater resources. It is imperative, therefore, that collection of new hydrogeological and monitoring data be accompanied by the continuous enhancement of powerful and robust information tools such as databases, information systems, maps, reports and booklets. These are to be used to convey the relevant information to hydrogeological specialists, water resource managers, decision makers and the public and can greatly support groundwater awareness and promotion campaigns.

The Hydrological Information unit of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) is responsible for the custodianship of all hydrogeological information nationwide. This includes capturing, management and dissemination. In the future Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs) will be responsible for water resource management. The CMAs will also have an important role as the suppliers of data and users of the outputs from the information systems.

Information can be made available in various formats. The classic formats such as printed maps and reports are important, but increasingly these are supplemented by electronic (digital) systems, which are capable of supplying data customized for specific purposes. The printed maps are key tools in water management and a relevant selection should be readily available in the CMA office.

A number of computer-based systems are available for storing and dissemination of hydrogeological data and information, in addition to libraries and technical reports. Besides the groundwater databases and systems there are a number of other systems used by DWAF (WSAM, WMS, WRMAIS, HydSys and WARMS) that are discussed in this chapter.

A new portfolio titled the National Groundwater Information Systems (NGIS) is presently being designed to meet increasing demands for groundwater information in a rapidly changing water business environment. The NGIS portfolio includes several projects. Amongst the most important are REGIS Africa and National Groundwater Archive (NGA). The latter is a relational database management system that is to replace the Open-NGDB, the current database of mainly boreholes and related data.

To make the database useful over a long period of time, it is important that the collected data are comparable. This includes simple issues such as the units and co-ordinates, but may also encompass less measurable issues such as work methods, scientific concepts and geological classification. The Department has already established the standard Geosite Descriptors and others will follow suite. It will be the responsibility of the local (CMA) information managers / database operators to keep themselves updated with these issues and communicate with their colleagues and other users, to maintain the usefulness of the database. However, DWAF Head Office also has a responsibility to make information available of new trends and developments.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


To motivate the staff actively involved in data capturing, it is important that there is a good understanding of the purpose and use of various data sets. An opinion that data are redundant or useless is very damaging to the completeness and reliability of the database.

The features of the main hydrological information systems within DWAF relevant to IWRM are listed in the table below:

REGIS HydSys WMS WSAM WARMS

Primary Function Hydrogeology Surface

hydrology Water quality

Water situation

assessment

Authorised water use

Mapping component:

ArcView, using ESRI shape files

and coverages

Proprietary mapping formats,

however this module can

accept shape files



None present

Database

Oracle

Proprietary

Informix

Access

Informix

Data exchange ASCII tables ASCII tables ASCII

tables ASCII tables

ASCII tables

Spatial data exchange

Shape files Shape files Shape files Shape files n/a

It will be the responsibility of DWAF Head Office to design and organise the national databases, but the CMAs must be active in communicating their experiences and requirements for future updates of the systems.

It is recommended that the CMAs establish an on-line information service to provide hydrogeological data and information, as required by the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2 of 2000. The users are expected to be drillers, consultants, landowners, farmers and Non Government Organisations (NGOs). Having easy access to data will promote a greater awareness of groundwater and enhance the concepts of integrated water resource management.

The products of a geohydrological information system will provide inputs for a number of activities in the CMAs, such as:

� The Catchment Management Strategy � Planning and future scenarios � Assessment of groundwater supply and demand � Development of allocation plans for optimal societal benefit � Comprehensive Reserve determinations � Groundwater assessment and monitoring

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


� Groundwater abstraction licensing � Water balance determination � Aquifer classification in terms of their importance, value and vulnerability. � Surface and groundwater interaction � Conceptual models of the hydrogeological settings � Protection of groundwater, protection zone delineation and associated restrictions � Sources of pollution (this information is currently with the Directorate Water Quality

Management) � Modelling consequences of land use activities and change thereof on water volumes

and quality � Assisting in the determination of Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) � Monitoring of conditions relative to the set RQOs, and � Assessing relevant environmental impacts (EIA).

Critical success factors for the implementation of a geohydrological information system within the context of IWRM.

Successful information systems comprise five main components. These components are: adequate hardware, appropriate software, good data, well-trained personnel with the necessary aptitude and well-defined procedures (including project maintenance and financing).

People must develop the procedures and define the tasks of the information systems. People can often overcome shortfalls in other components of the information systems, but the opposite is not true. The best software and computers in the world cannot compensate for incompetence. The “people” component is the most important. Hardware capabilities affect processing speed, ease of use and the type of output available. This includes not just the actual GIS software, but also various databases, drawing, statistical, imaging and other software. The availability and accuracy of data can affect the results of any query or analysis in terms of confidence levels and accuracy. Data analysis requires well-defined, consistent methods to produce correct and repeatable results.

A problem of many databases and information systems is incorrect data. This is damaging to the trust and usefulness of the database. The data quality can be improved through motivating the staff working with data capturing and registration, but this must be supplemented by systems to actively identify errors. Expertise, common sense and accuracy are important for working with data. Formal training of data capturing staff is required.

