diagnosis and treatment of respiratory conditions in ...€¦ · amp/sulbactam or clinda...

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DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF RESPIRATORY CONDITIONS IN CHILDREN WITH NEUROLOGICAL IMPAIRMENT Rishi Agrawal, MD, MPH Disclosure I have no relevant financial relationships with the manufacturers(s) of any commercial products(s) and/or provider of commercial services discussed in this CME activity. I do not intend to discuss an unapproved/investigative use of a commercial product/device in this presentation.

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Page 1: DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF RESPIRATORY CONDITIONS IN ...€¦ · Amp/sulbactam or Clinda Moxifloxacin ... •Laryngeo‐Tracheal Separation. Case 2 3 year old with Trisomy 21 is admitted

DIAGNOSISANDTREATMENTOFRESPIRATORYCONDITIONSINCHILDRENWITHNEUROLOGICALIMPAIRMENT

RishiAgrawal,MD,MPH

Disclosure• I have no relevant financial relationships with the manufacturers(s) of any commercial products(s) and/or provider of commercial services discussed in this CME activity.

• I do not intend to discuss an unapproved/investigative use of a commercial product/device in this presentation.

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Question

Why do children with Neurological Impairment (NI) have frequent respiratory problems?  Why do children with Neurological Impairment (NI) have frequent respiratory problems?  

What are the pathophysiologic mechanisms?What are the pathophysiologic mechanisms?

AspirationOropharyngeal

Motor Dysfunction (from above)

OropharyngealMotor Dysfunction 

(from above)

Aspiration of oral feeds

Aspiration of oral or upper respiratory secretions

GastroesophagealReflux              

(from below)

GastroesophagealReflux              

(from below)

Food

Acidic/Non‐acidic secretions

May cause apnea, laryngeal 

spasm, inflammation

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AspirationBoth can lead to Aspiration Pneumonia

Both can lead to Aspiration Pneumonia

Chronic lower airway inflammation

Chronic lower airway inflammation

Bronchiectasis, lung parenchymal damageBronchiectasis, lung parenchymal damage

Worse airway secretion clearance

Worse airway secretion clearance

Increased susceptibility to 

infection

Increased susceptibility to 

infection

PoorCoughandAirwayClearanceDifficulty coordinating expiratory abdominal and intercostal muscles with glottic muscles

Difficulty coordinating expiratory abdominal and intercostal muscles with glottic muscles

Poor clearance of aspirated materialsPoor clearance of aspirated materials

Poor clearance of lower airway secretions, especially during 

respiratory infections

Poor clearance of lower airway secretions, especially during 

respiratory infections

AtelectasisAtelectasis HypoxemiaHypoxemia SuperinfectionSuperinfection

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RespiratoryMuscleWeakness

Low tone in pharynx

Low tone in pharynx

Upper airway obstructionUpper airway obstruction

Obstructive sleep apnea 

Obstructive sleep apnea 

Lower respiratory muscle weaknessLower respiratory muscle weakness

Paradoxical breathing (chest in, belly out)

Paradoxical breathing (chest in, belly out)

Hypoventilation Hypoventilation 

Contributes to poor cough and airway clearance

KyphoscoliosisRestrictive Lung DiseaseRestrictive Lung Disease

V/Q mismatchV/Q mismatch

• atelectasis on one side

• overexpansion on the other

If occurs early in life, can limit lung growthIf occurs early in life, can limit lung growth

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BrainstemControlofBreathing

Of particular concern in Chiari malformation and acute hydocephalusOf particular concern in Chiari malformation and acute hydocephalus

Central Sleep ApneaCentral Sleep Apnea

OtherfactorsAsthma is common in all populations including kids with NIAsthma is common in all populations including kids with NI

•Reflux and Aspiration worsens 

Some causes of NI also cause respiratory problemsSome causes of NI also cause respiratory problems

•Prematurity  IVH & BPD

Oromotor dysfunctionOromotor dysfunction

•Malnutrition  Respiratory weakness  Increased infections

Autonomic DysfunctionAutonomic Dysfunction

•Respiratory distress

Tonsil and Adenoid hypertrophyTonsil and Adenoid hypertrophy

•Watch for Stertor

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Case15‐year‐old with cerebral palsy, seizure disorder, and G‐tube presents with fever, tachypnea, hypoxia, and right sided crackles 

• RVP is positive for rhino/entero

• CXR shows a RML infiltrate

• This is the 3rd such episode in the last year

• The patient is noted to have a weak cough

What else would you want to know?  What else would you want to know?  

How would you approach this patient’s treatment?  How would you approach this patient’s treatment?  