INTRODUCTION


5.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 14 of the National Water Act specifies that monitoring, recording, assessing and dissemination of information on water resources is critically important for achieving the objectives of the National Water Act. The national information systems required and the objectives of these systems are listed below:

Establishment of national information systems (139) � The Minister must, as soon as reasonably practicable, establish national information

systems regarding water resources (1) � The information systems may include, among others (2)

• A hydrological information system (2a) • A water resource quality information system (2b) • A groundwater information system (2c) • A register of water use authorizations (2d).

Objectives of national information systems (140)

The objectives of national information systems are:

� To store and provide data and information for the protection, sustainable use and management of water resources (a)

� To provide information for the development and implementation of the national water resource strategy (b)

� To provide information to water management institutions, water users and the public (c) • For research and development (c i) • For planning and environment impact assessments (c ii) • For public safety and disaster management (c iii) • On the status of water resources (c iv).

To fulfil these requirements, it is necessary to develop and use national information systems and infrastructure, to collect appropriate data, to establish national monitoring systems and to provide information to assess all aspects of water resources. These aspects include quantity, quality, use, rehabilitation, compliance with resource quality objectives, health of aquatic ecosystems, atmospheric conditions that may influence water resources, floods and drought. Co-ordination and collaboration between institutions, including government, provincial and private institutions must be established. An implementation plan to achieve effective co-ordination in a phased and progressive manner is essential.

This chapter has been structured based upon the assumption that each CMA will be operating it’s own information system and the system will be well integrated with other relevant information systems.

TYPE OF QUERIES THAT A GEOHYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM SHOULD ADDRESS


5.2 THE TYPE OF QUERIES THAT A GEOHYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM SHOULD BE ABLE TO ADDRESS

� What is known about boreholes within the area of interest?

A practical use of the database is to help drillers and consultants in their search for water resources. Thus information such as the distribution of boreholes in a specific area, the average yield, the regional geology and water levels will be very useful information. The inquirer (client) can be expected to have a good ability to evaluate and interpret the information himself or the data can be supplied in a pre-packaged format.

� What is the water quality in the area of interest?

This is important information in the early stages of groundwater exploration, to help decide whether to pursue groundwater or surface water options. It may be advisable to produce a map or a statistical presentation that can show the relationship between aquifers and water quality to advise on the advantages and disadvantages of various aquifers.

If the inquirer does not ask for specific elements, or does not have specific requirements with regard to quality, it may be advisable to ask questions regarding the intended use of the water and then in the answer include, for example, the South African guidelines for the intended use (DWAF, 1996) and/or the drinking water guidelines from WHO. The available information on the information system should also be evaluated and if needed fur future sustainability, the possibility to develop/expand the water quality monitoring network has to be investigated.

� Where is groundwater easily accessible and where is it difficult to access? � How deep should you expect to drill in an area to get sufficient water?

This is always important information for drillers and their clients. In fractured aquifers, it may be extremely difficult to answer, but it is highly recommended to make an estimate and then to follow up on the actual results of drilling. This follow up provides a valuable starting point for dialogue with these stakeholders. It also ensures that data are forwarded to the CMA and entered into the national database.

� Where is groundwater vulnerable to pollution and where must it be protected?

This is key information for planning purposes and for prioritising remediation initiatives. Answers will normally include information on recharge, direction of flow, protecting layers, such as clay, and the importance of the water resource in question. This information is also crucial for planning in terms of any development in the WMA and should be taken cognicance of in the CMA, IDP’s and WSDP’s.

� How much rainfall have we had and is it declining or increasing on an annual basis?

This is an important question as rainfall drives the recharge process. It is important to be familiar with annual rainfall trends as these trends determine aquifer responses and thus allocation and conservation measures. The impact of rainfall on groundwater levels can easily be seen by a simple graph of water levels vs. rainfall.

TYPE OF QUERIES THAT A GEOHYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM SHOULD ADDRESS


� What are the river flows and how do they compare to past river flows?

Once again, knowing river flows assists in the calculation of Reserve requirements and the amount that can be allocated (data for CMA purposes only). Awareness of annual trends will enable adjustment of these allocations and the implementation of conservation measures should they be necessary.

� Where are the river abstraction points and how much surface water is being abstracted and how does it affect river flow?

This is important to know for management of the catchment. It will also assist in the processing of abstraction applications and with the assessment of water balance and flow calculations.

� What are the groundwater levels like now and how do they compare with the past?

This is critical information for the sustainable management of groundwater resources and for ensuring that Reserve requirements are met. The assessment of groundwater levels should be linked with groundwater recharge assessments.

� Where is groundwater being abstracted, how much is being abstracted and how does this comply with licensing?

This is also very important information for the sustainable management of groundwater resources and has been identified as a major uncertainty in regional scale water balance calculations (Volume 2, Chapter 4). Obtaining information on how much groundwater is being abstracted is always difficult, as groundwater abstraction volumes are often not measured. The installation of flow meters and the reading thereof should be strongly encouraged within catchments where groundwater plays a critical role in supporting economic activities and environmental functioning. However, flow meters are not always the ideal option and other innovative measures to calculate and /or estimate groundwater abstraction should be considered. These abstraction volumes have to be checked against license agreements, so as to refine understanding of the water balance within a catchment. It will also be a means of checking that licensed volumes are being adhered to.

� What is the land use across the catchment?

Knowing the type and distribution of land use across the catchment will be critical for ensuring adherence to resource quality objectives (and planning process at all levels of management). It will also provide valuable information for management intervention should RQOs be exceeded.

REASONS FOR DATA COLLECTION


5.3 REASONS FOR DATA COLLECTION

The main reason for data collection is to make either operation or strategic decisions in support of the CMAs mission and objectives. Sound management of all water resources depends on the ability to make decisions about all issues that affect the water resource and to base these decisions on factual information, rather than beliefs or assumptions.

Infrastructure data such as roads, railway lines, towns, rivers, etc. are important for orientation of the user. In addition, having such data within a Geographical Iinformation System enables the possibility of exploring relationships between thematic data sets.

The NWA recognizes the unitary nature of the hydrological cycle and that no one component of this cycle can be dealt with in isolation from the other components. Hydrological features are required as part of information systems for the catchment to be managed in an integrated way. Water balance calculations will have to be carried out when preparing Catchment Management Strategies, and thus all inputs and abstractions need to be quantified. In addition to balancing water volumes, water quality has to be assessed and monitored. For the above reasons, it is necessary to capture the data listed in Tables 2 to 4.

Some of the reasons for collecting specific data are given below:

� Location data - essential data to uniquely identify points, present data spatially and maintain the database

� Date and time - to identify and to evaluate data quality and temporal changes � Depth, (alternative, absolute level of top and bottom) - to identify the aquifer, to

evaluate reliability of test pumping, for selection of use � Diameter - to evaluate relevance and reliability of test pumping � Screen position (or fracture position) - to establish a “best practise” for future use of

the specific aquifer - to evaluate reliability of yield and test pumping � Pump used / installed - to establish a “best practise” for future use of the specific

aquifer - to evaluate reliability of yield and test pumping. � Yield and Draw down - key information for borehole and aquifer information,

indispensable for hydrogeological models/interpretation of a region and for water resource development

� Geological layers (all) - The geological information can be used for multiple purposes, including establishing 3D hydrogeological models/interpretation of a region essential to the water resource development

� Fractures - most important geological information in crystalline formations, both dry and water-bearing fractures should be recorded. However, the determination of fracture orientation and extent in the third dimension is difficult. Also the degree of fracture connectivity is difficult to determine. Presently surface representation of fracturing should be recorded. Further testing is required as to the appropriate method for interpretation and recoding of fracture characteristics below surface.

� Water quality / type - key information for borehole and aquifer information, indispensable for water resource development.

REASONS FOR DATA COLLECTION


To motivate the staff responsible for actively securing data for the database, it is important that there is good understanding of the purpose and use of information.

One of the objectives of the NWA, and many of the other recent laws in South Africa, is the decentralisation of authority so that water resources can be controlled from within the areas where they are used.

The same goes for water resources information, which needs to be collected, captured, stored and managed within the CMA, where it is most relevant.

This allows the people in the catchment management areas to take ownership of their own data, so that they can make informed decisions about issues that affect their water resources.

RELEVANT AND ASSOCIATED IWRM INFORMATION SYSTEMS


5.4 RELEVANT AND ASSOCIATED IWRM INFORMATION SYSTEMS

For this guideline, information systems are considered relevant and important. They are described briefly in the following text, and in the references listed at the end of this chapter.

FIGURE 20: THE HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS THAT RELATE TO IWRM

Other databases or Information Systems:

There are many products on the South African market used in the field of hydrogeology. The systems differ based on objectives and functionality. For example the product AquiMon is well suited for borehole and aquifer monitoring and management. It is freely distributed and built using Map Objects and MS Access. It is a package well suited for use by Water Service Authorities and Providers.

There are other products with greater functionality such as WISH (Windows Interpretation System for Hydrogeologists) and AquaBase.

There have also been systems developed specifically for Municipalities, such as PC Muniwater and AquaTrac (used for measuring the abstraction of water from boreholes and allows systematic data collection). From the experience gained in the Olifants-Doorn Water Management Area, AquiMon provided to be a most useful and easy-to-use product for Municipalities to manage borehole and aquifer yields.