SymptomsofAspirationGagging, choking, apnea, stridor, cyanosis during 

feeding

Gagging, choking, apnea, stridor, cyanosis during 

feeding

“Wet breathing” or “rattling” suggests 

laryngeal penetration

“Wet breathing” or “rattling” suggests 

laryngeal penetration

Repeated aspiration can cause recurrent wheezing, hoarseness 

of voice

Repeated aspiration can cause recurrent wheezing, hoarseness 

of voice

Coughing may or may not be present

• Cough reflex blunted in kids with NI, leading to silent aspiration

Coughing may or may not be present

• Cough reflex blunted in kids with NI, leading to silent aspiration

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AspirationPneumonia– RiskFactorsSeizureSeizure

Anesthesia, or other episode of reduced level of consciousnessAnesthesia, or other episode of reduced level of consciousness

Neurologic diseaseNeurologic disease

DysphagiaDysphagia

Gastroesophageal refluxGastroesophageal reflux

Alcohol or substance abuseAlcohol or substance abuse

Use of a nasogastric tubeUse of a nasogastric tube

Foreign body aspirationForeign body aspiration

AspirationPneumonia

May be caused by anaerobic oral floraMay be caused by anaerobic oral flora

• Anaerobic streptococci (eg Peptostreptococcus)

• Fusobacterium spp

• Bacteroides spp

• Prevotella melaninogenica

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DiagnosisSwallow StudySwallow Study

CXR CXR 

• Early PNA or silent aspiration may be negative

• Infiltrate in  dependent lung segments, such as the superior or posterior basal segments of a lower lobe or the posterior segment of an upper lobe

Nuclear MedicineNuclear Medicine

• Salivagram 

• Gastroesophageal scintigraphy

ScopesScopes

• Laryngoscopy, Esophagoscopy, Bronchoscopy

• Bronchial‐Alveolar lavage looking for Lipid‐laden macrophages

pH/impedence probespH/impedence probes

AspirationManagementAcute PneumoniaAcute Pneumonia

AntimicrobialsAntimicrobials

Amp/sulbactam or Clinda

Amp/sulbactam or Clinda

Moxifloxacin in older kids/young adults

Moxifloxacin in older kids/young adults

If known Gram neg colonized, consider 

meropenem, piperacillin‐sulbactam

If known Gram neg colonized, consider 

meropenem, piperacillin‐sulbactam

OxygenOxygenPulmonary 

Toilet

Airway Clearance

Pulmonary Toilet

Airway Clearance

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TreatmentsforPoorAirwayClearanceChest physiotherapy

• Vibes in younger children

Chest physiotherapy

• Vibes in younger children

BronchodilatorsBronchodilators

Secretion management: anticholinergics, 

suctioning

Secretion management: anticholinergics, 

suctioning

Vest TherapyVest Therapy Cough AssistCough Assist

May be used at baseline and increased during acute exacerbations

Chronic/PreventiveManagementReduction of GE refluxReduction of GE reflux

•Positioning

•H2 blockers, PPI, low dose, pro‐motility erythromycin

•Adjustment of enteral feeds

•Smaller boluses/continuous feeds

•Jejunal feeds vs. Nissen

Reduction of oral secretionsReduction of oral secretions

•Tastes of foods  increased swallowing

•Anticholinergics – glycopyrollate, scopolamine

•Botox

•Salivary Gland removal

•Laryngeo‐Tracheal Separation

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Case23 year old with Trisomy 21 is admitted for gastroenteritis and dehydration. The patient is noted to have periods of apnea and desaturations during sleep on the monitor. Patient has some noisy breathing that is horse with sleep, but lungs otherwise sound clear. The patient had a normal echo during infancy.  

What else would you want to know?  

How would you approach this patient’s treatment?  

ObstructiveSleepApneaRisk factorsRisk factors

• Adenoid/tonsillar hypertrophy

• Obesity

• Medical, neurological, or dental conditions that:

• Reduce upper airway size

• Affect the neural control of the upper airway

• Impact the collapsibility of the upper airway

ConsequencesConsequences

• Behavioral problems

• Growth delay

• Pulmonary hypertension, right heart failure

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OSA‐ Diagnosis

A criteria

The presence of one or more of the following clinical symptoms:

A criteria

The presence of one or more of the following clinical symptoms:

SnoringSnoring

Labored, paradoxical, or obstructed breathing during the child’s sleepLabored, paradoxical, or obstructed breathing during the child’s sleep

Sleepiness, hyperactivity, behavioral problems, or learning problems

Sleepiness, hyperactivity, behavioral problems, or learning problems

B criteria

The polysomnogram (PSG) demonstrates one or both of the following:

B criteria

The polysomnogram (PSG) demonstrates one or both of the following:

One or more obstructive apneas, mixed apneas, or hypopneas, per hour of sleep. These 

respiratory events are defined according to the AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and 

Associated Events.

One or more obstructive apneas, mixed apneas, or hypopneas, per hour of sleep. These 

respiratory events are defined according to the AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and 

Associated Events.