Water Situation

Assessment Model

Water Resources Monitoring and Assessment Information Strategy (WRMAIS)

Hydrology: Hydrological Information System (HIS) / HydSys

Hydrogeology: National Groundwater Archive (NGA) / Regional Groundwater Information System (REGIS)

Water Quality Management:

Water Management System (WMS)

Water Use Authorisation Management System (WARMS)



TABLE 6: HYDROLOGICAL AND GEOHYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS RELEVANT TO IWRM

Data Management Input Output Data exchange Groundwater -

Primary Function

ArcView/ Mapping

component Database ACII

Tables

Shape Files

(Spatial) Levels Quality

Borehole information

Time series /

Diagrams Maps Reporting

Template Training

REGIS Hydrogeology � Oracle �

ETL Tool

� � � � � � � DWAF HO

NGA Hydrogeology None present

Informix, SQL � No � � � Raw data No No DWAF HO

WSAM Water

situation assessment

� Access � � � � � No � � DWAF HO

HydSys Surface hydrology

Proprietary mapping module,

however this module can

include shape files

Proprietary � � No No No � � � DWAF HO

WMS Water quality � Informix � � No No � � No � DWAF HO

WARMS Authorised water use

None present

Informix (?) � n/a No No No No No � DWAF HO

AquiMon Hydrogeology � MS Excel,

MS Access

Dbf � � � � � � � Consultants

WISH Hydrogeology � MS Excel,

MS Access

Xls � � � � � � � DWAF HO

AquaBase Hydrogeology � MS Access ASCII � � � � � � � DWAF HO

PC Muniwater Hydrogeology None

present MS

Access None No � � � � � � DWAF HO

AquaTrac Well field management

None present ? ? No No No No No � � DWAF HO



5.4.1 Water situation assessment model (WSAM)

The Water Situation Assessment Model (WSAM) was developed by DWAF to assist in the participative management of water resources by all concerned stakeholders.

WSAM is a versatile and effective decision support tool. With time, the results can be refined as input data becomes more detailed and accurate. In addition more functionality can be added. For example potential groundwater yields could be refined and areas with the potential for augmented groundwater recharge could be added. Sound structure and speed makes it suitable for use in a workshop environment, yet it is comprehensive and sufficiently accurate for national or regional water resources analysis. It is also a useful communication tool that can help stakeholders to understand the processes that affect water resources management and empower them to make well-informed decisions. It encourages stakeholders to share information and to improve the existing national database.

5.4.2 Water Resource Monitoring and Assessment Information System (WRMAIS)

The overall goal of this multi-phase initiative is to construct a Monitoring and Assessment Information System (MAIS) delivering water-related information that is effectively used for decision-making in institutions involved in water management. The development of Water Resource Monitoring and Assessment Information System (WRMAIS) is an on-going initiative, which is still in the initial stages of planning and strategy building. Regular updates on the initiative are available through the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry website (http://www-dwaf.pwv.gov.za/IWQS/ wrmais/index.htm). A probable time line for completing the establishment of the WRMAIS indicates that the fully functional system can be operational by April 2004.

5.4.3 Water Management System (WMS)

The Water Management System (WMS) is a computer system being developed specifically for DWAF to support decision-making and to provide the necessary water quality information, needed to manage water resources, potential pollution sources and monitoring in South Africa.

The vision of the WMS is to have a working integrated computer system where different directorates and regions, with different mandates and functions, can support each other, sharing information and the workload, and in this way help DWAF to be consistent in all its decisions and actions in the management of water quality.

5.4.4 Hydrological Information System (HIS/HydSys)

The Hydrological Information System (HIS) consists of several databases, which contain the following:

� Descriptive information about all river stations. � River flow and related information. � Rainfall and evaporation data. � Dam balances (calculated inflows). � Water quality information in rivers and dams.



5.4.5 National Groundwater Archive (NGA)

A new National Groundwater Information System (NGIS), which is essentially a portfolio of systems, is presently being designed to meet increasing demands for groundwater information in a rapidly changing water business environment. The portfolio of the NGIS project includes several subprojects. Amongst the most important are REGIS Africa and National Groundwater Archive (NGA). The latter one is a relational database management system that is to replace the Open-NGDB, the current database of mainly boreholes and data related to them. Figure 21 shows the components of the NGIS portfolio diagrammatically.

FIGURE 21: THE PRODUCTS AND SERVICES COMPRISING THE NGIS

Open-NGDB

The National Groundwater Data Base, which was commissioned in 1986, is the core of the present groundwater information system. Its function is to capture, store and disseminate validated borehole records and other groundwater-related data such as groundwater levels on a national basis. The NGDB was closed down in December 2000 and replaced by the new Open-NGDB system, successfully implemented during the same month. Currently 95% or more of the stored borehole data are loaded via computer terminals at DWAF's headquarters, with some support from the regional offices. Groundwater chemistry data are not stored in the Open-NGDB, but rather in the WMS system, with a borehole site identification reference number used to linked these to the Open-NGDB records.

Regional Geohydrological Information System (REGIS)

The objective of REGIS is to form a complete geohydrological information system, in which all hydrogeological data and other relevant data can be stored and processed, in order to evaluate (geo)hydrological conditions on national, regional and local scales.

NGIS (National Groundwater Information System) Portfolio

REGIS-Africa

Open-NGDB

Ground-water

Mapping

Geo- Library

Geo- Web

National ground-water

archive

Data request system

Services: Data - acquisition; capture; quality auditing; data and/or information dissemination



FIGURE 22: THE REGIS STRUCTURE

The database used for REGIS is Oracle, and REGIS incorporates the following types of data and information:

� 3D hydrogeological subsurface models; � groundwater levels; � groundwater quality; � groundwater abstraction values; � surface water flows; � surface topography; and � additional data.

5.4.6 Water use authorisation and registration management system (WARMS)

WARMS is the information system used for the registration of water users. WARMS is a comprehensive system designed to:

� Manage the process of registering water use by storing the information needed to uniquely identify a water user, and characterise the location, nature and extent of the use;

� Manage the authorisation of water use (by licensing), by incorporating the workflow requirements for the licensing process from application, through evaluation, issue or refusal, to review. Information captured will include details of the evaluation of the application, any appeals against licensing decisions, licence conditions, licence and review periods, and any waivers granted on water use charges;

� Invoice water users based on established tariff structures, issue receipts and statements, account for revenue received, and track outstanding water use charges. The financial component of WARMS is a secure system based on accepted accounting principles, which includes an audit trail for every item of data. Data security and stability is ensured by continuous data replication and updating between systems at DWAF National and Regional offices;

� Establish links with the other national databases (such as the National Deeds Register) to facilitate validation of data and information.

REGIS “ArcView Extension”

DBMS (Oracle)

GIS (ArcView)

INFORMATION SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE


5.5 INFORMATION SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

The information architecture used in the CMAs will be very much dependent on higher-level DWAF implementation strategies. Currently no policy decision has yet been made on the information systems that must definitely be implemented within the CMAs. Included below is a proposed diagram of the system architecture.

FIGURE 23: A CONCEPTUAL LAYOUT OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF DATA FLOW ACROSS COMPONENTS.

It is envisaged that DWAF: Head Office will maintain data from the catchment management areas and the regional offices would provide this. The current regional offices would collate data on behalf of the catchment management areas. The regional office will then provide the catchment management agencies with the requested outputs. Systems facilities must also include the ability to provide data to the public, as required by the Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2 of 2000.

DWAF –Regional

Office

CMA

WSA WSP

CMA

DWAF – Head Office

WMI

INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION MECHANISMS


5.6 INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION MECHANISMS

The data manager will be asked to supply data to a variety of clients. It is recommended that the system is set up and tested with a selection of standard outputs that can satisfy these different needs.

� The researchers and technicians will often require unprocessed data, sometimes in formats that will then allow filtering and manipulation the data.

� In other situations the technicians will need the information urgently and the database operator must be able to handle the request quickly and transmit key data by fax, telephone or e-mail. An example could be ownership, pump positions, most recent water analysis.

� The administrator may need data filtered in certain ways to suit questions like how much water is allocated in a region and are there still unallocated resources available. This requires combination of the Reserve, resource assessment, vulnerability and existing permits.

� In the situation where the supplied water quality is in doubt the database must supply information about water quality combined with a specific source

� Politicians may, with short notice, require information from the groundwater coordinator to assist in a decision making process. Answers must be delivered quickly and accompanied by comments that can help political users in interpretations and protect them against giving unrealistic promises and raising expectations that can not be fulfilled. Data should be selected based on reliability and relevance.

� The public may need data for information campaigns, grass root initiatives, school projects etc. As for the politicians, it is important that the database operator understands the purpose and puts himself in the users situation, so that the data that is filtered from the database are relevant, valid and commented if possible.

For many of the situations above it is recommended that graphic data presentation is used and is supplemented with reference data. This minimizes misunderstandings as many people have a good intuitive understanding of sizes and shapes but do not have the same for numbers, especially not if these are delivered in units with which they are unfamiliar.

DATA TYPES AND FREQUENCY OF COLLECTION

GUIDELINES FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARCH 2004 PAGE 164 VOLKUME 2: IMPLEMENTATION

5.7 DATA TYPES AND FREQUENCY OF COLLECTION

To make the database useful over a long period, it is important that the collected data are comparable. This includes simple issues such as the units and coordinates, but may also encompass less measurable issues such as work methods, scientific concepts and geological classification.

It is important to have flexibility within the chosen database, for the inclusion of new database fields to accommodate the parameters of customized monitoring programmes. The variety of parameters for monitoring, depending on the objectives, is wide.

The necessary data to be collected for a geohydrologist to carry out IWRM within a catchment context can be sub-divided into the following categories:

A. Spatial features (for example roads, rivers, topography etc)

B. Point attributes (for example borehole descriptions)

C. Time series: both points and spatial data (for example water level variations per borehole with time or the change is water quality over an area and with time)

D. Non-spatial (for example documents and reports).

A. Spatial data

The spatial data sets that need to be collected and the frequency of collection is indicated in Table 7 below.