A pattern of obstructive hypoventilation, defined as at least 25 percent of total sleep time with hypercapnia(PaCO2 >50 mmHg) in association with one or more of the following: snoring, flattening of the nasal pressure waveform, or paradoxical thoracoabdominal motion

A pattern of obstructive hypoventilation, defined as at least 25 percent of total sleep time with hypercapnia(PaCO2 >50 mmHg) in association with one or more of the following: snoring, flattening of the nasal pressure waveform, or paradoxical thoracoabdominal motion

Diagnostic criteria from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM)

Both A and B criteria should be present 

ManagementOptions

Surgical reduction of airway obstruction

•Tonsillectomy,

•Adenoidectomy

•Other airway surgeries

Surgical reduction of airway obstruction

•Tonsillectomy,

•Adenoidectomy

•Other airway surgeries

Supplemental O2Supplemental O2

Noninvasive Ventilation

•CPAP

•BiPAP

Noninvasive Ventilation

•CPAP

•BiPAPTracheostomy +/‐

ventilationTracheostomy +/‐

ventilation

Children with NI may have intrinsic lung diseases and/or central sleep apnea, too, influencing management

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Case3A 2‐year‐old ex‐24‐week infant with mild CP, BPD, and tracheostomy presents with increased secretions from the trach.  

• Patient is afebrile, and desaturating during sleep to the low 80s

• Chest X‐ray has baseline chronic changes, but no acute changes

What else would you want to know?  

How would you approach this patient’s treatment?  

ArtificialAirway‐AssociatedTracheobronchitis PathogensStaphylococcus aureus

Streptococcus pneumoniae

Haemophilus influenzae

Moraxella catarrhalis

Acinetobacter species

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Klebsiella pneumoniae

Escherichia coli

Serratia marcescens

Enterobacter species

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia

Other gram‐negative enteric organisms

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DiagnosisCenters for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)/National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) surveillance definition Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC)/National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) surveillance definition 

Absence of clinical or radiographic evidence of 

pneumonia

AND

Absence of clinical or radiographic evidence of 

pneumonia

AND

A positive culture obtained by deep tracheal aspirate or 

bronchoscopy

AND

A positive culture obtained by deep tracheal aspirate or 

bronchoscopy

AND

≥2 of the following signs or symptoms with no other recognized cause:

• Fever >38°C (taken rectally in infants ≤1 year of age)

• Cough

• New or increased sputum production

• Rhonchi and/or wheezing

• In infants ≤1 year of age: respiratory distress, apnea, and/or bradycardia

≥2 of the following signs or symptoms with no other recognized cause:

• Fever >38°C (taken rectally in infants ≤1 year of age)

• Cough

• New or increased sputum production

• Rhonchi and/or wheezing

• In infants ≤1 year of age: respiratory distress, apnea, and/or bradycardia

Management

To choose antibiotic, considerTo choose antibiotic, consider

• The severity of illness 

• Gram stain of the tracheal aspirate

• Susceptibilities of pathogens previously identified in the patient (most useful if recent)

• Likelihood of having multidrug‐resistant flora (children with recent hospitalizations or residing in long‐term care facilities)

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OtherKeyPointsBe careful about using anticholinergics during acute infections, which can thicken secretions and increase plugging

Be careful about using anticholinergics during acute infections, which can thicken secretions and increase plugging

Change trach

Plugs can be hiding in them

Change trach

Plugs can be hiding in them

Pulmonary Toilet regimen may need to be 

increased

Pulmonary Toilet regimen may need to be 

increased

Home vs. hospital depends on both 

disease severity and home care capabilities

Home vs. hospital depends on both 

disease severity and home care capabilities

SomeTake‐HomeMessagesNI increases risk for respiratory disease from a variety of mechanismsNI increases risk for respiratory disease from a variety of mechanisms

Aspiration in children with NI can come from both above and below, cause both acute and insidious diseaseAspiration in children with NI can come from both above and below, cause both acute and insidious disease

Don’t forget about airway clearance regimen both acutely and chronicallyDon’t forget about airway clearance regimen both acutely and chronically

Children with NI are at higher risk for OSA and needing more invasive treatments for OSAChildren with NI are at higher risk for OSA and needing more invasive treatments for OSA

Trach cultures should not be treated in a vacuumTrach cultures should not be treated in a vacuum

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ResourcesP C Seddon, Y Khan. Respiratory problems in children with neurological impairment. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:75‐78 doi:10.1136/adc.88.1.75 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1719284/pdf/v088p00075.pdf

Fiona Healy, Howard B Panitch. Pulmonary Complications of Pediatric Neurological Diseases. Pediatric Annals 2010;39/4:216‐224. DOI: 10.3928/00904481‐20100318‐06

UptoDate articles on Aspiration, Obstructive Sleep Apnea, and Tracheitis are well‐done