TABLE 7: NECESSARY SPATIAL DATA SETS AND FREQUENCY OF COLLECTION

Category Feature Collection frequency

Infrastructure Roads Once off (or as new data becomes available)

Rail Once off

Surface topographical contours (50 metre interval)

Once off

Trigonometric beacon positions

Once off (or as new data becomes available)

Extent of urban areas / settlements

Reviewed every five years. This frequency may have to be adjusted for areas where rapid growth and change is occurring.

Land cover Reviewed every five years

Imagery – satellite or aerial photography

Reviewed every five years

Hydrology Rivers Once off (or as new data becomes available)

River gauging stations Once off (or as new data becomes available)

Dams Once off (or as new data becomes available)

Wetlands Once off (or as new data becomes available)

Rainfall / weather station positions


Abstraction points Reviewed every year

Quaternary catchment boundaries


Geohydrology Geology (incl. faults, lineaments etc)


Soil type Once off (or as new data becomes available)

Aquifer type, importance, value and vulnerability

Reviewed every five years

Borehole positions Reviewed every year. Data obtained from newly drilled boreholes should be captured as soon as possible, after the data has been received.

Protection zones Reviewed every year

Pollution sources

Potential pollution sources Reviewed every year



B. Spatial attributes

Required attributes for the various data sets are listed in Table 8.

TABLE 8: FEATURES ATTRIBUTES THAT NEED TO BE CAPTURED

Data Set Attributes

Roads National-, major-, minor-, gravel roads, tracks

Urban areas / settlements Water supply and sanitation method

Land cover According to the ARC/CSIR classification

Rivers Perennial and non-perennial

River gauging stations In use or Not in use.

Dams Date constructed, uses, capacity

Wetlands Capacity and purpose

Rainfall / weather station positions Date constructed / in-use or not and instrumentation

Abstraction points Date installed and purpose

Geology (incl. faults, lineaments, etc) Main lithology, water bearing potential

Soil Type, texture and clay content

Aquifer type Major-, Minor-, Poor-, Sole Source Aquifer

Aquifer importance Domestic water supply, irrigation, industrial use

Aquifer value High, medium or low

Aquifer vulnerability High medium or low

Aquifer management class A-protected, B-good, C-fair

Boreholes Date of construction, drilling method, owner, intended use, relation to other boreholes, natural conditions, environmental problems, drilled depth, diameter, screen position, fracture position, pump installed, blow yield, drawdown etc. (see DWAF data capture forms)

Aquifer (wellhead) protection zones Differentiated protection levels e.g. zones 1 – 3

Pollution sources Type of pollution source and severity

(see Chapter 6 for a complete listing of potential pollution sources)



C. Time series data

Time series data is required for the “point-based” features in Table 9.

TABLE 9: TIME SERIES DATA SETS THAT NEED TO BE CAPTURED FOR POINT FEATURES

Point type Time series data

Surface Hydrology

River flow rates Hourly basis (dependent on the characteristics and importance of the river – it may be necessary to record at five minute intervals for assessing peak flows and on a daily basis during low flows). The information system capabilities should also be considered. If large volumes of flow data are to be generated it must be ensured that the system can cope with the data in terms of storage space and data record access speeds.

Precipitation and evapotranspiration

Daily basis (this frequency may also vary depending on monitoring objectives)

River water quality pH – weekly; TDS – weekly

Major cations and anions – monthly

Specific parameters – ad hoc

Dam water quality TDS – weekly

Major cations and anions – monthly

Specific parameters – ad hoc

Geohydrology:

Monitoring borehole water levels

The time intervals for recording water levels will vary based on the objectives of the monitoring, e.g. whether measuring ambient conditions, wellfield conditions or borehole responses to abstraction.

Monitoring borehole water quality and quantity

Water quality monitoring is generally conducted at a lower frequency than water level (quantity) monitoring. (Also see section 3.5 in Volume 2, Chapter 4)

National monitoring samples are currently collected twice per year. Local monitoring intervals should be more frequent, usually monthly or quarterly, depending on the type of impact anticipated and the rate of migration or decay of contaminants.

Boreholes used for public drinking water supply should be sampled weekly, if possible, to check compliance with drinking water standards.

Changes with time will also need to be monitored for the “spatially extensive” parameters in Table 10. The data sets are usually displayed as surface contours.



TABLE 10: TIME SERIES DATA SETS THAT NEED TO BE CAPTURED FOR LINE OR POLYGON POINT FEATURES

Spatially-related feature type Frequency Surface hydrology:

Rainfall and ET extrapolated for the entire catchment to annual variation

Updated annually and to be based on mean annual precipitation and mean annual ET

Generalized river water quality Annual updates

Geohydrology:

Change in groundwater levels across the catchment (it may not be valid to generate catchment wide water level surfaces, however there may be localized areas where groundwater conditions are mapped spatially).

Six monthly

Groundwater water quality as indicated by EC / TDS or any other key parameter.

Six monthly

Pollution sources:

The extent and severity of the pollution or hazard ranking maps.

Six monthly – or ad hoc.

D. Non-spatial data

An information system can also provide a centralized storage facility for many relevant documents, providing easy access to reports and results. However, a needs assessment will be required to determine the demand for access to documentation and reports, because specific design and development is required to include this type of functionality.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS


5.8 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Sources of data and methods of obtaining data for information systems are listed here by data category:

Spatial data:

• Obtained from government (DWAF – Business Information, DLA - Surveys and Mapping etc.) or purchased from private agencies (GIMS, Geospace etc.)

• Captured from maps – digitised / scanned

• Remotely sensed imagery

• Captured using a GPS, both for point positions, (e.g. boreholes) or lines (e.g. footpaths) or polygons (e.g. centre pivot irrigation circles) during a hydrocensus.

Attribute data:

• Imported from spreadsheets

• Received and imported from other relevant data bases (e.g. - NGA)

Time series data (a feature attribute):

• Imported from WMS or HIS / HydSys or the Open-NGDB (or later the NGA).

• Collected during hydrocensus or by electroninc data loggers in CMA by groundwater coordinator.

Some of the issues relating to data collection are:

Spatial database accuracy:

• The spatial database should have a targeted accuracy of 40 m or better. The operational scale should be 1:50 000 (accepting up to 40 m positional uncertainty is 0.8 mm on a map of the previously mentioned scale). However, a target of < 15 m accuracy should be strived for, particularly as most GPS measurements have an associated accuracy of < 10 m (assuming a good satellite configuration).

Coordinate system:

• The reference system is to be decimal degrees using the new Hartbeesthoek94 datum, based on the WGS84 ellipsoid

Field surveys:

• It is critical that the data collected is verified as completely as possible in the field.

DATA VERIFICATION, DATA QUALITY, CONFIDENCE LIMITS, DATA ANALYSIS & METADATA


5.9 DATA VERIFICATION, DATA QUALITY, CONFIDENCE LIMITS, DATA ANALYSIS AND METADATA

A general problem for many databases is incorrect data. This is damaging to the trust and usefulness of the base. The data quality can be improved through training, motivation and accuracy checking among the staff working with data registration, but this must be supplemented by systems to actively identify errors. In the following, a number of ideas / approaches are listed:

Mathematical / statistical analysis

Mathematical / statistical analysis can be used to identify anomalies in the data. Examples could be the deviations from average values for specific capacity, deviation from normal ratios between depth and diameter, ratio of pump size to yield, etc.

Graphic presentation

A very efficient way to identify abnormal data is a graphical presentation that will show the unusual, even to the untrained eye. Plotting location maps and geological cross sections can quickly highlight data with major errors. Anomalously high or low data points tend to stand out in time series plots for particular sampling point.

Water Balance / Modelling

In areas where little is known, a simple water balance calculation can give a good indication if a water yield or a water level are just a rare phenomena or could be characteristic for the region. In areas where a good coverage is already established and a model has been built, it is advisable to compare important new data with the existing data and double check the unprocessed data if they do not fit into the model.

Data verification

The scanned Surveys and Mapping topocadastral maps are accurate to within approximately 40 metres. The scanned maps can be used as background imagery for checking the accuracy of other spatial data sets.

Existing borehole positions must be checked by plotting these against a backdrop of geographical features, such as roads, coastline, property boundaries etc. Obvious errors may be detected, such as boreholes occurring in the sea and this often comes about by the latitude and longitude coordinates being mistakenly swapped. These types of errors are easy to detect and correct, however uncertainty will still remain unless boreholes can be plotted against property boundaries and digital orthophotographs or satellite imagery. The use of remotely sensed imagery is particularly useful as the validity of borehole positions can be checked (for example, boreholes are not drilled on the flanks of steep sided mountains etc).

Coordinates may also be checked in the field with a Global Positioning System (GPS) as many of the borehole positions were obtained before these instruments were in common use.

DATA VERIFICATION, DATA QUALITY, CONFIDENCE LIMITS, DATA ANALYSIS & METADATA


It is very important that a mechanism be established for accessing original field data sheets, records and reports. The situation will arise when data in the database needs to be checked and verified and the only way of doing this will be by reviewing the original documentation. An efficient and reliable system must be established for tracking down the original field notes and reports. Comprehensive listings and associated unique identifiers must be made of all the documentation. These lists should also be made accessible via the Internet. It is also recommended that the documentation centre be permanently staffed.

Data quality

Quality is about “fitness for use” (Trodd, 1997). It has to do with the extent to which a data set, or map output, or a GIS matches up to the needs of the person judging it. Quality of a data set, for example, can be defined by the creator or by the user. Their quality criteria however are likely to be different. The creator of the data will define quality in the context of the anticipated users. Quality can also mean the applicability of data in a GIS analytical process. Quality can be thought of in terms of the response to two questions:

� How applicable is my data to the task being performed? � How applicable is the task to the data?

Error is the difference between actual data and true data. Error is a major issue in quality. It is often used as an umbrella term to describe all the types of effects, which cause data to depart from what they should be. It is also used to describe single, identifiable deviations. In practice this term, like quality, is used loosely. It may be useful to distinguish two different ways of looking at error. One is types of error; the other is sources of error. The former is perhaps more appropriate to identifying error, the latter to reducing or eliminating it.

Some typical examples of Sources of Error are given below:

� Human error: e.g. operator error in digitising / data capture � Machine error: e.g. systematic truncation of data fields � GIS error: e.g. software with incorrect interpolation algorithms � Scale error: e.g. using 1:500 000 scale hydrogeological maps for borehole siting.

Every GIS action, from conceptualisation of the data model to processing of data through to output, has the potential to generate errors and compound existing ones. A user may start with error in one data set and, through combination with other data sets, create an even larger set of errors. The initial error can spread to other data that incorporate the data. The result is information that is less than useful because of the indeterminable compound errors.

One useful, if hackneyed, expression, is Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO). What effect your input (data) will have on the output (data). This may seem trite but it should be remembered that computers allow us to produce more rubbish quicker and easier than any other machine known, (even perhaps more than people themselves). More importantly, computers can produce attractive rubbish (think of the power of coloured maps).

What this means for the GIS user is that he or she has to cope with a potentially complex linkage of effects that are inherently difficult to identify and trace. Time and resources are spent detecting error instead of using information. Quality control and error detection form a fundamental part of all GIS operations but are often neglected or ignored.

POTENTIAL INFORMATION SYSTEM CONSTRAINTS


5.10 POTENTIAL INFORMATION SYSTEM CONSTRAINTS

For the successful implementation of a geohydrological information system for catchment management purposes, it is necessary to recognise a few of the possible constraining factors. Once these factors have been recognised they can then be addressed and hopefully overcome. A short-listing of factors is given below:

Budget constraints: The implementation of an information system will necessitate funding for the purchase of computer systems, peripherals, software and for operator training. There will also be on-going software and data maintenance and upgrading costs. There is significant cost involved in purchasing and acquiring data, as well as in the validation of the data. There will be costs in producing outputs from the system, such as maps and information brochures. It is recommended that the overall costing be divided into establishment and maintenance costs for the purposes of budgeting.

Trained personnel: it will be necessary to have a GIS competent person, with a good background in geohydrology to operate and maintain the system. Ideally this person should also be a trained geohydrologist. They would also be responsible for training the end-users.

Linkage to other systems: It is likely that data exchange between the systems mentioned in this chapter will not be problematic, however significant reformatting of data may be necessary to make it compatible with system input requirements. To facilitate this process, a number of ‘middleware’ routines can be developed.

Appropriate IT systems: It will be necessary to maintain optimum computer specifications, both for hardware and software, to ensure that new system developments can be accommodated.

Data and exchange standards: Currently documented groundwater and borehole standards for the capture of spatial, temporal and attribute data are being developed. This matter is currently being addressed via a separate project compiling borehole standards. Data exchange protocols, including data types and frequency, are being established. A web-based interface is being developed for data exchange purposes.

INFORMATION SYSTEM OUTPUTS


5.11 INFORMATION SYSTEM OUTPUTS

The following outputs can be generated by the appropriate information system:

� Maps showing the location of boreholes and other observation points � Infrastructure, land cover and land use (proprietary use of certain data sets will have

to be addressed, for example geological and soil data cannot be freely distributed). � Borehole logs � Water levels and water chemistry with indicators of suitability for different uses (e.g.

drinking, irrigation, etc). These indicators will be classified according to the DWAF standards.

� Graphs with time series data (see example in……….) � Geological and hydrogeological cross-sections � Vulnerability data - direction of water transport, groundwater recharge zones,

thickness and permeability of the upper layers, aquifer importance, and protection zones

� Data files (ASCII) as input for modelling systems (such as MODFLOW and BASINS) � A later development would be to access and download certain data from the system

in a standardised ASCII format.

The value of accurate, consistent and “intelligent” data could not be stressed enough. Without this information it will not be possible to make constructive and sustainable inputs to planning processes and integrated water resource management.

RECOMMENDATION


5.12 RECOMMENDATIONS

This document is only a guide that features the main hydrological information systems recommended by DWAF and which are currently relevant to IWRM. The systems that were discussed in this chapter are recognised by the Department and data can be transferred between these systems quite easily.

The success of the management and operation of a groundwater resource is highly dependent on the maintanance and efficient use of appropriate information systems. It is only here that data and knowledge meet and where intelligent management dicisions can be made.

REFERENCES


5.13 REFERENCES

Burrough, P.A., 1986. Data quality, errors and natural variation in Principles of Geographic Information Systems. Oxford: Claredon Press, Chapter 6.

DWAF, 1996. South African Water Quality Guidelines. Volume 1 to 8 (Domestic Use, Recreational Use, Industrial Use, Agricultural Use – Irrigation, Agricultural Use – Livestock watering, Agricultural Use – Aquaculture, Aquatic Ecosystems, Field Guide).

Trodd, N., 1997. Data Quality. Course notes: International Distance Learning GIS Diploma Programme (UniGIS). Manchester, UK.

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